According to schema theory, interpretation is guided by mapping input against existing schemas, where all aspects of the schema must be compatible with the input. This results in bottom-up processing, driven by incoming data fitting schemas, and top-down processing, using general schemas to make predictions and find fitting information. A hypothesis is that good first language readers can transfer skills to a second language, but limited linguistic proficiency can interfere with transfer. Research also shows that background knowledge, especially cultural knowledge, affects comprehension, as seen in a study where subjects better understood texts about their own culture. Effective reading instruction includes objectives guiding lessons, a comprehensive reading theory, focused class time, clear lesson structures, varied activities, feedback, real-world relevance,

1. SCHEMA THEORY
 According to schema theory, the process of
interpretation is guided by the principle that
every input is mapped against some
existing schema and that all aspects of that
schema must be compatible with the input
information.

2. This principle results in two basic modes of information
processing, called bottom-up and top-down processing
Bottom-up processing is evoked by the incoming data;
the features of the data enter the system through the best
fitting, bottom-up schemata.
Schemata are hierarchically organized , from the most
general at the top to the most specific at the bottom.
Bottom-up processing is therefore called data driven.

3. Top-down processing, on the other hand, occurs as the
system makes general predictions based on higher level,
general schemata and then searches the input for
information to fit into these partially satisfied, higher order
schemata.
Top-down processing is , therefore, called conceptually-
driven.

4. THE TRANSFER HYPHOTHESIS
A reasonable working hypothesis in the area of reading
comprehension is that good readers in a first language
will be able to transfer their skills to the second language.
However ,it has been found at L1 reading proficiency.
Limited linguistic proficiency would appear to “short
circuit” the transfer of reading skills from one language to
another (Cziko 1978; Clarke, 1979).

5. CROSS-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF
READING COMPREHENSION
One line of research of particular interest to second
language teachers is that into the affect of background
knowledge, particularly cultural knowledge, on
comprehension.
One of the best known studies is that by Steffensen
(1981) who compared the comprehension of readers from
two different cultural backgrounds, one group from North
America, and one group from India. She looked at the
ability of her subjects to recover meaning from two text ,
one describing a North American wedding, and one
describing an Indian wedding.

6. Richards concluded that the following principles
capture the essence of effective instruction
1. Instructional objectives are used to guide and organize
the lesson.
2. The teacher has the comprehensive theory of the nature
of reading in second language, and refers to this in
planning his teaching.
3. Class time is used for learning.
4. Instructional activities have a teaching rather than a
testing focus.
5. Lessons have a clear structure.
6. A variety of different reading activities are used during
each lesson.

7. 7. Classroom activities give students opportunities to get
feedback on their reading performance.
8. Instructional activities relate to real-world reading
purposes.
9. Instruction is learner-focused.