1- Type of Study QuantitativeKontoghiorghes, C. (2009). The Ass.docx

1- Type of Study: Quantitative
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2- Type of Study: Qualitative
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3- Type of Study: Mixed Methodology
Andrew J. & Rohm, G. R. (2006). A Mixed-Method Approach
for Developing Market Segmentation Typologies in the Sports
Industry. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 15, 29-39.
Sport MarHeting Quarterly, 2006, 15, 29-39, © 2006 West
Virginia University
A Mixed-Method Approach for
Developing Market Segmentation
Typologies in the Sports Industry
Andrew J. Rohm, George R. Milne, and Mark A. McDonald
Abstract
This study presents a mixed-method approach for
segmenting a sports product-market using participa-
tion motivation data. Qualitative data are used to seg-
ment a national sports product-market—running
footwear—using qualitative analysis software as well as
multivariate statistical approaches. This study

describes a systematic approach to developing a con-
sumer segmentation typology using both demographic
variables as well as self-expressed motivations for sport
and fitness participation. The mixed-method
approach reported here employs qualitative data to
help validate subsequent quantitative cluster analysis,
and draws upon cluster profiles to establish the struc-
ture for market segmentation. The findings from this
study offer implications for marketing research and
marketing communications in the sport industry.
A Mixed-Method Approach for Developing
Market Segmentation Typologies in the
Sports Industry
Consumers possess myriad and complex motivations
for sport and fitness participation (Shank, 2002;
Stewart, Smith, & Nicholson, 2003). The complexity
Andrew J. Rohm, PhD, is an assistant professor in
Marketing Group in the College of Business
Administration at Northeastern University. His research
interests include branding and integrated marketing
communications.
George R. Milne, PhD, is an associate professor of
marketing in the Isenberg School of Management at the
University of Massachusetts Amherst. His research inter-
ests include privacy, database marketing, electronic com-
merce, and consumer consumption experiences.
Mark A. McDonald, PhD, is an associate professor in
the Department of Sport Management in the Isenberg
School of Management at the University of
Massachusetts Amherst. His research interests include
sport marketing and sport management.

"An important question facing hoth sport
researchers and marketers, however, is not only
how to generate a deeper understanding of their
consumers, hut also how to analyze and use this
information (such as motivation and participation
data) that involves multiple dimensions."
of understanding consumers' underlying motivations
for sports or fitness participation points to both the
opportunity and challenge for marketers in developing
effective and meaningful market segmentation prac-
tices that are based on consumer typologies. Past
research has shown that understanding consumers'
underlying motivations for product (Mehta, 1999;
Hong & Zinkhan, 1995) and sport spectator (Trail,
Fink, & Anderson, 2003) consumption is important to
developing advertising appeals. Gaining a more com-
plete understanding of individuals' participation moti-
vations in activities such as running and sports
product-markets such as running shoes, through the
development of consumer typologies, can also enable
marketers to develop more meaningful and effective
segmentation and marketing communications strate-
gies. The development of market segmentation strate-
gies can be particularly important in such industries as
athletic footwear, where brands such as Nike, New
Balance, and Reebok compete fiercely for "share of
feet" in widely diverse markets of both young and old
and casual- and performance-based consumers.
Recent studies (e.g., McDonald, Milne, & Hong,
2002) involving sports consumers as well as assess-
ments of sport consumer research (Funk, Mahoney, &
Havitz, 2003) suggest that effective segmentation prac-

tices can result from developing a deep understanding,
beyond mere demographic profiles, of the consumer
and the psychological reasons driving motivations and
participation. An important question facing both
sport researchers and marketers, however, is not only
how to generate a deeper understanding of their con-
sumers, but also how to analyze and use this informa-
tion (such as motivation and participation data) that
Volume 15 • Number 1 • 2006 • Sport Marheting Quarterly 29
"... consumers possess multiple and unique motivations—
including achievement, competition, social
facilitation, physical fitness, skill mastery, physical risk,
affiliation, aesthetics, aggression, value develop-
ment, self-esteem, self-actualization, and stress release—for
participating in particular sport activities."
involves multiple dimensions. In analysis, multi-
dimensional data such as this can result in too fme a
segmentation approach, revealing consumer profiles
that may not be sufficiently distinct from each other to
warrant the execution of unique marketing communi-
cations approaches targeting the derived consumer
groups. Given this, there is a growing realization that
the benefits of finer consumer typologies should be
weighed against the efficacy and cost of executing
those typologies in marketing strategy (Stewart, Smith,
& Nicholson, 2003). Ideally, analysis of participant
motivation data would involve both qualitative data, to
elicit in-depth information about participation motiva-
tion, as well as quantitative data in order to reduce the
dimensionality of consumer types and to better under-
stand the underlying structure of the data.

The purpose of this study is to develop a consumer
typology based on analysis of consumer participation
motivation data through a mixed-method approach.
In doing so, this study seeks to extend the method-
ological basis for conducting sport research and devel-
oping market segmentation strategies. We present and
demonstrate an approach for using qualitative data to
segment a national sports product-market—running
footwear—using multivariate statistical approaches.
This research represents an approach to segmenting
consumers not only by demographic background data
but also by participation motivation data provided
through qualitative responses to an open-ended survey
question. We demonstrate this mixed-method
approach in a market segmentation study using a
national survey conducted in partnership with a well-
known running shoe and apparel brand and Runner's
World magazine.
The remainder of the paper is in four sections. First,
we review the literature regarding participation moti-
vation in the sports and leisure behavior context. We
also review applications and benefits of mixed-method
research and its use in sports marketing. Next, we
present a mixed-method segmentation approach for
quantifying qualitative data from open-ended ques-
tions. This approach includes using computer-based
qualitative analysis software (QSR NVivo, 1999) to
code and organize the open-ended responses as well as
multivariate methods such as principal components
and k-means clustering. We demonstrate this mixed-
method research using data collected from Runner's
World subscribers. We then review the implications of
this study to research and practice as well as the limita-

tions of such a study, and offer suggestions for future
research.
Literature Review
Participation Motivation
The central premise to our study is, given the com-
plex mindset of consumers in sport and fitness activi-
ties such as running, where rational and emotional
motivations play into not only product consumption
but also participation, marketers need to understand
the underlying nature of participation motivation in
order to develop meaningful and effective communica-
tion strategies, including the development of advertis-
ing messages. In developing market segmentation
models one needs to also recognize the wide array of
social and psychological factors and motivations that
underlie benefits sought from sport consumption. For
the purposes of this research, we conceptualize partici-
pation motivation as the drive to satisfy physiological
and psychological needs and wants through consump-
tion of products and activities (Lindquist & Sirgy,
2003). Whereas socio-demographic variables, such as
sex, income, age, household size, category, and brand
usage may be useful in understanding consumer
behavior, classifying sport consumers based on under-
lying participation and consumption motivations can
be more revealing (e.g.. Trail & James, 2001; Green-
Demers, Pelletier, Stewart, & Gushue, 1998).
Numerous sport consumer studies evaluating sport
participation and consumption are based on motiva-
tional factors (e.g.. Brooks, 1994; Weissinger &
Bandalos, 1995; Green-Demers et al., 1998; Trail &
James, 2001; Gladden & Funk, 2002; McDonald,

Milne, & Hong, 2002; Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003).
For instance. Brooks (1994) outlines the relation
between the underlying extrinsic and intrinsic motiva-
tions for sports participation. Brooks examines what
factors motivate adults to participate in various sports
and fitness activities and proposes that such external
stimuli as marketing and advertising messages help
consumers to form images of what the activity means
to them at a personal level. These images then lead to
both judgments and feelings associated with the activi-
ty as well as participation in that activity.
Related to intrinsic motivation and leisure activity,
Weissinger and Bandalos (1995) develop the Intrinsic
Leisure Motivation (ILM) scale involving constructs
30 Volume 15 • Number 1 • 2006 • Sport MarHeting Quarterly
such as self-determination, competence, commitment,
and challenge. Further, Green-Demers et al. (1998)
suggest that continued participation in certain sports
characterized by monotonous and repetitive training
involves interest-enhancement elements as well as
intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors. The authors
propose and test a model of interest-enhancement and
motivation and illustrate significant relationships
between interest-enhancement strategies such as chal-
lenge, variety, and self-relevant rationale for participa-
tion and underlying intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
"...researchers recognize the contribution that
mixed method research—combining qualitative
and quantitative methods—can lead to stronger
inferences and enhance overall knowledge ofthe

research issue."
McDonald, Milne, and Hong (2002), drawing upon
Maslow's human needs hierarchy, present evidence
illustrating that consumers possess multiple and
unique motivations—including achievement, competi-
tion, social facilitation, physical fitness, skill mastery,
physical risk, affiliation, aesthetics, aggression, value
development, self-esteem, self-actualization, and stress
release—for participating in particular sport activities.
In other sports consumption contexts such as sports
team identification that are categorized by high con-
sumer affective and cognitive involvement, motiva-
tions for consumption may be captured in numerous
ways, including investigating the affect- and cognitive-
based motivations for attitude formation or participa-
tion (Gladden & Funk, 2002).
Related to sport consumption. Trail and James
(2001), in developing the Motivation Scale for Sport
Gonsumption (MSSG), identify motives such as
achievement, skill, escape, and social elements that
drive sport spectator behavior; subsequent studies
(e.g.. Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003; James & Ross,
2004) applied modified versions of the MSSG in vari-
ous sport spectator contexts.
This review of the related literature suggests that
sport participation and consumption motives should
be viewed as a multidimensional construct composed
of a broad range of both environmental as well as psy-
chological elements, and that understanding con-
sumers at levels deeper than mere demographic
profiles is important to brand positioning and market-
ing communications practice. It points to the impor-

tance of understanding the resulting motivations for
participation in such sport and fitness activities as run-
ning in the development of segmentation and market-
ing communication strategies, as well as the
importance of reducing these multiple dimensions in a
structured approach in order to better interpret and
understand the findings.
Mixed-Method Research
A wide array of recent published work in sport
research (Funk, Mahoney, & Havitz, 2003; Lachowetz,
McDonald, Sutton, & Hedrick, 2003; Mason & Slack,
2003; Silk & Amis, 2000; Stewart, Smith, & Nicholson,
2003) reflects the importance and role of qualitative
research in studying consumer behavior.
Notwithstanding the well-recognized benefits of
employing quantitative research methods, one relative
advantage of qualitative research is that it can be a
source of rich descriptions and explanations of lived
experiences. In their review of sport consumer typolo-
gies, Stewart, Smith, and Nicholson (2003) argue that
qualitative methods should form the basis of sport
consumption models and that "there are strong
grounds for undertaking more qualitative research...to
tease out some of the more subterranean behefs and
motivations..." (p.214).
While information gained from purely qualitative
research may be useful, combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches can help the researcher to
benefit from the relative advantages of each method
(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). Accordingly, researchers
recognize the contribution that mixed method
research—combining qualitative and quantitative

methods—can lead to stronger inferences and enhance
overall knowledge of the research issue.
For this study, we define mixed method research as
the integration of both quantitative and qualitative
methods in a single study in order to achieve a greater
level of knowledge regarding the research issue.
Among others, Rossman and Wilson (1984) have sug-
gested that combining qualitative and quantitative
approaches can assist elaborate analysis and lead to
richer findings and corroborate findings via triangula-
tion (i.e., the support that each method offers the oth-
ers' findings). Moreover, Teddlie and Tashakkori
(2003) present three areas in which mixed method
approaches are superior to single approach designs: (1)
mixed methods research provides insights to research
issues that single methods cannot, (2) mixed methods
research offers stronger inferences, and (3) mixed
methods research can help to capture a greater diversi-
ty of respondent views.
Given the multidimensionality of constructs such as
participant motivation in sport research, the challenge
for researchers is how to combine qualitative insights
with quantitative data for reduced dimensionality, and
to do so in a manner that is understandable and mean-
ingful, while retaining the richness found in the origi-
nal qualitative data. Particularly in research
Volume 15 • Number 1 • 2006 • Sport MarHeting Quarterly 31
investigating sport participation, the challenge inherent
in traditional survey-based approaches is how to
uncover underlying meanings behind or motivations

for sport participation. Likewise, the challenge inher-
ent in purely qualitative approaches is to offer some
type of inferential statistic that defines directions or
relationships within the data.
In this study, we employ a mixed-method approach
to segment running participants based upon participa-
tion motivations. We describe the integration of quan-
titative and qualitative methods and the mixed-method
design employed in this study next.
"Perhaps most important for sport research and the
development of market segmentation approaches,
this mixed-method approach illustrates how the use
of qualitative data can help validate subsequent
quantitative cluster analysis, as well as how the
established cluster profiles help to set up the struc-
ture for market segmentation models."
Method
Research Setting and Data Collection
The research setting for this study involved sub-
scribers to Runner's World magazine, a publication tar-
geting running enthusiasts with a circulation in the US
of approximately 500,000 subscribers. This research
context and subsequent sample size is appropriate for
the application ofthe mixed-method research design
described here because it involves a consumer segment
whose participation motives regarding running may be
rational, or emotional, or both. In order to effectively
segment this market, relying on quantitative approach-

es would risk losing the richness of the open-ended
qualitative responses, and to rely solely on qualitative
approaches would risk leaving the researcher with an
unwieldy and less meaningful array of segmentation
types.
Data for this study were gathered as part of a larger
data collection effort. A four-page questionnaire was
mailed to 2,000 Runner's World subscribers. A cover
letter, a small incentive (a running pace wheel), and
postage-paid return envelope were included in the
mailing. A follow-up postcard was sent approximately
two weeks after the initial questionnaire mailing. This
generated 864 (43.2%) responses.
Glosed-ended questions in the questionnaire exam-
ined the following: running shoe purchase influences,
running shoe and apparel brands last purchased by the
respondent, perceptions of various running shoe and
apparel brands and running shoe and apparel tech-
nologies, and background questions regarding shoe
and apparel purchase location and running history
(years running, miles run per week, races participated
in during previous year, age, and sex). The question-
naire also included an open-ended question (final
question of the survey) that asked respondents
"Finally, how important is running to you and why?"
Space was provided on the questionnaire for 15 lines of
responses. Ofthe 864 questionnaires returned, 815
respondents (94.3% ofthe total responses) answered
Figure J
A Mixed-Method Approach for Integrating Qualitative and
Quantitive Anaiysis
o u r v c j

T
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
-*- I. Form Initial Gategories
2. Analyze with NVivo
a. Gode text data electronically
b. Generate coding reports
c. Gompare generated codes with the initial
codes
3. Independent judges code open-ended
responses for each ofthe 10 categories with
a binary score
4. Assess interjudge reliability and resolve
discrepancies. Greate data file for
subsequent analysis.
1 0 A<î p*i<i ("rpninilifv CT t n p rlii*tprs w i t n ^
open-ended data.
f Design 1
GJ.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
—^" 5. Data reduction with principal
components analysis
6. Greate factor scores for motivations
7. Segment runner types with K-Means
Glustering Algorithm

8. Assess reliability of cluster solution
9. Assess external validity by profiling -<
clusters with close-ended data. Look for
managerially meaningful differences.
Table I
Inter-Judge Reliabilities
Frequency of
Agreements
Addiction
Fitness
Competition
Self-Esteem
Mental Health
Weight Control
Social Reasons
Spiritual
It's who I am
Goal striving
Overall
728
731
707
724
721
786
768

524
678
715
7082
Percentage
Agreements
.89
.90
.87
.89
.88
.96
.94
.64
.83
.88
.87
Reliability (I^)
.87
.89

.86
.88
.88
.96
.94
.53
.81
.87
.86
Table 2
Rotated Factor Pattern'
Addiction
Fitness
Competition
Self-Esteem
Mental Health
Weight Contro
Social Reasons
Spiritual
It's who I am
Goal striving
% Variance
'Extracted with

+.30 shown in
Factor 1
-.569
.663
.193
-.051
.618
1 .202
-.096
.044
-.454
.036
14.5%
Principal
bold.
Factor 2
.164
-.092
.161
.107
.360
-.616
-.154
.747
.068
-.082
12.1%

Factor 3
.054
.010
.008
.709
-072
-.069
.093
-.029
-.231
.754
11.7%
Factor 4
.023
.079
.660
-.094
.126
.074
.711
.071
.351
.185
10.7%
components; loadings >

this question. The purpose of including the open-
ended question is that, generally, open-ended ques-
tions are best used when exploratory information is
gathered and when a complete set of closed responses
is not known a priori. Further, given the nature of the
question, it is important for the respondent to be will-
ing to think about and provide complete responses
(Dillman, 2000). The high response rate and quality of
responses (evidenced by the length ofthe response)
suggest that this condition was met.
Mixed-Method Design
A schematic diagram for the mixed-method design
employed in this research is illustrated in Figure 1. This
design is based upon independent coding of the open-
ended responses enabled by QSR NVivo (QSR NVivo,
1999), a qualitative analysis software program, and sub-
sequent principal components and cluster analysis.
Qualitative analysis of open-ended responses.
Initially, analysis ofthe 815 open-ended responses
involved a multiple-step process outlined by Miles and
Huberman (1994). The first step involved reading the
open-ended responses and analyzing the text data of
the open-ended responses for specific themes. The 10
categories were determined using standard procedures
outlined in the literature (Kassarjian, 1977; Kolbe &
Burnett, 1991). The process entailed having two ofthe
authors read all the comments and then mutually
agreeing on which categories were present in the data.
Thus, the categories were not predetermined a priori,
but rather were generated from the data.

The second step involved analysis with NVivo. After
the responses were electronically imported into an
NVivo text database, they were re-read and coded by
two of the authors together using NVivo to summarize
the responses into specific categories that reflected why
running was important to the respondents.
From the open-ended responses, this initial coding
process produced 10 summary categories that described
individuals' motivations for running. These categories
were addiction, fitness, competition, self-esteem, men-
tal health, weight control, social, spiritual, "it's who I
am," and goal striving. The use of NVivo initially in
the coding was particularly valuable given the iterative
nature of the coding process in which the text responses
were read, electronically coded, and then re-coded.
NVivo allowed for key words or themes to be coded, or
attached to the text. These segments of text could then
be retrieved for further analysis.
The second step involved electronically generating
coding reports in NVivo that aggregated similar
responses across the 10 categories identified in the ini-
tial coding process. These coding reports were print-
able and enabled access to the data, specifically the
open-ended responses by category, which helped to
cross-check the categorization of responses for themat-
ic accuracy.
The third step involved assigning each of the respons-
es to one or more ofthe 10 derived categories. Given
the 10 derived categories for running motivation and
because of the multi-faceted reasons provided by the
respondents, two independent coders (not authors of
the paper) placed the 815 open-ended responses into

one or more ofthe 10 derived categories. Each ofthe
815 open-ended responses was given a binary score
(1/0) for inclusion in each ofthe 10 categories.
The fourth step involved assessing the reliability of
the coding. The inter-judge reliabilities between the
two independent judges for the 10 categories are
Volume 15 • Number 1 • 2006 • Sport MarHetIng Quarterly 33
Table 3
Cluster Centroids of Factor Scores
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
Factor 4
Total
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Healthy
Joggers
N=315
.46
-.32
-.51
-.56

Social
Competitors
N=153
.39
-.09
-.01
1.67
Actualized
Athletes
N=167
.02
.18
1.55
-.41
Devotees
N:=181
-1.15
.48
-.55
-.07
F
182.8
30.5
527.6

592.9
Prob.
.000
.000
.000
.000
shown in Table 1. Overall, the coders agreed on 87% of
their judgments. The percentage of agreement for each
of the categories ranged from 96% agreement on the
weight control category to 64% on the spiritual catego-
ry. The overall reliability (Perreault & Leigh, 1989)
was .87, and ranged from .96 to .53 on individual
items. After discrepancies were resolved by the authors,
a data file was created for subsequent analysis.
Quantitative analysis of qualitative data.
The fifth step involved reducing the dimensionality
of the 10 categories. A principal components analysis
(PCA) of the 10 response categories was then conduct-
ed to better understand the underlying structure of the
data and create orthogonal linear composites of moti-
vations to serve as metric inputs to the clustering algo-
rithm.
While principal components is most often done on
metric data, violating this assumption and using
dummy variables [0-1] can be done (Hair, Anderson,
Tatham, & Black, 1995, p. 226). With large sample
sizes, this application of PCA produces robust results.

The rotated results of the principal components analy-
sis are shown in Table 2. The analysis produced four
factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, which
explained 49% of the variance in the data.
The sixth step involved calculating factor scores
based on the rotated loadings for subsequent analysis.
The seventh step involved segmenting the runners to
reduce the large number of respondents (based upon
their responses for motivations for running) into a
more meaningful and interpretable number of smaller
subgroups. In this step, a k-means clustering algorithm
was applied to the factor scores for the four principal
components.
The eighth step involved assessing the reliability of
the cluster solutions. For this step, ranges of cluster
solutions ranging from three to five clusters were
examined. A four-cluster solution was selected
because it produced the most interpretable results. A
snake-plot of the four segment solution by the under-
lying 10 motivations indicates a rich solution that cap-
tures differences across groups. The cluster centroids
for the factor scores and the F-tests for centroid differ-
ences are reported in Table 3. Based on the pattern of
the data shown in Table 3, we labeled the clusters the
Healthy Joggers, the Social Competitors, the Actualized
Athletes, and the Devotees.
The ninth step involved assessing the external validi-
ty of the cluster solution. We were able to do this by
merging the closed form data with the cluster solutions
based on qualitative data. The profile of the four clus-
ters by closed-form background variables is shown in
Table 4. Statistical differences among clusters are

found in terms of miles ran per week (F=16.7, p<.001),
days ran per week (F=13.6, p<.001), and 5Ks (F=12.6,
p<.001), lOKs (F=3.8, p<.05), 1/2 Marathons (F=8.0,
p<.001), and Marathons (F=4.8, p<.01) entered per
year. In addition, differences were found in terms of
the number of years they have been running, as well as
age and sex. Table 5 profiles the clusters by reporting
the percentage of members who ascribed why they ran
to each of the 10 motivations. Statistically significant
differences were found for all groups.
The 10th step involved assessing the credibility of the
cluster profiles with representative quotes from the
qualitative data. This step helped support the labeling
effort and reinforce the insights provided by the quan-
titative data.
Results
Cluster Profiles Using Quantitative and Qualitative
Data
As shown in Table 4, the first cluster—the Healthy
Joggers—ran the least amount of miles per week (21.0),
and their participation levels in races (e.g., 2.0 5Ks/year,
and 1.1 lOKs/year) is below average. Similar to the
overall response rate, over 70% of this group has been
running for 5+ years. In this group, 32.7% of its mem-
bers are 40-49 years old, and 55.6% are male. The data
from Table 5 show that this group is motivated by fit-
ness (70%) and mental health (52%) reasons and, to a
lesser extent, spiritual (23%) and weight control (21%)

Table 4
Profile of Clusters by Runner Background
Miles ran/week
Days ran/week
5Ks/year
lOKs/year
1/2 Marathons/year
Marathons/year
Triathlons/year
How long have
you run?
1 year or less
2-5 years
5+ years
Age
< 25 years old
25-39 years old
40-49 years old
50+ years old
Sex
Females
Males
Total
24.8
4.5
2.9
1.3
.43
.32

.21
(%)
4.4
24.9
70.6
21.0
32.6
29.5
16.8
46.3
53.7
Healthy
Joggers
N=315
21.0
4.0
2.0
1.1
.31
.25
.24
(%)
5.4
23.5
70.8
17.1
31.1

32.7
19.0
44.4
55.6
Social
Competitors
N=153
29.0
4.9
4.6
1.6
.67
.42
.26
(%)
.7
19.6
79.7
22.9
27.5
28.1
21.6
37.3
62.7
Actualized
Athletes
N=167

24.6
4.7
3.0
1.2
.35
.23
.09
(%)
6.6
33.5
59.9
28.7
38.3
24.0
9.0
59.9
40.1
Devotees
N=181
28.2
4.8
2.8
1.6
.50
.44
.19

(o/o)
3.9
23.8
72.4
18.8
34.3
30.4
16.0
44.8
55.2
F
16.7
13.6
12.6
3.8
8.0
4.8
0.7
Pr(%2)
.014
.009
.000
Prob.
.000
.000

.000
.011
.000
.003
.554
Cramer's V
.092
.104
.149
"One of the benefits of the mixed-methods design
reported here lies with its ahility to infer multiple
dimensions of motivation within eluster profiles
(e.g., the Soeial Competitor cluster identified in
this study), whereas in sport motivation research
individuals are ofien times classified hy distinct
motivators (i.e., a person is either primarily driven
hy social or hy competition needs)."
reasons. This cluster was labeled "Healthy Joggers"
because of their propensity to run for physical and
mental fitness, while running relatively the fewest miles
per week of all four groups. As one respondent stated:
"The older I get running becomes more impor-
tant. It helps me stay fit and healthy. It helps me

to maintain my weight. It's a great stress reliever
and my two dogs love it too. I am very much a
recreational runner and do not worry too much
about times. Consequently I don't run too many
organized races."
The second cluster—the Social Competitors—ran
the most miles per week (29.0) and days per week (4.9)
of any group. They were also very active competitors,
ranging from 4.6 5Ks/year to .46 marathons per year.
This group was the most experienced—79.7% of̂ this
segment has been running for 5+ years. Interestingly,
this group has the highest percentage of runners 50+
years (21.6%) and males (62.7%). As with the
Healthy Joggers cluster, these runners were highly
motivated by fitness (68%) and mental health (61%).
While it is reasonable to expect that fitness and mental
health are important motivations for most running
types, as the name suggests, the Social Competitors
cluster is differentiated by two dimensions which did
not register for the Healthy Joggers —social reasons
(61%) and competition (52%)—and which help to
define this individual. In addition, this group claimed
fitness (68%) and spiritual reasons (38%) as motiva-
tions for running. For one individual, running is a
social enabler: "It is at the top of my list... I have met
so many wonderful people at races and from running!"
Table S
Profile of Clusters by Runner Motivation
Addiction

Fitness
Competition
Self-Esteem
Mental Health
Weight Control
Social Reasons
Spiritual
It's who I am
Goal Striving
Total
%
12.1
52.8
10.4
17.8
45.8
14.3
16.5
38.4
8.9
17.8
Healthy
Joggers
N=315
1.0
70.2
0.0
1.9

51.7
21.0
0.0
23.2
3.0
2.2
Social
Competitors
N=153
7.2
68.0
52.3
9.8
61.4
20.3
61.4
38.6
11.8
26.1
Actualized
Athletes
N=167
10.2
52.7
1.8
67.1
42.5

7.2
8.4
42.5
1.2
58.1
Devotees
^%^^
37.6
9.9
1.1
6.6
25.4
4.4
14.9
60.8
28.7
0.6
Pr(x ) Cramer's V
.000
.000
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.430
.477
.659
.659
.249
.213
.600
.294
.398
.588
And for another: "I have not experienced in any
other sport or activity such enjoyment and support
from those you run with or against. It is a personal

activity that only those involved in understand."
The third cluster—the Actualized Athletes—ran 24.6
miles per week and 4.7 days per week. This group runs
an average amount of 5Ks (3.0), but is much less likely
to participate in triathlons (0.9). This group is the least
experienced, with 40% of its members who have run less
than 5 years. The group is also the youngest (28.7% less
than 25 years old) and contains more female runners
(59.9%) than any other segment. This cluster was
labeled "Actualized Athletes" because of their relatively
high motivations for self-esteem (67.1%), fitness
(52.7%), mental health (42.5%) and spirituality
(42.5%). Accordingly, one respondent stated:
"Running is important to me because it has
helped me feel a great sense of accomplishment. I
run before work and it makes me feel good to
know that even if I have a horrible day at work, I
already accomplished something great before I
stepped through the door."
Another talked about the spiritual aspects of running
and mental well being: "Running trail ultras has
become my spiritual refuge and source of renewal of
the soul. It is my meditation, my retreat to inner
peace, the place where I become one with the universe.
It rests onto my soul."
The fourth cluster—the Devotees—logs a lot of
miles (28.2 miles per week) and days (4.8 days per
week). Interestingly, the Devotees do not run as many
5Ks as other groups, but rather prefer the longer races.
They run more marathons than any other group (.44
per year). About 65% of this group is between 25 and

50 years old and 55% are males. Runners in this group
are more likely than others to claim they run because
they are addicted to the activity (37.6%)—they state
they run because "it's who I am" (20.8%). In addition,
this group has the highest spiritual reason for running
(60.8%). Perhaps running has an addictive quality for
this group because running and its benefits occupy
such a central role in their lives. One individual talked
about running and the self: "When I run I feel more
whole than with any thing else. Eventually I become
the run and the run becomes me. That's the greatest
feeling in the world. To stop running would be to sep-
arate myself from me." And a second spoke of run-
ning's paramount importance in his or her life:
"Running—it is not life or death—it's more
important than that."
An important step in the mixed-method design
described here is that these open-ended responses
(additional representative quotes for each of these clus-
ters are shown in Table 6) were compared to the clus-
ter profiles to validate the resulting profiles.
Implications for Research and Practice
This study offers several findings and implications
for research involving sport participant motivations
and the development of sport consumer typologies.
Implications for Research
Implications of this study for sport marketing
research are that, given the complex mindset of sport
participants (in activities such as running) where

rational and emotional, as well as extrinsic and intrin-
sic motivations, may play into sport consumption and
participation (see Funk & James, 2001; Milne &
36 Volume 15 • Number 1 • 2006 • Sport Marheting Quarterly
Table 6
Representative Quotes by duster Profile
Healthy Joggers
"I find running to be both relaxing and is the primary way along
with a good diet that I keep up my plan for
good health and fitness." -Female 50+ years old, 18 miles/week,
4 days per week
"Running is a very important because I use running to relieve
stress and to think about what is bothering me.
I use running to clear my head. Running is important to
maintain fitness and to counteract my poor diet of
late." -Male, < 25 years old, no mileage reported.
Social Competitors
"Running is one ofthe greatest joys of life. Keeps the body
mind, and spirit soaring. Running with friends is
special. Competition pushes me to new levels. Can travel to
races and see new places. I can share stories with
runners from all over the world." -Female, 25-39 years old, runs
40 miles per week, 5 days/week
"I just recently started running 3 yrs ago. I used to weigh 317
lbs I'm now down to 245. Before I leave work
I change and go directly to a 1/2 mile track located on the way

home. My running is very important; it relieves
a lot of stress and is something that is within my control. I have
made many acquaintances at the track. We all
motivate each other. If someone misses one day everybody is
aware and concerned. That alone motivates you
to keep going. Besides I am trying to get down to 199lbs." -
Male, 40-49, runs 24 miles/week, 6 days week
Actualized Athletes
"I quit smoking at age 33, in 1978, and took up running and I
will never stop running. I bike & kayak but
running is my first love. It makes me feel good about myself
and it gave me a lot of confidence. I've run many
marathons in my past yrs and many races and you cannot
describe the feeling of accomplishment at the end. It
gave me the confidence to go back to school at the age of 40
and get a degree in nursing." -Female, 50+ years
old, runs 30 miles, 6 days/week
"I love to run. I've always been athletic and enjoyed team
sports. But running is different. It's a solitary
sport. It pits me against me. I'm 42 yrs old and I know I've yet
to reach my potential as a runner. My best yrs
are behind me and I know I'll never be world class but I still
have room to improve and I'll keep trying, train-
ing, testing. It makes me fit, it makes me happy. I love to run."
-Male, 40-49 years old, runs 35 miles/week, 5
days/week
Devotees
"It is a big part of my life. It's like brushing your teeth—it's a
gift I give myself every day or almost everyday.
It is who I am and I never want not to run. It's the most
wonderful total feeling in life. It has made me grow

in so many ways and also appreciate life so much more. You
can do it anywhere at any time—no expense." -
Male, 50+ years old, runs 38 miles/week, 6 days/week
"It's part of who I am. Running is the most important free time
activity I have besides spending time with
my kids. I'm a happier person when I get my running." -Female,
25-39, runs 20 miles/week, 4 days/week
McDonald, 1999; Creen-Demers et al., 1998; Brooks,
1994), the integration of qualitative and quantitative
methods in a segmentation model adds both richness
and rigor to the findings. The mixed-method
approach illustrated here enables a more detailed
understanding of consumer sport participation moti-
vation than would either purely qualitative or quanti-
tative research.
The motivation types uncovered in this study are
similar to those suggested by past sport participation
and consumption research. Intrinsic and extrinsic par-
ticipation motives (e.g.. Brooks, 1994; Green-Demers,
1998; McDonald, Milne, & Hong, 2002) can be related
to the idea of running for spiritual, self-actualization,
or physical fitness and weight loss. The concepts of
commitment and challenge are similar to the addictive
and competitive qualities of running conveyed in this
study. Interestingly, motives examined in previous
sport spectator research, such as achievement, escape,
and social interaction (see Trail & James, 2001), are
similar to the characteristics found in the clusters pro-
filed in this study that are related to physical and emo-
tional health, competition, stress release, and
interaction with other runners at races and events.

One of the benefits of the mixed-methods design
reported here lies with its ability to infer multiple
dimensions of motivation within cluster profiles (e.g.,
the Social Competitor cluster identified in this study),
whereas in sport motivation research individuals are
often times classified by distinct motivators (i.e., a per-
son is either primarily driven by social or by competi-
tion needs).
Perhaps most important for sport research and the
development of market segmentation approaches, this
mixed-method approach illustrates how the use of
qualitative data can help validate subsequent quantita-
tive cluster analysis, as well as how the established clus-
ter profiles help to set up the structure for market
segmentation models. Given the wide array of open-
ended responses containing numerous variations in
themes, the qualitative analysis of such data is an
inherently complex process. The coding of the
responses for mutually exclusive participation motiva-
tion themes, along with the subsequent cluster analysis,
helped us to better understand and classify the respon-
dent comments by grouping and conceptualizing
responses with similar patterns and characteristics.
The use of cluster analysis shows how the 10 cate-
gories, originally derived from the qualitative data, are
structurally interrelated. Through cluster analysis, and
by reducing the number of dimensions from 10 (10
original categories for running motivation) to four, we
lower the dimensionality of the data and move to high-
er levels of abstraction to enhance the interpretability
of the data.

Implications for Practice
Implications of this research for sport marketing
practice is that this the mixed-method approach and
findings reported here can enable organizations
involved in the promotion of running (e.g., athletic
footwear and apparel brands such as Nike, Reebok,
adidas; running clubs; running event directors) to dis-
criminate between groups of runner types and develop
advertising or promotional messages to effectively
communicate with these groups.
For instance, marketing communications efforts
(e.g., advertising messages, in-store or on-site displays)
targeting the Healthy Joggers segment might be based
on a message or theme that portrays the benefits of
running for physical and mental health (e.g., to lose
weight, have more energy, reduce stress). For Social
Competitors, the message might be based on thematic
elements involving "a community of runners" and the
socializing nature of competition at running events.
Marketing communication efforts targeting Actualized
Athletes might focus on female runners (perhaps
younger mothers with children) and stress the feelings
of accomplishment, empowerment, and control over
one's life that result from running. For Devotees,
marketing communications themes could focus on the
idea of running as a central element to one's daily life,
or the concept that this person's self-identification
prominently includes himself or herself as a "runner."
The approach and findings reported here can assist
sport brands in the development of more insightful
and relevant market segmentation and marketing com-

munication efforts designed to reach a specific market
(e.g., the running market) whose members may pos-
sess complex and multiple motivations for participa-
tion as well as product consumption. This
methodological approach can also benefit other organ-
izations such as health care providers as they develop
communications programs geared towards individuals
for whom regular exercise (such as running or walk-
ing) may be beneficial.
Study Limitations and Future Research
In interpreting these findings it is important to con-
sider that the data for this research are based upon the
thoughts of subscribers to a magazine targeting running
enthusiasts and may not be representative of other
groups of runners. The relevance of these findings may
be limited to those sport consumers that share charac-
teristics similar to the sample. Because of the qualita-
tive component of this research used to elicit
participation motivations, the reporting of these
motives does not reflect the relative strength of the vari-
ous motives indicated. Additionally, it should be noted
that some of the questionnaire items or background
questions asked in the questionnaire could conceivably
have influenced the open-ended responses regarding
the importance of running. Some of these items may
have led respondents to overexaggerate their running
routine and hence its importance to the respondent.
Future research examining segmentation models
might explore questions directly related to personal
aspirations and sport participation. Further, the
mixed-method research design outlined in this study
can serve as a stepping stone for future studies that
seek to empirically demonstrate the effectiveness of

such segmentation models linking self-reported partic-
ipation motivation data to advertising response and
effectiveness.
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Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark. 10: 263-274 (2005)
Published online in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/nvsm.30
The marketing/creativity interface:
a case study of a visual artist
Daragh O'Reilly*
Leeds University Business School, UK
• This paper aims to contribute to an understanding of the
marketing/creativity interface in
the visual arts at the level of the individual artist. Proceeding,
broadly speaking, from a
constructivist perspective and using a qualitative case study

approach, it examines a
visual artist's personal construction of her creative and business
work. The analysis
highlights the significance of emotional, cognitive, spiritual and
physical processes for the
artist's positioning, process, and products, as well as her
difficulties with promotion and
pricing issues. It was seen, following Fillis (2004), that, at the
level of an individual artist,
her work may be not only product-oriented but self-oriented. It
therefore behoves artists
and their agents to be able to offer appropriately distinguishing
promotional accounts of
the artist's artistic identity, process and work based on a deep
selfrefiexive awareness and
understanding by the artist of her own creative practice.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
The individual visual artist can be conceptua-
lised in a variety of ways: as a painter who
paints 'pictures'; as a creative or cultural
'worker' w ĥose 'job' is to produce 'creative

works' and sell them to customers; as a cultural
producer w îthin the circuit of culture (Hall
et al., 1997), engaged in the production of
cultural artefacts or 'texts'; or as an artrepre-
neur, an artist-marketer (Fillis, 2004), or an art
brand (O'Reilly and Lindley, 2000).
The general literature on creativity is highly
diverse, ranging from Koestler's attempt
(Koestler, 1964) — or indeed those of Miller
(1996) or Ghiselin (1985)—to deal with the
question of genius, to discourses on the
•Correspondence to: Daragh O'Reilly, Lecturer in Market-
ing, Leeds University Business School, Maurice Keyworth
Building, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
philosophy of creativity (Bohm, 1998). There
is also work which attempts to situate the
individual creative artist w îthin a social process
of production, at least partly in an attempt to
de-emphasise the notion of genius (Becker,
1982; Wolff, 1993; Alexander, 2003; Brunet,
2004). Others analyse the creative process in
major innovations, such as the Wright Broth-

ers' first manned fiight (Jakab, 1990). Within
business and management, scholars and practi-
tioners are concerned with understanding how
the benefits of creativity can be opened up
both for the organisation and for the individual
manager or w^orker. This gives rise to a number
of issues such as what a creative manager is
(Evans and Russell, 1989); how to set up a
creative work-culture (Tanner, 2003; Smith,
2004); how the culture of a creative organisa-
tion works (Hackley, 2000); methods for
stimulating creativity (De Bono, 1983); the
nature of management creativity itself (Proc-
tor, 1995; El-Murad and West, 2004); creative
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int.J. Nonprofit
Volunt. Sect. Mark., November2005
264 Daragh O'Reilly
cognition (Finke etal., 1996), creative process
'flow' (Csikszentmihalyi, 2003), and so on.
Additionally, much mainstream management

writing on creative innovation deals with the
key issues of techniques for stimulating crea-
tivity and for multi-functional team-working.
The marketing literature currently seems to
have little to say on the question of creativity
and marketing at the level of the individual
artist. Certainly, for marketing managers, it is
accepted as important to be able understand
the concerns of, and to work with and along-
side, creative talent outside of the marketing
department (HUl etal., 2003). Within market-
ing, Fillis (2000; 2002a,b,c; 2004, 2004a) has
been a strong advocate of the importance of
creativity in marketing management, particu-
larly amongst small businesses, opposing it to
the step-wise processual formulae of conven-
tional textbooks, which are not suited to the
arts context. Within visual arts marketing, in a
recent book chapter (2004a), Fillis focuses
specifically on the theory and practice of visual
arts marketing, and advocates that:
research should focus on tbe product-
centred nature of entrepreneurial

creativity where the personality, attitudes,
beliefs and behaviour of the artist as
owner/manager are central to 'doing
visual arts marketing'.
He also recommends that the artist's biography
be researched, as a means of 'constructing
more actionable theory'. This paper seeks to
respond to this recommendation. The starting
research question for this project was: how
does creative process relate to marketing/
business process in the life of a working artist?
Research design
This section discusses the methodological
approach to the study, the case artist, and the
data collection.
Personal construct psychology
Firstly, given the 'lack of actionable theory'
(Fillis, 2004a) in the area of visual arts market-
ing, and the nature of the research question, it

seemed sensible initially to engage in a
grounded, idiographic approach to this parti-
cular enquiry. As far as research methods in
previous creativity research is concerned,
Mayer (1999) surveys the principal methods
which have been used, including psycho-
metric, experimental and case study
approaches. This inquiry also uses a case study
approach. In this enquiry, therefore, it was not
a question of seeking to make la^v-like general-
isations about this field. It was rather an
attempt to identify potentially fruitful themes,
watch for emerging patterns and facilitate a
more precise problematisation of this area of
marketing enquiry. A benefit of in-depth
exposure to an individual case is the grounding
of an enquiry in a level of detail which may
facilitate richer conceptualisation of the area.
Artists' talk is a clue to their construing of
their artistic and business processes, and it
seemed that allow^ing artists' voices to speak in
their own terms about their 'take' on art and
marketing could w êll be instructive. Because of
a desire to obtain an emic perspective in the

informant's o^vn language, this research w âs
undertaken from a broadly constructivist per-
spective. Specifically, Kelly's personal con-
struct psychology (PCP) (1963) was used
to guide the interview process. Within PCP, a
construct is defined as a bipolar cognitive
differential (e.g. good/bad, strong/weak); and a
personal construct is so called because it
relates to, and emerges from, the individual
informant's personal experience. PCP has been
used previously in the marketing literature to
examine issues relating to branding, personal
selling and consumer behaviour, but with a
tendency to emphasise Kelly's repertory grid as
a key tool w^ithin the enquiry process (Andrews
etal., 1990; Plank and Greene, 1996; Debling,
1999; Giese and Cote, 2000; Marsden and
Littler, 2000; Palan, 2001). In this study, I felt
there was more to be gleaned by focusing
instead on a form of interview w^hich explored
the artist's bipolar construing of her work,
without tightening the constructs through the
use of a grid. Besides, it represents a more
thorough approach in a relatively new^ area of

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit
Volunt. Sect Mark., November 2005
The marketing/creativity interface 265
marketing enquiry if, before tightening the
informant's constructs, one elicits the ele-
ments (phenomena) w^hich she is construing
and explores them in some depth (Savage,
2000).
The case artist
This section introduces the informant, who, for
the purposes of this paper, is called Ruth (not
her real name). She has been painting seriously
for more than 30 years, and is in her mid-fifties.
Her work includes mainly oil paintings, water
colours and drawings. She is deeply interested
in esoteric, mythological and analytical-psy-
chological traditions, as w êll as in a w îde
variety of art or painting genres and artists. She
contributes to the family income by part-time

art teaching. This contribution is supplemen-
ted from time to time by the sale of her art-
work, which tends to be occasional and
unpredictable. She has a degree in art from a
local university. She has considerable experi-
ence as an art educator and as a painting model,
including sitting for a leading British painter.
From time to time, she succeeds in placing a
piece of artwork in a local or regional gallery
and sells her work that way. Ruth has no formal
training or education in marketing. On other
occasions, she co-organises art exhibitions
with other members of her network, including
photographers and sculptors as well as other
painters. These exhibitions result in sales
direct to view^ers. She is an avid reader of
books and other materials relating to her art
practice, and travels quite frequently to Lon-
don and other centres to see important
exhibitions. On non-teaching days, she works
in her studio as much as possible. She does not
have an agent. She operates with a very tight
budget for materials, framing, and transporta-
tion. She cannot afford to rent or own her own
separate studio space, and uses the attic of her

home as a studio. Her annual earnings from
painting are low. Ruth does not take commis-
sions from customers or patrons to produce a
piece of work to a particular specification. She
has said that she would feel herself restricted by
such a business arrangement. Ruth also has
family responsibilities which make calls on
her time.
Of course, her discursive repertoire pertain-
ing to her artwork, including its business
side, has been shaped by her experiences as
art student, exhibitor, model, educator and
artist as well as by her wider life experiences.
Her personal construct system w îll reflect
these influences and is something which
changes and evolves over time. It should also
be pointed out that Ruth found talking about
her process difficult and surprising, and
seemed to need to mark what she said as
provisional:
I mean it's really hard, isn't it.''How do you
talk about this process? ...

I thought I was going to say completely
different things ...
I'm never sure about what I say, because
things change so much.
Data collection
Tw ô depth intervie^vs and numerous informal
conversations were held with the artist about
her work. Exhibitions where her work was
shown were attended. I also observed her work
in studio. As far as the depth interviews were
concerned, tw ô video-taped interviews were
undertaken. Videography is a method of
research v^̂ hich uses video technology to
capture and analyse data, amongst other things.
It is located within the established traditions of
visual anthropology and visual sociology (Ham-
mersley and Atkinson, 1995; Banks, 1998;
Prosser, 1998; Marshall and Rossman, 1999).
Its advantages include its usefulness capturing
aural and visual data and holding them in
'memory', exactly as they were recorded, and

in full colour (O'Reilly and Larsen, 2005). Its
disadvantages include the time and money
involved in training in the use of cameras and
editing technology, and editing together out-
puts (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995; Ball,
1998; Fetterman, 1998; Harper, 1998). Appli-
cations of videography within marketing and
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. IntJ. Nonprofit
Voiunt. Sect Mark., November 2005
266 Daragh O'Reilly
consumer studies are increasing (Belk et al.,
1989; Belk and Kozinets, 2003).
It is important to note that there was a time
difference of 7 years between the interviews,
the first interview having taken place as part of
an earlier similar project. This enabled a
comparison and contrast over time with core
pre-occupations of the artist (though this
longitudinal view is not the central focus of

this paper). The interviews were loosely
structured, as the purpose was to elicit both
her elements as well as her constructs. The
questioning style was to use mainly open,
reflective, summarising and occasionally prob-
ing questions. Each interview lasted about
90 minutes, and apart from being video-
recorded, was transcribed and submitted to a
coding analysis. The coding analysis was co-
ordinated vvfith visual reviews of the videotape to
check ^vhether the verbal and visual data
appeared consistent. Both interviews were
located in the artist's studio. The researcher-
informant relationship ̂ vas explicitly positioned
as a co-owned and shared enquiry process
(Mishler, 1991). The artist agreed to interviews
on the basis that they w ôuld help her to clarify
her own sense-making about what it was she was
doing and what her own particular offering
might be. The videotapes were transferred to
DVD and copies given to the artist so that she
could review her oŵ n statements.
In the first depth interview, there was an
emphasis on identifying key constructs for

discussion of her creative process. In the
second interview, greater use was made of
Ruth's work-in-progress and finished work as
interview stimuli for the eliciting of elements
and constructs concerning creativity and mar-
keting issues. It also focused on a number of
points too detailed to report here, for example,
her use of the idea of 'movement through
space' as a guiding metaphor in her accounts of
artw^ork and also of the movement between
artwork and other activities; the emotional
states she experienced when doing artwork;
and her use of the notions of 'ego' and 'pain-
body' to talk about her difficulty in managing
herself during the creative process. Several of
the themes mentioned in the first interview.
and discussed above, recurred spontaneously,
that is without interviewer prompting, for
example her construal of her early artwork as
a child (see below). This suggests that certain
constructs have enduring value, or are 'core
constructs' in Kellian terms, that is they are
central to the individual's interpretation of
herself.

Anatysis
This section includes a discussion of some key
issues in the informant's w ôrk, both on the
creative as well as on the business or marketing
side. The quotations are extracts from the
depth interviews. The issues have been cate-
gorised to cover marketing issues, include
Ruth's positioning of herself as an artist, her
sense of process, and ideas about product,
promotion and pricing.
Positioning
In this section, two aspects of Ruth's position-
ing of herself as a painter are presented, namely
an account of her creative origins ('creation
myth') and her sense of belonging to a 'tribe' of
painters.
Creation Myth
It's always been there, since I was tiny. I
mean, when I was in a cot, I was scribbling

on the wall. The magic of fust drawing these
circles and enjoying the pencil, and then
being interrupted and being told off, and
feeling very rebellious, you know. And
them saying, 'don't let her have a pencil
again'. And you think secretly, 'oh yes I
will!'And then actually having to deal with
not having a pencil again, feelings of ... I
thought I could get what I wanted, and I
couldn't, because I did not have a pencil in
the cot.
In both interview's, this narrative account
emerged without prompting and in rather
similar terms. In the second interview, it was
formulated differently, as follows:
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int J. Nonprofit
Voiunt Sect. Mark., November 2005
And the other thought that Just came

through, just married back to a very early
memory of being a child in my cot, so
maybe under two. Being left a pencil or
something, and then drawing on the wall—
/ think they were circular shapes—and
being so profoundly affected by it. And then
a memory of my father saying to my brother
and sister [about me] not being given a
pencil again ... But that initial impact of
drawing on the wall has stayed with me,
through the bars of the cot. So I escaped the
bars of the cot into this imaginative world
obviously. The instrument, the pencil did it
somehow, so magical.
In this second version of the story, she
interprets the drawing as an escape or self-
liberation from a space to which she had been
confined, a prison, into her imagination,
through the medium of her artwork.
There is also a 'wicked stepmother' figure:
Because my stepmother took my dolls away
from me when I started school, because she

thought I was too old to play with them, I
started to use drawing as a means of
playing out, of playing and working out
my thinking, playing out dolls'gam.es. So, I
think there is that part of drawing which is
to do with my everyday life, that somebody
else may have used toys as a means of
working out, or as I used to, pencil and—
toilet paper, would you believe?!
This takes up another theme pre-figured in
the parental instruction not to let her have a
pencil. Here, her playthings were taken away
by a negative authority figure. In response, her
drawing becomes a direct substitute for play
and a technology for self-development.
In these different narrations of her early
memory, which function as a kind of account of
creative origins in adversity, Ruth mobilises
metaphors of childhood, magic, profound
affect or enjoyment, deprivation, imprison-
ment and rebellion against authority through
art to position herself, to construct her own
'brand' identity in talk.

Tribe of Painters
It is important to note that Ruth's attempt to
define herself as a painter touches also on her
social as well as on her individual identity,
invoking the metaphor of tribe:
I seem to fit into a particular tribe of artist
who is preoccupied with um certain
thoughts which are mostly] mystical um
to do with mystery
Tribe is a concept more commonly used,
w îthin marketing at least, to talk about
consumers than about producers (Kozinets,
1999; Cova and Cova, 2001). The use of this
term suggests that Ruth is aware of herself in
relation to certain other producers, a group to
which she feels she belongs, an imagined
community (Anderson, 1983). Here she is in-
voking a social identity, not only an individual
one. From observation, Ruth is located within a
netw^ork of people ŵ ho are also engaged in
creative work, who can supply information,

contacts, creative insights, advice, help with
mounting exhibitions, emotional support and
so on. However, this is not necessarily what she
is thinking about when using the word 'tribe'.
From observation and informal conversation, it
appears that she means by this any creative
person or tradition w îth w ĥom or v^hich she
feels an affinity. This affinity may be enduring, or
it may simply for the life of a particular creative
project, and it appears to have to do with a
perceived sharing of values, themes or symbols.
This notion of tribe functions as an inter-
pretative resource by means of which she can
construe, elaborate and discursively mark her
own similarities to and differences from other
painters or creative workers. To index Elliott
and Wattanasuwan (1998), this could be read as
not so much a case of a consumer using a brand
as a symbolic resource to construct part of her
identity, as of a producer using the notion of
'tribe' as a symbolic resource with which to
construct part of her own individual brand
identity as a professional painter. How êver,
from conversation, Ruth also does not like to be

categorised as any particular kind of painter!
Volunt Sect Mark., November 2005
268 Daragh O'Reilly
Process
At process level, Ruth's construal of her own
creative process in the first interview^ had four
main personal constructs (or, one might say,
semantic differentials): (1) work/play; (2)
movement/restriction; (3) receiving/being cri-
tical; (4) holding on/letting go.
Work/play
Firstly, play was an important starting point
w ĥich could lead to the realisation of some-
thing interesting, provided she remained
grounded. Good management of play led to
liberation and the realisation of something
interesting. 'Bad' play was like magic, trick-

playing, involved feelings of being 'high', and
led to being stuck. Work was characterised as
holding onto, pushing, grappling, knocking
oneself out, needing to see results, frustration,
the root cause of all of w^hich, she reflected,
could often be a 'fear state'. In fact, the
discussion of this construct highlighted the
emotional work which is invoked in her
account.
Movement/restriction
The second construct, movement/restriction,
related to hoŵ much freedom or constraint
Ruth felt in different work-related areas, for
example, in the studio space itself, or on the
canvas or paper, or in relation to the process
itself. In this regard, it was important for Ruth
to be aware of w^here her body w ânted to move
to, as ŵ ell as the movement of her eyes.
Restricting physical movement was bad for the
creativity. In particular, mental restriction of
what the body wanted to do was seen as
negative. For Ruth, this construct was related
to intuition and creative risk-taking. Physical

embodiment, therefore is a key dimension of
her process.
Receiving/being critical
Thirdly, the receiving/being critical construct
was differentiated as follows. Receiving meant
having a positive attitude, seeing what was
there on the canvas. This was an important
attitude to ensure continuity of fiow .̂ It
appeared however also to be about making an
kind of kinaesthetic evaluation of the work in
progress. Being destructive was associated
with negative emotional states and evaluating
the work from a bad place. Again, the import-
ance of the body and emotions comes through
in her account.
Holding on/letting go
Finally, holding on was associated with tensing,
grasping, being anxious, feelings of panic, a
need to prove she ŵ as 'all right', or could paint,
a need to make sure, to control the work. The

effect of holding on was often that it stopped
the flow. The opposite was letting go, being in
a relaxed state and working from there, not
experiencing insecurities.
What comes through clearly in relation to
her creative process is the frequent occurrence
of states of difficult emotion and the impor-
tance for Ruth of her own sense of connection
with her body.
Drawing and painting are two distinct
elements in Ruth's perceptions of her process,
each fulfilling a different purpose:
So, I think, perhaps, drawing and painting
have a different.. .a slightly different
history. I mean, I use drawing more as a
means of working out my everyday
thoughts, and colour as uh as feeling,
yeah. Perhaps colour was on a deeper
level for me. I mean that's why I've made
the decision now to work with
colour... When I'm drawing, I'm often
wanting to portray numerous aspects of

my life... and.. .1 might work through
those on a drawing, letting them appear
and disappear and then eventually you
arrive at something... But... I'm doing
that in a figurative way... Whereas, when
I'm painting um I'm not dealing with with
um figurative elements, I'm, more dealing
with a symbol, I suppose, or shape that
holds things that I don't necessarily know
about, but I respond to and resonate [with]
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int.J. Nonprofit
in a way ...Sol think it's like... it's like a
different way of working.
In other words, drawing appears to be for
working out and dealing with the external
aspects of her life and painting is a response to
an inner, imaginal, emotionally 'coloured' pro-

cess. The emotional dimension of her process is
significant, as it was when she was a child.
In fact, her creativity has another dimension,
which Ruth claims goes beyond the psycholo-
gical:
Q: So creativity is about facing oneself?
A: Yes, I think so...Creativity is linked
with my own developm.ent, spiritual
development and I mean spiritual in a
very broad sense and I mean on the basis of
spiritual being... and it is about how I am
in life, and it is about how I go about life
and how open and closed I am...As I
change my thinking, my work changes,
that is what I am. trying to say.
In Ruth's account, her work is positioned as
involving her emotions, her body and her
spiritual life. There is little discussion of artistic
technique as such. This helps to construct an
account of herself as a painter wholly engaged
with her artwork, and one who is keenly aware

of the inner life of the spirit and feeling.
Product
At 'product' level, Ruth's assessment of her
oŵ n finished w ôrk made use of a cluster of
terms. Terms used by her to negatively evaluate
a finished piece were more numerous. These
included poles such as 'cold', 'dry', 'sterile',
'mechanical', 'neat', 'clean', 'exquisitely put
across', and 'packaged'. Note that the last five
of these terms would be positive in the mouth
of a marketer, but in Ruth's case they index an
underlying unease with work which appears
too finished. Positive terms included 'broken
up', 'done by a body', 'gives off a feeling'. The
following paired construct poles emerged
clearly (preferred pole second): 'pure'/'using
different tones'; 'even/having different dense-
ness'; 'doesn't let you in'/'you can sink into it';
and 'has a sharp boundary'/'diffuse'. These
construct poles reveal that Ruth values paint-
ings which do not look too finished, and which
in her opinion have something to give the

viewer. From informal conversation, it seems
to be the case that this is a reaction against
some art practices and discourses which were
prevalent at art college. The preferred poles
accentuate differentiation in the tones, diffuse-
ness, and the communication of an embodied
and emotional sense (reiterating the themes of
body and feeling).
Promotion
Contrast this with her response to questions
about the business side of her work, including
business development or promotion.
I'm. trying to be more practical and say well
I've got to allot a certain amount of time per
week, just even to do a bit of reading about
how to apply for som,e money or how to
approach a gallery. I find that whole thing
really difficult, because I don't really want
to spend an enormous amount of time
doing that because any spare time, when I
have energy. Hike to use it on work. ... I'm
going to take some photos and send, just

see, send it to one or two people that I know
before I think about galleries, ones I don't
really know, but I've got a letter from. So
I've got to find away of working with this
projecting out that is related to my life
rather than it being—I don't want it to be
too businessy. I might change my attitude
some time [when] I'm. feeling more positive
really about the whole thing.
Q: What does 'businessy' mean for you.''
A: I don't mind photographing the work. I
suppose businessy is sending these things
through the post Looking at what galleries
might be interested in my work. I suppose
engaging [with] rejection which, I don't
suppose, I don't mind that much now.
Businessy. Trying to obtain money,
because I spend a lot of money on
materials, but part of me just doesn't feel
Volunt Sect. Mark., November 2005

270 Daragh O'Reilly
comfortable about that... Essentially I
think, my life is about the work rather
than... I would like to be successful, but the
work is more important than success, I
suppose ultimately. I know that a bit of
success would be great, because I could get
a larger workspace and obviously have
more time to work in. Because I am having
to teach a certain amount, which [...] I
have enfoyed. But I don't want it to get any
bigger than it is. I would like a larger
working space, because it is quite hard with
the framework that I'm in.
There are a number of issues here. Firstly, the
question of success. From the above interview
and from other conversations, it appears that
for Ruth this would mean sufficient sales of her
paintings to mean she did not have to teach art
and also getting a bigger workspace and more
time to do artwork. Yet, as noted above, she is

currently selling few paintings. In order to sell
more, she would have to engage with the
business side of her practice more. This means
being 'businessy', w ĥich she associates with
practical things such as photographing the
work, looking for gallery targets, trying to
obtain money, and also with the likelihood of
having to deal with rejection when trying to sell
her work in to a gallery, all aspects of market-
ing. Her overall concern, however, is with the
work, which is more 'core' in her construct
hierarchy than success.
She also experiences feelings of discomfort
around this question. When she talks about
'projecting out' (i.e. promoting her work), she
construes this as capable of being either
'related to my life' or 'businessy'. The rather
stark implication of this, from an art marketing
point of view, is that 'businessy' is not related
to her life; whereas from her answer to the
question about creativity earlier, creativity is
clearly linked to her life, in fact it is an essential
part of it. Finally, business work can be seen as a
disturbance. When talking about promoting

her work, she said:
/ notice how easily I get disturbed about
things so I try to keep things very quiet.
Business work, on other words, risks upset-
ting her emotional equilibrium, and thereby
her creative process work as a painter, and so is
actually a threat to her work on herself and on
her art. One can see by her own account how
deep-rooted is her aversion to business.
Finally, when examples are put to her of
other painters in her locality who are promot-
ing themselves heavily, her response is to say
that that is not her thing, their w ôrk is not like
hers.
Pricing
The issue of pricing raises the vexed question
of the value of an artwork. As far as this last
issue is concerned, her paintings appear to
represent a part of her identity. Therefore,
putting a value or price on her paintings is like

placing a price on herself. From observation,
this appears to raise complex and deep-rooted
personal issues for her. Underlying these are
the construed split between her creativity
which is 'related to her life', and business,
which is not. In fact, talking with Ruth about
pricing specific pieces of her work tends to
catalyse in her a process of introspection
which is inconclusive. I speculate that this
introspective process is in fact akin to her
creative process, and therefore, perhaps, an
'inappropriate' application of her particular
approach to creativity to the business context.
There is a barrier between her inner kinaes-
thetic sense of her connection with her
paintings and any attempt to make a judgement
about the commercial values of her work. It is
as if instead of setting a price, she prefers to
imagine one, and then cannot do so.
Discussion
In this section, the analysis is summarised and
the implications for (a) marketing action (for
the case artist as w êll as for artists in general),

and for (b) further research are considered. The
analysis has indexed a number of themes w ĥich
are discussed in this section. The case artist
positions herself as an inwardly-oriented pain-
ter who is engaged emotionally, physically and
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int J. Nonprofit
We marketing/creativity interface 271
spiritually with her artwork. She invokes a
narrative of childhood memory to position
herself as someone who has a sense of magic,
feeling and artistic determination in the face of
negative, unsympathetic and constraining
authority figures. Socially, she has a sense that
she belongs to a tribe of painters, but this does
not appear to be a clearly defined group of
people whose membership is fixed. She posi-
tions her identity as somehow diffuse, and
mystical or mysterious. Her account of her own
process highlights the importance of emo-

tional work and the importance for her of her
own sense of connection with her body. This
goes to support her artistic identity, or
positioning. A sense of subtle variety, of
emotion and embodiment are also important
in her evaluation of her own artwork. In fact,
she evaluates her work in relation to herself and
not to the art market. This appears to make it
difficult for her to put a price on her work. Her
time-scarcity, lack of marketing training, family
responsibilities, the crowded market, and the
potentially emotionally disruptive impact of
business activities combine to make her
reluctant to devote a lot of time to promotion.
Her promotional efforts are seen as a distrac-
tion from her precious artwork time, and are
seen by her in any case as taking place in a
crowded market which involves the possibility
of rejection.
How might one interpret this from a
marketing point of view, bearing in mind that
it is not possible to statistically generalise
from a single case study? Well, firstly, I think
this goes to support what Fillis (2004a) has

said about the need for research to focus on
the product-centred nature of entrepreneurial
creativity where the personality, attitudes,
beliefs and behaviour of the artist [... ] are
central to 'doing visual arts marketing'. One
might add, however, that, in this case, the
creative process is self-oriented as much as
product-oriented, and oriented towards a
holistic view of the self, including its emo-
tional, embodied or physical and also spiritual
aspects. This warrants the in-depth explora-
tion of individual cases, as does the practical
promotional need to develop a coherent and
attractive account of what the artist is doing
and why. Also, it is not a matter here, as it is in
arts organisations, of the marketing depart-
ment 'interfacing' or 'liaising' with the crea-
tive talent department. In the case of an
individual artist, the creative and marketing
'selves' are two aspects of the same human
being, and any interfacing must happen intra-
subjectively. How this interfacing develops
will depend on the individual artist's personal
construct system, and particularly on how

core constructs impact on the artist's artwork
and business/marketing thinking.
From the point of view of marketing action in
the case of this particular artist, it is easy to say
that Ruth's (default) marketing strategy is not
working, at least in terms of financial rewards.
Marketing academics, other painters of a more
market-oriented disposition, or even people
who know^ nothing about marketing or paint-
ing, might have suggestions to make about
'obvious' actions she could take — e.g. 'what is
needed is a marketing plan'. However, as
mentioned previously, Ruth has had no formal
training in marketing. Also, she is working out
of her own personal construct system, which
puts the work itself before success. One can
argue whether this view is 'right' or not in
abstract terms, but at present, and for the
purposes of this article, this is her position
now, at the time of writing.
Looking beyond this particular case to artists
in general, one needs to bear in mind the kind
of communications which artists typically use

to promote their work, for example, exhibition
catalogues, web-sites, or press articles. These
are opportunities for artists to position them-
selves in specific ways. In this regard, much of
Ruth's account can be used to develop her own
positioning statement about her work. Differ-
entiation of one's brand identity for the
purposes of promotion necessarily has reco-
urse to the identification of salient and relevant
particularities of the individual's life experi-
ence, and requires the construction by the
artist and/or her agent of a coherent and
persuasive or attractive account of her indivi-
dual brand identity. If one looks for an
emerging framework to shape such accounts.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. IntJ Nonprofit
Voiunt Sect Mark., November 2005
272 Daragh O'Reilly
one could see Ruth's brand identity in this case
comprising two parts: brand character and

brand story. Brand character includes two
elements, namely, her emotional and spiritual
experience of her work (psyche), as well as her
body and its involvement in the process
(physique). Ruth's brand story consists of three
elements, namely, the account of her earliest
engagement with drawing through bars (one
could call this her artistic provenance, or
individual heritage); her emotional, embodied
creative process itself (process); her paintings
and drawings (products), with the particular
aesthetic qualities she is striving for, namely a
sense of diffuseness, embodiment, and letting
the view êr in; and her w ôrk mission, which
appears to require a holistic self-development
(purpose).
The ongoing academic research is taking a
number of directions. Firstly, the artist has
specifically requested to continue the enquiry,
on an exchange basis—further interviews in
exchange for marketing consultation, opening
the way to a kind of action research. Secondly,
using snowball sampling and additional perso-
nal contacts, interviews will be conducted with

other 'creatives', mainly painters and writers.
Thirdly, subsequent interviews will make use
of an adapted form of PCP interview technique
known as core process interviewing Gones,
1991). This involves having the itiformant
focus on particularly creative periods of his/
her life, identify elements and constructs
associated with each period, and develop the
emerging themes, with specific reference to
business and marketing issues in this enquiry, of
course. Because of artists' distinctive, personal,
ŵ ays of construing their creative and business
work, particular care will have to be taken in
abstracting any common dimensions or themes
from their talk, in order, for example, to develop
a conceptual framework.
Conclusion
This paper aims to contribute to an under-
standing of the marketing/creativity interface
in the visual arts at the level of the individual
artist. Proceeding, broadly speaking, from a
constructivist perspective and using a qualita-

tive case study approach, it examined the
personal construction of creativity and busi-
ness work in the life of a working visual artist.
The analysis highlights the significance of
emotional, cognitive, spiritual and physical
processes for the artist's positioning, process,
and products, as well as her difficulties with
promotion and pricing issues. It was seen that,
at the level of an individual artist, her w ôrk may
be not just-product-oriented but self-oriented.
Therefore, it behoves artists and their agents to
be able to offer appropriately distinguishing
accounts of the artist's artistic identity, process
and work, based on a deep self-reflexive
aw^areness and understanding by the artist of
her creative practice.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Helen Jones and
the members of the PCP Northern Research
Group, York, UK, as well as the two anon-
ymous reviewers for their constructive com-
ments.

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Voiunt Sect Mark., November 2005
The Association Between Talent Retention,
Antecedent Factors, and Consequent
Organizational Performance

Constantine Kontoghiorghes, Cyprus University of Technology,
Cyprus
Kalomyra Frangou, Cyprus International Institute of
Management. Cyprus
Given the critical role of human capital in assist-
ing organizations gain competitive advantage in
today's hyper-competitive environments, talent
management has become a popular topic among
human resources (HR) scholars. In fact, some
argue that talent management has become HR's
new cornerstone. Numerous surveys have shown
that executives consider talent management to be
the main differentiator among companies and,
hence, an important strategic priority. It is not by
accident that many organizations invest a sizable
portion of their financial resources to attract,
deploy, and retain talent.
According to Lockwood (2006), talent man-
agement is the implementation of integrated
strategies designed to increase employee produc-
tivity by developing processes for attracting,
developing, retaining, and utilizing people with

the required skills and aptitude to meet current
and future business needs. This study focuses on
talent retention, which is a global issue. As
implied earlier, hiring and retaining top talent is
the driving concern for human capital manage-
ment practitioners today. The concept of human
capital management is that employees possess
skills, abilities, and experience and therefore
have economic value for the organization.
With competition so intense, executives today
worry about their organization's ability to locate,
attract, hire, develop, and retain the qualified
people they need to run their companies. To
ensure effective leadership for the future, corpo-
rations strive to attract and retain top talent
(Cliffe, 1998; Menefee and Murphy. 2004). But
top talent is difficult to find and expensive to
replace. Further, holding on to skilled employees
once they are on board, is a major challenge. It
is easier for talented employees to change jobs
or seek a better place of employment. Given the
special skills and abilities talented employees
bring to the table, any loss of these key players

could negatively affect productivity, cause cus-
tomer dissatisfaction, and lead to decline of the
remaining workforce morale (Mitchell, Holtom.
Lee, and Graske. 2001). Moreover, departing
employees often take with them valuable knowl-
edge, expertise, and relations with clients
(Mitchell et al., 2001 ). Loss of top talent to a
competitor can diminish the organization's
competitive advantage as well. Thus, to attract,
engage, develop, and retain talent, those who
have responsibility for talent management must
understand what is important to employees
(Lockwood, 2006).
Research Review
In terms of research, a study by Martel (2003)
concluded that employee autonomy, risk taking,
and tolerance of mistakes helps engage high
performers and build their confidence. Open
communications and good supervisory relations
were also cited as important factors in retaining
high performers. Lastly, Martel (2003) identified
education and training as yet another means of
engaging employees. Open communications, job
satisfaction, and training opportunities were

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