ROSA BONHEUR, Plowing in the Nivernais, 1849Rosa Bonheur.docx

ROSA BONHEUR, Plowing in the Nivernais, 1849
Rosa Bonheur was one of the most renowned animal painters in
history. Her earliest training was received from her father, a
minor landscape painter, who encouraged her interest in art in
general and in animals as her exclusive subject. He allowed her
to keep a veritable menagerie in their home, including a sheep
that is reported to have lived on the balcony of their sixth-floor
Parisian apartment.
Bonheur's unconventional lifestyle contributed to the myth that
surrounded her during her lifetime. She smoked cigarettes in
public, rode astride, and wore her hair short. To study the
anatomy of animals, Bonheur visited the slaughterhouse; for
this work, she favored men's attire and was required to obtain
an official authorization from the police to dress in trousers and
a smock. Because of this recognition from official sources, she
was then awarded a commission from the French government to
produce a painting on the subject of plowing. Exhibited in the
Salon of 1849, it firmly established her career in France.
Figure 22-31 ROSA BONHEUR, The Horse Fair, 1853–1855.
Oil on canvas, 8’ 1/4” x 16’ 7 1/2”. Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York.
The artist was praised by Napoleon III and Delacroix for her
very realistic, yet passionate, studies of animals. This was a
sensation at the 1853 Salon. It was reworked until 1855 and
then it toured England and the U.S. for three years. She sold the

painting and its reproduction rights. When an engraving was
made of the work, it made the owner of the painting a lot of
money since many people bought inexpensive reproductions of
it. Her art, as did most Academic art, reached a broad audience
through the mass medium of the print.
NIEPCE, View from His Window at La Gras, c. 1826
The very first photograph ever taken. Niepce used a mixture of
natural, light-sensitive elements on a piece of pewter placed in a
camera obscura and left it to daylight exposure. It rendered this
image called a heliograph because it was exposed to the sun.
Helio = sun, graph = writing, in other words, “sun writing.”
Photo = light, thus photography is “light writing.”
Even though this image is blurry and hazy, we can still see the
rooftops, trees, and sky.
LOUIS DAGUERRE, Boulevard du Temple, Paris, c. 1838
In 1839, Louis Daguerre patented his process of fixing images
on a copper plate called a daguerreotype. It is the earliest form
of creating portraits. These portraits were placed under glass,
framed and placed in a hinged box for the owner to cherish.
Daguerreotypes are one-of-a-kind and cannot be duplicated. The
image rendered in this fashion was extremely crisp and detailed.
Tt came in different sizes from very small (2” x 2 1/2”) to what
we would consider to be a normal sized picture for a portrait, (6
1/2” x 8 1/2”).
However, this image is not of a person/persons. It is of a busy
street scene, yet there are almost no people (there’s a person

getting his shoes shined in the lower left quadrant of the
image). Because it took 20-30 minutes for an image to “fix”
itself onto the metal plate, anything moving would not be
captured.
Daguerreotype: A photograph made by an early method on a
plate of chemically treated metal; developed by Louis J.M.
Daguerre.
HENRY FOX TALBOT, The Open Door, 1843
Talbot developed the first paper negative that could be printed
on paper called the calotype. This process produced a much
softer effect that was adored by the Romanticists. Photographers
could also manipulate the image before it was printed onto
another piece of paper. Talbot was the first photographer to
really investigate the possibilities of photography as a vital art
form. He produced the first photographic essay called The
Pencil of Nature. In this photograph he positions the handmade
broom handle parallel to the diagonal shadow of the door. This
photograph was supposed to capture the quickly disappearing
agrarian lifestyle, ironically captured by the modern method of
photography.
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Figure 22-50 NADAR, Eugène Delacroix, ca. 1855. Modern
print from original negative in the Bibliothèque Nationale,
Paris.

The albumen print combined details and clarity of the
daguerreotype with the reproducibility of the calotype; It
incorporated a wet plate process in which the photographer
would use chemicals called collodion on a glass plate, would
then treat it with silver nitrate to sensitize the plate for
exposure, expose the plate to the subject at hand through the
camera, and then use another mixture of volatile chemicals to
fix the negative image in order to print positive images onto
prepared paper.
Nadar opened his first photography studio in 1854, but he only
practiced for six years. He focused on the psychological
elements of photography, aiming to reveal the moral
personalities of his sitters rather than make attractive portraits.
Bust- or half-length poses, solid backdrops, dramatic lighting,
fine sculpturing, and concentration on the face were trademarks
of his studio. His use of eight-by-ten-inch glass-plate negatives,
which were significantly larger than the popular sizes of
daguerreotypes, accentuated those effects. At one point, a
commentator said, "[a]ll the outstanding figures of [the] era--
literary, artistic, dramatic, political, intellectual--have filed
through his studio." In most instances these subjects were
Nadar's friends and acquaintances. His curiosity led him beyond
the studio into such uncharted locales as the catacombs, which
he was one of the first persons to photograph using artificial
light.
‹#›
Figure 22-49A HONORÉ DAUMIER, Nadar Raising
Photography to the Height of Art, 1862. Lithograph, 10 3/4” x 8
3/4”. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
The public liked photography, but many artists thought of it as a
threat. By 1863, photography had taken Paris by storm. In this

image Daumier is showing that all the buildings of Paris were
photography studios, much like the one’s the famous Nadar had
set up. Nadar was the first photographer to photograph Paris
from the air. Daumier is playing with the fact that Nadar went
up into a balloon, thus elevating photography literally as well as
artistically.
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Figure 22-51 JULIA MARGARET CAMERON, Ophelia, Study
no. 2, 1867. Albumen print, 1' 11" x 10 2/3". George Eastman
House, Rochester, New York.
In 1864, at the age of forty-eight, one of her daughters
presented her with a camera (then a relatively new invention) as
a gift. She began to take photographs with a passion from that
day forth, becoming expert in the use of what is called the
collodion wet-plate process. Within a year, she had become a
member of the Photographic Societies of London and Scotland.
She made extensive alterations to her home to accommodate her
new hobby, converting an old coalhouse into a darkroom and a
chicken shed into a studio with windows that allowed her to
control and regulate the light.
Over subsequent years she developed a unique style - her
images often slightly out of focus to emphasize the emotional
dimension of her subjects. For models she used friends, servants
and neighbors. Many of these were prominent figures of the
times, including the scientists Charles Darwin and John
Herschel, and the poet Alfred Lord Tennyson. Her associations
with artists from the Pre-Raphaelite school, meanwhile,
immediately became apparent in her unique style of
photographic portraiture which became atmospheric, moody and
often highly allegorical.

She was an accomplished mistress of self-promotion and was
also very well-connected. This led in 1865 to the first one-
person exhibition of her photographs in London and also a
presentation of a collection of her photographs to the British
Museum. Throughout the 1860s she continued to produce
numerous portraits of “famous men and fair women” for which
she has become justly renowned. In 1874, the great Victorian
poet Tennyson commissioned her to provide illustrations to his
Idylls of the King and Other Poems.
Figure 22-52 TIMOTHY O’SULLIVAN, A Harvest of Death,
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 1863.
6 3/8" x 8 3/4". The New York Public Library, New York.
This photography rejects the pageantry of war and reveals the
stark reality of battle. O’Sullivan worked for another famous
Civil War photographer, Matthew Brady, and was tired of his
boss taking credit for his photographs, so he broke free and
started his own business. This photograph is part of a multi-
volume photographic essay on the Civil War and marks the start
of documentary photography.
‹#›
Figure 22-33A ADOLPHE-WILLIAM BOUGUEREAU,
Nymphs and Satyr, 1873. Oil on canvas, approx. 8’ 6” high.
Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown,
Massachusetts.
Academic painters faced the challenge of photography head on
and achieved remarkable facts of photographic realism in their
art – the most popular paintings of the period as they reflected
the ideals and values of the society that regarded them so

highly: the new middle-class of the Industrial Age or
bourgeoisie; however, painting still had three advantages over
photography in the 19th century: color, size, and composition
Paintings were being compared to photographs and paintings
were said to owe a debt to photography – indeed, as artists were
using photographs to create some of their works
Painting could also add in emotion whereas photography lacked
it; however, the French poet and critic Baudelaire (who coined
the term imagination) equated photography and Academic
painting as observable fact that rendered no emotional or
imaginative qualities – he didn’t like either form of art
Bouguereau’s work is an excellent example of how the
boundaries of painting were pushed by photography. He became
famous for his erotic scenes and soft-focus fantasies that
predate modern magazine photography. This work is a mild
version of this type of work. It incorporates the three things
photography couldn't do: color, size, and subject matter.
ADOLPHE-WILLIAM BOUGUEREAU, Les Noisettes, 1882
Another example of painting that looks like a photograph by
Bouguereau.
‹#›
HENRI FANTIN-LATOUR, Portrait of Edouard Manet, 1867
Birth of the Avant-Garde:
Introduction to the avant-garde: from the military term for those

who go out and explore unknown territory; a revolutionary,
artistic patter that is experimental and adventurous
Myth of the autonomous individual with the emphasis on both
personality and change: this is perhaps the most important myth
in modern art that becomes an integral part of who the artist is;
the key is to understand that the unique eye of the artist,
subjective and intelligent, is what is important in the creation of
art from this point on in the avant-garde
This is a portrait of the artist, Edouard Manet (don’t confuse
him with Claude Monet - he’s in the next chapter) by an
academic artist named Henri Fantin-Latour. Manet was a man of
independent wealth, we can see it in the way he presents
himself. He a reluctant rebel as he did not seek to rattle the
Academy to the core, but that’s exactly what he ends up doing.
As a Realist, he wanted to bridge the gap between the Academy
and the real, contemporary lives of Parisians.
‹#›
EDOUARD MANET, The Guitarist, 1860
This painting, sometimes known as The Spanish Guitarist, was
accepted in the Salon of 1861 and Manet received honorable
mention for it. As it was customary for aspiring artists to do so,
Manet traveled to Italy and Spain to study from old master
paintings like Titian, Raphael, Velazquez. We can see the
influence of Velazquez in this work, even the red jug at the
bottom right corner is reminiscent of The Water Carrier of
Seville.
Manet had no clue what was in store during the next Salon.
Avant-garde: French military term literally meaning “advanced-

guard”; in art, late nineteenth- and twentieth-century artists who
develop new concepts in their work.
Figure 22-32 ÉDOUARD MANET, Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe
(Luncheon on the Grass), 1863. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ x 8’
10”. Musée d’Orsay, Paris.
This is the painting that was the impetus for the first ever Salon
des Refuses (Salon of Rejected Works) which featured 4,000
works that were rejected from the juried exhibition. This served
as the centerpiece. What do you think are some of the reasons
the members of the jury hated it so much? It is based on earlier
works from the Renaissance, but I don't think people made that
connection.
Is she naked or nude? Why?
Please watch:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-
modern/avant-garde-france/realism/v/manet-le-d-jeuner-sur-l-
herbe-luncheon-on-the-grass-1863
TITIAN, Pastoral Concert, c. 1510
Remember this painting? He is using this as inspiration for his
work.
RAIMONDI, Judgement of Paris (after Raphael), c. 1520

This print was also an inspiration for Manet’s work. Look at the
three figures on the lower right part of the print - it is the same
arrangement of figures.
Figure 22-33 ÉDOUARD MANET, Olympia, 1863. Oil on
canvas, 4’ 3” x 6’ 3”. Musée d’Orsay, Paris.
This was painted the same year as Luncheon on the Grass, but
was accepted into the Salon of 1865. It became the scandalous
centerpiece of the “official” Salon.
It is also based on a Renaissance work by Titian, Venus of
Urbino from 1538. People did not want to see contemporary life
as is, they wanted idealized images. Since both works were
based on Renaissance works, people expected to see a homage
to Renaissance ideals and were disappointed and disgusted when
that didn’t happen. Manet abandons perspective and
photographic realism in order to achieve more realism in his art.
What is this a painting of? Who is the woman?
Please watch:
modern/avant-garde-france/realism/v/manet-olympia-1863-
exhibited-1865
TITIAN, Venus of Urbino, 1538
Manet’s inspiration. She may be “Venus,” but remember that
the model for this work was the mistress to the Duke of Urbino.

Compare and contrast. Look at the positioning of the bodies,
what does the body language tell you? What are the other
figures doing in both paintings? What about the pets in the
painting? What are dogs symbols of? Black cats?
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES, Odalisque with
Slave, 1842.
However, this is the kind of “classicizing” nudity that was seen
as appropriate for Salon audiences. How does her body language
speak to the viewer? Why is this seen as appropriate? Is she
real?
ALEXANDRE CABANEL, Birth of Venus, 1863.
Shown at the same Salon as Olympia, this was seen as a triumph
of art and class. Why?
ÉDOUARD MANET, The Fifer, 1866
I like to include a work by Manet that has nothing to do with
unclothed women. Ha! This painting is indicative of Manet’s
style. Notice how incredibly flat looking the figure is against
the background. There’s nothing that tells us the difference
between floor and wall. The lighting is really frontal, like that

of photography at the time, so very few shadows are cast.
HOKUSAI, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, c. 1828
A lot of the flatness and linearity that Manet uses is inspired by
Japanese color woodblock printing called ukiyo-e (translates
into “images of the floating world” - not a great translation).
Ukiyo-e artists captured contemporary life, much like the
French Realists, but they did it in a style that was very flat and
linear. France was experiencing a Japanese craze at this time, so
many people, including artists were collecting these prints.
These types of Japanese prints would continue to influence the
Impressionists in the next chapter
Japonisme: The French fascination with all things Japanese.
Japonisme emerged in the second half of the 19th century.
Figure 22-23 THOMAS COLE, The Oxbow (View from Mount
Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm),
1836. Oil on canvas, 4’ 3 1/2” x 6’ 4”.
19th Century American Landscape Painting: The last section of
lecture is going to deal with American landscape painting and
its relationship to early film (movies). This may seem like a
stretch, but stay with me:
The beginnings of film developed out of photography and awe-
inspiring landscape painting; truly is the combination of both

Daguerre and dioramas: large scale scenes that were painted on
translucent canvas – one scene would show if the light was
shown onto the canvas and another image would show if the
light was shown through the canvas from behind; accompanied
by music, it added drama; people paid money; all done before
photography
American landscape painting had the feel of dioramas because
of the vastness of space they portray
These landscape paintings were so detailed that it was a
common practice to use opera glasses to become absorbed
within the imagery
Panoramas became popular (moving paintings) and then artists
combined dioramas with panoramas
Landscape painting such as these examples were also part of the
19th century American belief in their continent as a biblical
land of promise; westward movement – Manifest Destiny
Thomas Cole was the founder of an American school of
landscape painting, the Hudson River School. Cole and others
like him, wanted to glorify the beauty of the natural landscape
and raise the public awareness of the destruction of America’s
natural beauty in the wake of rapid industrialization and
resource consumption.
Please watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-
americas/us-art-19c/romanticism-us/v/cole-oxbow
Figure 22-24 ALBERT BIERSTADT, Among the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, California, 1868. Oil on canvas, 6’ x 10’. National
Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Albert Bierstadt's beautifully crafted paintings played to a hot
market in the 1860s for spectacular views of the nation's
frontiers. Bierstadt was an immigrant and hardworking
entrepreneur who had grown rich pairing his skill as a painter
with a talent for self-promotion. He unveiled his canvases as
theatrical events, selling tickets and planting news stories—
strategies that one critic described as the "vast machinery of
advertisement and puffery."
A Bierstadt canvas was elaborately framed, installed in a
darkened room, and hidden behind luxurious drapes. At the
appointed time, the work was revealed to thunderous applause.
This painting was made in London and toured through Europe to
St. Petersburg, fueling Europeans' interest in emigration.
Buoyed by glowing reviews, Bierstadt then offered the painting
to American audiences who could take pride in an American
artist's skill and in the natural splendors of their young nation.
A work like this of the American West (the Sierras in
California) would have been sensational to the public on the
East Coast who hadn’t traveled west. People would come to
look at the painting and use things like opera glasses (like
binoculars) to fully immerse themselves into the work of art. It
was about feeling like you were there, being part of the
landscape. Is that not what a good movie does? It makes you
feel like you’re somewhere else for a couple of hours. That’s
what these artworks aimed to do.
Figure 22-25 FREDERIC EDWIN CHURCH, Twilight In the
Wilderness, 1860s. Oil on canvas, 3’ 4” x 5’ 4”. Cleveland
Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio
Originally a part of the Hudson River School, Church traveled

all over the world capturing landscape scenes. Some of his most
famous are of the Andes in South America, but this painting is
just a figment of his imagination, but we can imagine this
comes from years of practice as a master landscapist. Those
clouds surely look they do when the sun sets.
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Figure 22-36 THOMAS EAKINS, The Gross Clinic, 1875. Oil
on canvas, 8’ x 6’ 6”. Jefferson Medical College of Thomas
Jefferson University, Philadelphia.
Eakins took the photographic realism of Academic painting and
photography itself to their absolute limits. He studied with
Jean-Leon Gérôme in Paris as a private student. He stayed there
for four years and was his best student.
This is an example of his objective portraiture, yet it is
melodramatic. A poor man is undergoing a free operation (the
gray socks he wears were charity issued). Eakins studied
anatomy as a medical student before his art career. The
American people didn’t like it and it was rejected by the jury of
Philadelphia’s Centennial Exhibition of 1876. Realism meant
objective visual truth for Eakins and most of his paintings were
uninteresting to the American public at this time.
THOMAS EAKINS, The Swimming Hole, 1883
Eakins used photographs in rendering his realistic images in
painting (see next slide). Photography became a very useful tool
for painters in capturing motion and particular moments in time,
like the diving man in this painting.

THOMAS EAKINS, Eakin’s Students at the Site for “The
Swimming Hole”, 1883
One of the photographs Eakins took of students for his
paintings.
Figure 22-53 EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE, Horse Galloping,
1878. Collotype print. George Eastman House, Rochester, New
York.
Muybridge was hired by a former governor of California,
Leland Stanford, to photographically prove that a running horse
had all four feet off the ground. He would be commissioned by
Stanford to do more motion studies of animals and people.
For this particular study, he set up 16 cameras around a horse
track and as the horse and rider ran past, the horse tripped a thin
wire that caused the shutter to release and capture the image
onto the chemically-treated glass plates inside the cameras.
When you put all the images together, they look like film strips.
If you were to put them in a zoetrope, the horse would appear to
be moving, thus the beginning of moving pictures.
THOMAS EAKINS, Chromo-photograph taken with a 2-disk
“Marey Wheel” camera, 1884
Eakins was fascinated by Eadweard Muybridge’s rapid-
succession photographs. He did his own study of movement
using a Marey Wheel camera: a rifle shaped camera that could

take 12 images per second on a single photographic plate, later
on roll film.
Early Film:
Most powerful new mass media art form was the movies
Thomas Edison was one of the inventors of the modern movie as
his moving images used a kinetoscope at first, but by 1896, a
lantern and screen arrangement enabled the film image to be
viewed by a group audience
However, this kind of technology was being invented prior to
Edison’s discovery: the Lumière brothers from France were the
first in 1895 to project short films of everyday subject matter:
called it cinématographie
The projector that was designed for the Lumière brothers used a
claw like device to pull the film through at the required speed;
similar projectors were designed about the same time in
England and America
George Mélies: caricaturist, set designer, actor, and producer,
he approached film as a magician and artist; special effects that
were derived from his career as a magician; by 1900 made over
200 1-2 minute films
Applied one of the most commonly used devices used in
filmmaking today: the jump-cut: Mélies discovered it
completely by accident when the film in his camera jammed and
when he resumed shooting, the bus in a frame had turned into a
hearse
A Trip to the Moon was film that was double in length from 2
minutes to 5 minutes and inspired a century of space movies
including Star Wars

Edwin S. Porter: The Great Train Robbery from 1902 was the
first to use a classic chase scene; first illusion of riding on a
train; shock of seeing a passenger being shot by a bandit and
then turning the gun into the audience; but most importantly, he
was the first to edit
In 1905:
the first nickelodeon was opened in the U.S. (nickel for the
cost, odeon, the French word for theater – was dedicated to
showing movies)
halftone process was adopted to make it possible for
photographs to be printed in mass publications like newspapers
in magazines – prior to this, mass-media images were woodcuts
or etchings done from actual photographs of current events
the French government dropped its sole sponsorship and
dominance of the Academy and Salon system
Films were popular entertainment for the lower classes which
included many immigrants who could understand the universal
plots in early films
By WWI, theaters were built to cater to the middle-class
Please watch these examples of early film (you won’t be
disappointed!):
Lumière Brothers films:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nj0vEO4Q6s

A Trip to the Moon:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FrdVdKlxUk
The Great Train Robbery:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0oBQIWAfe4
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Issues in
contemporary 19th century society :
Between 1839 and 1905 two things happen to painting: one was
Academic painting that used perspective to create an art that
imitated the optical realism of photography and the other was
the avant-garde that broke with the perspective tradition and
began to create new artistic languages and opened up new views
of reality as new forms of art In the 19th
century: The factory replaced the cathedral
in European towns Workers or the proletariat served
the factories that made the middle class wealthy The
Industrial Revolution replaced the work of the craftsman and
transformed the physical and social environment into one
congenial to business and industry Important
questions were raised about how to not become enslaved by
machines and to preserve the human, emotional side of things

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David almost
was executed because of his association with Robespierre and
the Reign of Terror, but became the official propagandist for
Napoleon. It is a very idealized portrait of Napoleon, as were
most portraits of the emperor. Napoleon was
known to go out to the front lines to help boost his troops’
morale. Indeed, Napoleon crossed this very treacherous
mountain pass in the Alps with his troops, but he did not do it
the way we see here - see the next image for how it really went
down. If you look in the lower left corner, you can
see Napoleon’s last name “Bonaparte” inscribed in the stone.
There are two other names just barely readable inscribed on two
adjacent stones: Hannibal and Charlemagne. Hannibal was the
general from Carthage who defeated the Romans and brought
elephants across the Alps. Charlemagne was the Frankish king
who had a grand vision for Europe and became the first Holy
Roman Emperor in 800. He is seen as the father of a modern
Europe as he aligned the Frankish and Germanic peoples (the
two biggest ethnic groups in Europe at the time) under the
Christian religion. Napoleon drew parallels with the two leaders
as he also thought of himself as a brilliant military leader and
one who wanted to create a new French Empire across Europe
(see the map). Regardless of his shortcomings, he was quite
capable as a military commander and accomplished much in
about 20 years time.
How Napoleon

really crossed the Alps. No fanfare or fancy uniforms, no
horse or wind whipping around him. He crossed the snowy
Alpine pass on a mule with a guide. He looks miserable, doesn’t
he? Paul Delaroche painted this in 1852, long after
Napoleon was ousted from power in 1815 and by this point,
Napoleon had died. It was safe to paint a more accurate
representation of his crossing at this point.
One of the
works David was commissioned for was The Coronation of
Napoleon in Notre Dame. David was permitted to watch the
event. He had plans of Notre Dame delivered and participants in
the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though
never the Emperor (the only time David obtained a sitting from
Napoleon had been in 1797). David did manage to get a private
sitting with the Empress Josephine and Napoleon's sister,
Caroline Murat, through the intervention of erstwhile art patron,
Marshal Joachim Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law. For his
background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-
in characters. The Pope came to sit for the painting, and
actually blessed David. Napoleon came to see the painter, stared
at the canvas for an hour and said "David, I salute you". David
had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's
various whims, and for this painting, David received only
24,000 Francs which is $3909.04 in today’s U.S. dollars. Most
artists in working at such a grand size would received triple that
amount. Please visit the Louvre Museum here to
read more: http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-
notices/consecration-emperor-napoleon-and-coronation-
empress-josephine-december-2-1804

So you can get
an idea of the scale of this painting, this is a friend of mine who
is 5’2” in front of the painting. It is enormous.
At the Salon of
1804, Gros debuted this painting. The painting launched his
career as a successful painter. It depicts Napoleon as he visits
his own men in Jaffa (part of present-day Israel and Syria). He
had just massacred the countries after losing an attempt to
conquer Egypt and his men caught the plague. Opinions differ
as to why he visited: whether it was to determine if he should
leave his troops to die in Jaffa, or to boost morale. The painting
is important for Gros because he shows Napoleon in a mostly
positive light. He also showed an exotic setting and a recent
event, which set him apart from his contemporaries.
Please read here for more information about the Salon and
European art academies:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sara/hd_sara.htm
Construction of
La Madeleine was ordered by Napoleon and is in the form of a
Roman temple reflecting the taste for classical architecture in
Neoclassical France (modeled after the Mason Carrée, the best
preserved of all Roman temples in France). It was supposed to
be an honorary temple to the glory of Napoleon’s grand army,

but after he was ousted from power in 1815, it became a church
dedicated to St. Mary Magdalene. There are
52 Corinthian columns, each 40 feet high. On the pediment,
there is a depiction of the Last Judgment. Some have criticized
the design as the church is “clothed” in a pagan design. Vignon
died before the completion of the structure, so the architect
Jacques-Marie Huvé finished in 1842.
Ingres was
trained by David, and he became the director of the Academy
after 1815. An early work like this one reflects David’s
influence as this is a story of classical mythology, but isn’t as
successful an image as David’s heroic canvases. It
is in this part of the story where Oedipus is solving the riddle:
What walks on four legs in the morning, two legs in the
afternoon, and three legs in the evening? If one failed to solve
the riddle, they died - look in the lower left corner for a dead
person’s foot and bones. The answer to the riddle is man.
This also
reflects a somewhat different tendency in Ingres’s later work
because it is a Romantic theme, but it isn’t rendered in a
Romantic way – the woman doesn’t even look like an exotic
foreigner. It is an oil painting depicting an odalisque, or
concubine. Ingres' contemporaries considered the work to
signify Ingres' break from Neoclassicism, indicating a shift
toward exotic Romanticism. Grande Odalisque
attracted wide criticism when it was first shown. It has been

especially noted for the elongated proportions and lack of
anatomical realism. The painting was commissioned by
Napoleon's sister, Queen Caroline Murat of Naples, and finished
in 1814. Ingres portrays a concubine in languid pose as seen
from behind with distorted proportions. The small head,
elongated limbs, and cool color scheme all reveal influences
from Mannerists such as Parmigianino, whose Madonna with the
Long Neck was also famous for anatomical distortion.
This eclectic mix of styles, combining classical form with
Romantic themes, prompted harsh criticism when it was first
shown in 1814. Critics viewed Ingres as a rebel against the
contemporary style of form and content. When the painting was
first shown in the Salon of 1819, one critic remarked that the
work had "neither bones nor muscle, neither blood, nor life, nor
relief, indeed nothing that constitutes imitation". This echoed
the general view that Ingres had disregarded anatomical realism.
Ingres instead favored long lines to convey curvature and
sensuality, as well as abundant, even light to tone down the
volume. Ingres continued to be criticized for his work until the
mid-1820s. Please watch:
modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-france/v/ingres-la-grande-
odalisque-1814
It is in
portraits of the upper-middle class that Ingres would succeed,
even though he hated painting portraits. Prior to Realism,
portraits of aristocrats would be portrayed part of a
mythological or historical scene. The new middle-class became
the new kind of aristocracy that had to be classicized, but in a
different way: Academic painting thus had the icon function of
portraying the middle class as the heroic element maintaining

the new social order. In this work, Louis Bertin, a conservative
newspaper publisher, is portrayed as restless, a man with better
things to do than sit for a portrait. He doesn’t even have time to
comb his hair or button his shirt collar. Ingres is a master of
capturing people’s essences.
Romanticism
: Artists were becoming disillusioned with
David’s use of art as propaganda for the state
Napoleon was ousted out of power in 1815 and the French
people restored a king to the throne; however, the idea and myth
of individual freedom had achieved immense popularity which
in turn inspired Romanticism Artists started to look
inward for private visions to replace abandoned public
expectation; the artist became a projector of his/her own
subjectivity Romanticism = imagination; the word
imagination was coined by the French poet and critic Charles
Baudelaire; the subjectivity of the artist takes on a almost
sacred character; the Romantic artist goes beyond the
objectivity of facts to produce a new reality
Romanticism is the first form of Western art that defines
individual freedom as distinct from – and sometimes in
opposition to – the prevailing institutions of society
Romanticism was seen as a challenge to the politically dominant
middle class; the bourgeoisie sided with Ingres and the
Academy Although this is a much earlier
work, it relates to the Romantic ideas of imagination. Fuseli
was a Swiss-born painter who studied in Rome and was
influenced by Michelangelo and Mannerist painters. He lived in
England and was also influenced by medieval folklore. The
demon represents the artist, the woman, his dream girl, and the
horse is place in the scene as an erotic symbol. You

will notice that Romantic artists use a looser brushstroke (like
that of the Dutch 17th century artists) compared to the tight
brushwork of the Neoclassical artists. The color and light is
also often more dramatic as well. I often compare the tight
perfection of Neoclassical art to that of the High Renaissance
and the loose expressiveness of Romanticism to that of the
Baroque.
Goya was a
Spanish artist who ended up working for the royal courts of
Spain and France. A serious illness in 1792 left
Goya permanently deaf. Isolated from others by his deafness, he
became increasingly occupied with the fantasies and inventions
of his imagination and with critical and satirical observations of
mankind. He evolved a bold, free new style close to caricature.
In 1799 he published the Caprichos, a series of etchings
satirizing human folly and weakness. His portraits became
penetrating characterizations, revealing their subjects as Goya
saw them. In his religious frescoes he employed a broad, free
style and an earthy realism unprecedented in religious art. This
image is the most famous as it states that when reason sleeps,
corruption takes over. Please read:
modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-spain/a/goya-the-sleep-of-
reason-produces-monsters
Goya was the
court painter to the king of Spain. He painted this unflattering

portrait of the royal family. Too much inbreeding produced
genetic anomalies including physical and mental disabilities and
Goya wasn’t afraid to paint what he saw. Also, note
that he is paying homage to Diego Velazquez’s Las Meniñas
as he's standing behind a large canvas on the lefthand side of
the painting.
Please watch:
modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-spain/v/goya-third-may
After Goya was
expelled from the Spanish court, he moved into a house called
“Quinta del Sordo” or “country-house of the deaf man.” He was
72 years old. Goya painted a series of fourteen frescoes on the
walls of the living and dining rooms of the house and they are
known as “The Black Paintings” – he did not title his works, so
this work was labeled with the title by art historians; the subject
we see here is in reference to a myth from Greek mythology:
Saturn, an allegorical representation of time, devours his
children because he is fearful that one of them will dethrone
him; the killing of his own sons symbolizes how time both
creates and destroys.” Eventually, Saturn is undone by his son
who becomes king of the gods. Goya
himself had become “undone” by all that had happened during
the Napoleonic invasion of Spain. Illness and exile contributed
to his darker outlook on life which emerged during his later
years. Seventy years after the frescoes were painted, the house’s

owner decided to have them taken down and transferred to
canvas due to their deteriorated condition. This is one of six
works from the dining room.
This is the
most famous and well received paintings done by Géricault, it is
based on the real story of the ship called the Medusa that sank
off the west coast of Africa. The Captain of the Medusa was an
incompetent, a nobleman who owed his appointment to the
ministerial favor and not seamanship. The captain and officers
took the lifeboats and put the abandoned people left on a raft
sixty five feet in length and twenty-eight feet wide out of the
masts and beams, crudely lashed together before the Medusa
sank by the ships carpenters. One hundred and fifty people,
including one woman, were herded into the slippery beams. So
closely were the people huddled together that it was impossible
to move a single step. The rope between the lifeboats and the
raft was cut letting the raft drift out into the Atlantic. Mutiny,
murder, cannibalism and madness followed. After fifteen days,
only fifteen people survived. Géricault
interviewed survivors and had a replica of the raft built by the
carpenter. He even went to the morgue to sketch the drowning
victims. It was a success at the Salon of 1819 and took the
painting to England, charged admission, and made a great deal
of money.
An admirer of
Géricault’s work, Delacroix would become the Neoclassical

painter, Ingres’s, greatest opponent for about 25 years.
In this work he illustrates the people’s revolt in 1830 that
brought down the king who followed Napoleon. The figure in
the center is representing Liberty, she is an allegorical figure,
the embodiment of Liberty as she carries the French flag in one
hand and a musket in the other. You can see people form all
classes follow her in this revolt, even Delacroix himself: he’s
the man on the left in the top hat with a gun.
The artist was
inspired to paint pictures such as this after his visit to North
Africa in 1832. He had visited harems which were the direct
inspiration for this nude figure. It’s a great counterpoint to
Ingres’s painting of the Grande Odalisque.
The
brushstrokes are expressive and the subject matter is exotic,
both elements are the hallmark of Romantic painting. The
representation of movement and violence is reinforced here by
the bright, intense lighting directed on to a few details selected
for their significance, in particular the tiger and the fabrics of
the clothes animated by the rapid gestures of the men who are
attacking the wild beast. The determination of the horse rider,
the terror of the horse, and the aggressiveness of the wild cat,
bring the cruel game of hunting to fever pitch.
This painting was shown in a retrospective exhibition of the
painter's work at the 1889 Universal Exhibition (World’s Fair).
It condenses all the elements of Delacroix's genius, his

scientific use of colors, the freedom of his drawing and the
glorified romanticism in his scenes of combat.
Friedrich was a
German artist known for his eerily silent landscapes. Please
watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-
modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-germany/v/caspar-david-
friedrich-abbey-among-oak-trees-1809-or-1810
Constable
came from considerable wealth as his father was a rural
landowner and many of Constable’s works are from these lands.
This painting was done at the time when Constable’s fame was
growing. It was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1824 and it won
a gold medal. It caused a stir among French critics who were
astonished by its freshness. Constable portrayed the oneness
with the nature that the Romantic poets sought. The relaxed
figures are not observers, but participants in the landscape.
One of the
most famous British artists and considered to be a great master
of British art, Joseph Mallord William Turner was a painter,
watercolourist and printmaker who lived and worked in the late
1700s and early 1800s. He is best known for his swirling, light-

filled Romantic paintings of landscapes.
J.M.W. Turner was both an artist of his time and a radical
“modernist,” a practitioner of traditional styles of painting and
a precursor of those to come many decades later. He was a
robust personality and a sensitive observer of the events that
shaped the world in his lifetime. This
painting is based on an incident where an epidemic broke out on
a slave ship, the captain commenced to throw his human cargo
overboard since he was insured for a loss at sea, but not for
disease. Turner paints with so much color and his brushstrokes
are very loose – very impressionistic long before any artists
were doing such techniques.
This image is
for SmartHistory HW #9.
John Everett
Millais, William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti were
the founding members of a group of artists called the Pre-
Raphaelites formed in 1848. They rejected the art of the
Renaissance in favor of art before Raphael, Michelangelo and
Leonardo (15th-16th centuries). The Pre-Raphaelites focused on
serious and significant subjects and were best known for
painting subjects from modern life and literature often using
historical costumes. They painted directly from nature itself, as
truthfully as possible and with incredible attention to detail.
They were inspired by the advice of John Ruskin, the English
critic and art theorist in Modern Painters (1843-60).

Rossetti’s inspiration for this painting was the Vita Nuova (New
Life), the Italian poet Dante’s account of his idealized love for
Beatrice, and of her premature death. The death of Beatrice is
symbolized by a sudden spiritual transfiguration. A bird, a
messenger of death, drops a white poppy between her open
hands. The shadow of the sundial rests on the figure nine, the
number Dante connects mystically with Beatrice and her death.
In the background the shadowy figure of Dante gazes towards
the figure of Love. Rossetti saw this work as a memorial to his
wife, Elizabeth Siddall, who had died in 1862.
On October 16,
1834 a raging fire destroyed most of the old Palace of
Westminster, leaving only the Great Hall (Westminster Hall),
the Law courts to the west, and the cloister of St. Stephen. A
competition in 1835 for the rebuilding stipulated either a Gothic
or Elizabethan design for the new building. These styles were
thought to be particularly British and well-suited for national
public architecture. In addition, these styles related to the age
and dignity of the British institution of parliament. Of 97
entries, all but six were Gothic in style. The winning design was
by Barry, who may have preferred classical Renaissance
designs, although he had also designed neo-Gothic buildings.
Pugin, who looked back to the architecture of the medieval
period for moral and spiritual examples, contributed the
inventive Neo-Gothic details.
Architecture

saw a Gothic revival during the Romantic era. In this building,
the architect saw the mysterious East just as Romantic as the
Gothic, so he combines the two to produce what would be called
“a cream-puff version of the Taj Mahal,” the style known as
Indian Gothic. Please watch this brief video:
http://brightonmuseums.org.uk/royalpavilion/royal-
pavilion/introduction/
This is a
modern photo of the library. This is a great example iron and
glass construction which was not only used for interior strength
for buildings, but as decorative elements as well. There was
also a bit of a Renaissance Revival in architecture. The rounded
arches and double barrel vaulted space are reminiscent of 15th
century churches.
The Crystal
Palace was made for the Great Exhibition in England in 1851
and constructed entirely out of iron and glass. It was 1851 feet
long and spacious enough for nine cathedrals the size of
Chartres. The Great Exhibition in essence was an industrial
trade show meant to show the West’s superiority in machine
made products. Unfortunately, the machine made products
would be proved to be poorly made in comparison to hand made
items from non-industrial countries. The structure
was moved to Hyde Park a few years later which shows its
genius of construction. Paxton designed the palace to have
easily put together parts so that the structure could be taken

down and reassembled somewhere else, like a giant kit.
Realism :
A movement in France that developed around mid-century
against this backdrop of an increasing emphasis on science;
Realist artists argued that only the contemporary world - what
people can see - was “real." Realists
focused their attention on the people and events of their own
time and disapproved of historical and fictional subjects on the
grounds they were neither visible nor present and therefore were
not real The Realist movement in French art
flourished from about 1840 until the late nineteenth century.
Realism emerged in the aftermath of the Revolution of 1848 that
overturned the monarchy of Louis-Philippe and developed
during the period of the Second Empire under Napoleon III.
French society fought for democratic reform. The Realists
democratized art by depicting modern subjects drawn from the
everyday lives of the working class. Rejecting the idealized
classicism of academic art and the exotic themes of
Romanticism, Realism was based on direct observation of the
modern world. In keeping with Gustave Courbet's statement in
1861 that "painting is an essentially concrete art and can only
consist in the representation of real and existing things,"
Realists recorded in, often, gritty detail the present-day
existence of humble people. This elevation of the working class
into the realms of high art coincided with Pierre Proudhon's
socialist philosophies and Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto,
published in 1848, which urged a proletarian uprising.
Gustave Courbet was at the forefront of the Realist movement.
He was decidedly anti-Academic, from a working class town,
and identified with the common laborer. He had contempt for
the bourgeoisie (the French middle-class) and wanted to

challenge the ideals of the French Academy. This
painting is objective and lacking emotion. It reveals the
emptiness of the activity itself. Courbet presents the figures as
passive victims of the industrial age.
Courbet is
relatively unknown in 1851 when the Paris Salon presents his
22-foot-long painting, A Burial at Ornans . It is his first
monumentally sized works. This portrayal of somber working-
class citizens at a graveside in Courbet's home province
generates an explosive reaction among the painter's audience
and critics. With Burial at Ornans, many
viewers reacted to the work as an assault on the very idea of
what a painting should be. To sophisticated Parisians, rural
people are considered a subject matter for small genre (scenes
of everyday life) pieces; it's unprecedented to give them the
kind of scope of French history paintings. With worker
uprisings of 1848 a recent memory, Courbet's use of the
common people as a grand subject is deemed a radical act. It is
not only in the choice of subject that people took offense, but in
the way he chose to present them. Courbet has intentionally
painted these people in a manner that does not idealize their
suffering. For one thing, there is no
hierarchy in the composition; what I mean by that is that there
are no people more important than others). It is an extremely
democratic portrayal. They read Courbet's
grieving figures as vulgar and ugly. One critic wrote, "He paints
pictures as you black your boots." In this
painting, we have mourners who attend a funeral from their
province. They are shown very traditionally where men and
women are separated. Many faces in the crowd are of Courbet’s
friends and family. The church officials act disinterested while

members of the deceased’s family grieve. The figures move
past the open grave to pay their last respects; only a few people
pause. Courbet’s work seems ordinary and that is precisely why
it is so extraordinary. Courbet's choice of
contemporary subject matter and his breaking of artistic
convention was interpreted by some as an anti-authoritarian
political threat. To achieve an honest and straightforward
depiction of rural life, Courbet disposed of the idealized
academic technique and employed a deliberately simple style,
rooted in popular imagery, which seemed crude to many critics
of the day. The exhibition makes Courbet
famous, and he describes A Burial at Ornans as the "debut of
my principles." Within a few years, he embraces Realism, a
term originally used negatively by his critics. He writes that his
purpose is to use art as a way toward self-knowledge, to
"translate the customs, the ideas, the appearance of my epoch
according to my own estimation; in a word, to create living art,
that is my goal."
Courbet is the
figure on the right. Notice his clothing. It is rather plain and
casual. This is a self-portrait identifying himself as an artist and
letting the viewer know that others knew he was an artist as
well. He was a self-proclaimed bohemian (not an attractive
thing to be during this time) as Academy artists were not
identified in this manner at all (recall how Delacroix looks in
Liberty Leading the People ).

Courbet’s
works were rejected from the Paris World’s Fair in 1855 so he
set up his own exhibit called “The Pavilion of Realism” – it
evoked the fact that what the Academy had deemed as Realism
was a sham. His work shows the split in the new industrial
society that kept the poor from sharing the wealth and
prosperity that the middle and upper classes were enjoying; in
this painting, he used symbols in this work that would illustrate
his rejection of Romanticism (plumed hat and guitar) and the
Academy (rejected mannequin hung on the wall). The people in
the work are real, not idealized. This work is a symbolic
representation of Courbet’s life as an artist who was a social
and moral force – as the avant-garde or out front in changing
existing social and artistic values. The idea of the artist as a
seer or originator of ideas, not one of an artist perpetuating
accepted norms (the Academy).
The
lithograph made it possible for artists to create works very
quickly and they were images that didn’t wear down as quickly
in reproduction as did metal plates and woodblocks. The
primary and best used application of lithography is for
newspapers. Daumier’s works appeared in
French newspapers and are the equivalent of our political
cartoons today. He was thrown into jail many times for
criticizing the government and exposed their stupidity and
corruption. In this work he is showing the government as a large
person who consumes everything the lower classes produce,
including their money.

Not only could
Daumier create such tongue in cheek images like Gargantua
, but he also made use of his art in a much more serious tone. In
this particular work, Daumier is showing a dead family killed
by police officers in a raid. The officers were looking for an
assassin who they thought was in this family’s home and killed
the innocent sleeping inhabitants inside. Daumier’s goal was to
expose this instance of police brutality and to get people to take
action against such acts. Since it was widely published in
newspapers, it did affect change in the policy of the way police
would handle such matters.
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The Napoleonic Empire in 1815
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Figure 22-2A JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, Napoleon at the
Great St. Bernard Pass, 1800
PAUL
DELAROCHE, Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, 1852
Figure 22-3
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, The Coronation of Napoleon, 1805–
1808. Oil on canvas, 20’ 4 1/2” x 32’ 1 3/4”. Louvre, Paris.
Figure 22-5
ANTOINE-JEAN GROS, Napoleon at the Pesthouse at Jaffa,
1804. Oil on canvas, approx. 17’ 5” x 23’ 7”. Louvre, Paris.

Figure 22-2
PIERRE VIGNON, La Madeleine, Paris, France, 1807–1842.
‹#›
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES, Oedipus Solving the
Riddle of the Sphinx, 1808
Figure 22-8
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES, Grande Odalisque,
1814. Oil on canvas, approx. 2’ 11” x 5’ 4”. Louvre, Paris.
‹#›
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES, Louis Bertin, 1832
Figure 22-9
JOHN HENRY FUSELI, The Nightmare, 1781. Oil on canvas,
3’ 4” x 4’ 2”. The Detroit Institute of the Arts.

Figure 22-11
FRANCISCO GOYA, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters,
from Los Caprichos, ca. 1798. Etching and aquatint, 8 1/2” x
6”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Figure 22-11A
FRANCISCO GOYA, The Family of Charles IV, 1800. Oil on
canvas, approx. 9’ 2” x 11’. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Figure 22-12
FRANCISCO GOYA, The Third of May 1808, 1814. Oil on
canvas, approx. 8’ 8” x 11’ 3”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Figure 22-13
FRANCISCO GOYA, Saturn Devouring One of His Children,
1819–1823. Detail of a detached fresco on canvas, full size
approx. 4’ 9” x 2’ 8”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.

Figure 22-1
THÉODORE GÉRICAULT, Raft of the Medusa, 1818–1819. Oil
on canvas, approx. 16’ x 23’. Louvre, Paris.
Figure 22-16
EUGÈNE DELACROIX, Liberty Leading the People, 1830. Oil
on canvas, approx. 8’ 6” x 10’ 8”. Louvre, Paris.
EUGÈNE
DELACROIX, Odalisque, 1845-50
Figure 22-16A
EUGÈNE DELACROIX, Tiger Hunt, 1854. Oil on canvas,
approx. 2’ 5” x 3’. Louvre, Paris.
Figure 22-19
CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH, Abbey in the Oak Forest, 1810.
Oil on canvas, 3' 7 1/2" X 5' 7 1/4". Stiftung Preussischer
Kulturbesitz, Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

Figure 22-21
JOHN CONSTABLE, The Haywain, 1821. Oil on canvas, 4’ 3”
x 6’ 2”. National Gallery, London.
Figure 22-22
JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER, The Slave Ship
(Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon
Coming On), 1840. Oil on canvas, 2’ 11 11/16” x 4’ 5/16”.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Figure 22-40
JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS, Ophelia, 1852. Oil on canvas, 2’ 6”
x 3’ 8”. Tate Gallery, London.
‹#›
Figure 22-41 DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI, Beata Beatrix, ca.
1863. Oil on canvas, 2’ 10” x 2’ 2”. Tate Gallery, London.

Figure 22-43 CHARLES
BARRY and A. W. N. PUGIN, Houses of Parliament, London,
England, designed 1835.
Figure 22-44
JOHN NASH, Royal Pavilion, Brighton, England, 1815–1818.
Figure 22-46 HENRI
LABROUSTE, reading room of the Bibliothèque Sainte-
Geneviève, Paris, France, 1843–1850.
Figure 22-47
JOSEPH PAXTON, Crystal Palace, London, England, 1850–
1851. Photo from Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Figure 22-26
GUSTAVE COURBET, The Stone Breakers, 1849. Oil on
canvas, 5’ 3” x 8’ 6”. Formerly at Gemäldegalerie, Dresden

(destroyed in 1945).
Figure 22-27
GUSTAVE COURBET, Burial at Ornans, 1849. Oil on canvas,
approx. 10’ x 22’. Louvre, Paris.
GUSTAVE
COURBET, Bonjour Monsieur Courbet, 1854
GUSTAVE
COURBET, The Painter’s Studio, 1854-55
HONORÉ
DAUMIER, Gargantua, 1831
Lithography : A

printmaking technique in which the artist uses an oil-based
crayon to draw directly on a stone plate and then wipes water
onto the stone. When ink is rolled onto the plate, it adheres only
to the drawing. The print produced by this method is a
lithograph.
Figure 22-29
HONORÉ DAUMIER, Rue Transnonain, 1834. Lithograph,
approx. 1’ x 1’ 5 1/2”. Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia.
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Not the
greatest map since we don’t spend much time talking about the
Colonial U.S. or the birth of our nation, but it does demonstrate
how the new world is shaping up. The 18th
century is one of great transition and upheaval. In Europe, we
have the beginning of the Enlightenment which ushers in the
Modern era. It is a philosophy that rejects the divine right of
kings (i.e. the French Revolution stems from this) and religion.
Science becomes the new “religion” for many which also ushers
in the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th/early 19th century.
In France, the art that is produced, the Rococo style, reflects the
money and grandeur of the royal classes. Now that the country
was consolidated into an absolute monarchy, lords and dukes no
longer had anything to do. They kept their titles and their
money, but they were no longer involved in the day to day
running of their lands. This breeds an air of frivolity among the
aristocracy and we definitely see it in the art. One of the most
important developments at this time with the introduction of the
Royal Academy is the way artists would gain patrons. Many
high society ladies of the court would host parties in their
homes, usually in sitting rooms called salons. This kind of
exposure sponsored by women would prove crucial for both
male and female artists making a living creating art. We will be
talking more about the Salon as a state-sponsored exhibition
after the Revolution, but this is where it starts.

Rococo art is
distinguished by its lightness, airiness, playfulness, visible
brushstrokes (in painting), and is often very decorative (esp. in
the applied arts of furniture design and household items like
what you see above). It reflects the Parisian love of love and
feminine beauty, but it is entirely a courtly style.
This chapel in German is a great example of architecture that is
a transition between Baroque and Rococo. It has the grandness
of the Baroque, but where we would see dramatic light and
dark, we see pastel colors and an airiness that the Baroque
definitely doesn’t have.
Peter Paul
Rubens had a lasting effect on Watteau and others who felt that
color appealed to everyone, not just the educated few. Before
this, the French Academy wanted artists to use their drawing
skills because it appealed to the mind. This painting got
Watteau in the Academy, although it didn’t follow any
established canon or category. Cythera is the island of love to
pay homage to Venus. It has more noticeable brushstrokes, and
it’s soft and full of pastel colors.

Boucher was a
follower of Watteau. His fame was gained through his paintings
of graceful allegories with lots of light pastel colors. This can
be described as a rosy pyramid of infant and female flesh set off
against a cool, leafy background, with fluttering draperies both
hiding and revealing the nudity of the figures. He uses many
Baroque devices in his composition: crisscrossing diagonals,
curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions. It is a transformation
of Baroque drama into Rococo sensual playfulness.
As with most
Rococo paintings, the subject is not very complicated! Two
lovers have conspired to get this older fellow (in the shadows)
to push the young lady in the swing while her lover hides in the
bushes. Their idea is that as she goes up in the swing, she can
part her legs, and he can get a perfect view up her skirt. They
are surrounded by a lush, over grown garden. A sculptured
figure to the left puts his fingers to his mouth, as though saying
"hush," while another sculpture in the background has two cupid
figures cuddled together. The colors are pastel -- pale pinks and
greens, and although we have a sense of movement and a
prominent diagonal line -- the painting lacks all of the
seriousness of a baroque painting. If you look really closely you
can see the loose brushstrokes in the pink silk dress, and as she
opens her legs, we get a glimpse of her garter belt. It was
precisely this kind of painting that the philosophers of the
Enlightenment were soon to condemn. They demanded a new

style of art, one that showed an example of moral behavior, of
human beings at their most noble.
Clodion, whose
career spanned the last decades of the ancien régime (the
French aristocracy) through the French Revolution and
Napoleon's reign, embraced his era's taste for antiquity.
Sometimes this preference is more apparent in his choice of
theme than in his style. While often Neoclassical, his manner at
times remained quite Rococo, as in the present example.
Although Clodion received a number of important commissions
for monumental marble sculptures, his fame and popularity
rested on his skill at modeling small-scale terracotta groups for
private collectors. The seeming spontaneity of this composition,
a rapturous embrace, in which it appears that the senses are
totally abandoned, was achieved only after much meditation.
This work is one of the most minutely studied of all the Bacchic
orgies that were Clodion's specialty. The front and back show
deliberate adjustments of angles, openings, and masses, all
checked and balanced as the model passed under his fingers on
his trestle table. Clodion's work was steeped in the imagery of
Greek and Roman art, but the deliciously charged rhythms seen
here are entirely his own.

Lectures of
this sort were common in the 18th century – during the time of
the Enlightenment – in English towns like the artist’s hometown
of Derby. The meetings were organized by the Lunar Society
and were held each month on a Monday close to the full moon.
They were supported by scientists and inventors in order to fill
the ongoing demand for education. The orrery, a metal
clockwork model of the solar system, was important as a symbol
for the latest in technology. Building such a model would
require both the practical skills of an engineer and the
imaginative abilities of an inventor or scientific thinker. The
machines were highly valued during the Enlightenment,
although their value or reason for fascination are hard to
imagine in our highly technological world of today.
Wright uses a familiar Baroque lighting technique, but instead
of a religious subject, we see a scientific one. The light
illuminates the children’s faces who watch the orrery in wonder
and awe, just like the shepherds would have done with
beholding the baby Jesus. This is important because people
understood those religious works of art, so by using a technique
that people were used to seeing, Wright easily changes the
subject matter. We will see this many times over the course of
the 18th and 19th centuries.

This bridge
crosses the Severn River at the Ironbridge Gorge, by the village
of Ironbridge, in Shropshire, England. It was the first arch
bridge in the world to be made out of cast iron, a material which
was previously far too expensive to use for large structures.
However, a new blast furnace nearby lowered the cost and so
encouraged local engineers and architects to solve a long-
standing problem of a crossing over the river. Not only did iron
founders and industrial spies flocked to see this wondrous
bridge, but also artists and travelers. The Bridge had a far-
reaching impact: on local society and the economy, on bridge
design and on the use of cast iron in building. The story of the
bridge's conservation begins in 1784 with reports of cracks in
the Southern abutments, and is brought up to date with the
English Heritage sponsored work of 1999. This
bridge was very useful in the fact that it spans a wide part in the
river that couldn’t be spanned effectively with a stone bridge.
Before this bridge was constructed, people had to travel up or
down river a few miles to find a bridge to cross a less wide gap
in the river.
Followers of
Rubens cleared the way for a new interest in Dutch masters as
well. Chardin was the finest painter of still-life and genre, and
celebrated by Enlightenment thinkers. This work shows life in a
Parisian middle-class household and he finds the beauty hidden
in the commonplace. The painting shows an unpretentious
urban, middle-class mother and two daughters at the table
giving thanks to God before a meal. Artworks like these
satisfied a taste for paintings that taught moral lessons and
upheld middle-class values, the antithesis of Rococo frivolity.

This portrait
shows nothing of the extravagant nature of the sitters she
painted. Vigeé-Lebrun was part of the Naturalist movement in
painting, even though she painted for the aristocracy. Here she
presents herself as a self-confident artist. Vigée-Lebrun was
economically and personally independent for a woman during
this time period. She was one of the few women accepted into
the French Academy (her membership was rescinded after the
Revolution). Vigée-Lebrun enjoyed great fame throughout
Europe including Russia when she escaped the Revolution. She
was the portraitist for Marie Antoinette and, as we know, she
was beheaded.
This painting
hangs today at the Palace of Versailles. Vigée-Lebrun painted
about 30 portraits of the queen, this is the last one. She is
viewed with her three surviving children in a pyramidal
composition recalling Renaissance paintings of the Virgin,
Jesus and St. John. When Vigée-Lebrun was painting this work
the queen's youngest child, Sophie-Béatrix died so the empty
cradle refers to her demise. This flattering portrait depicting the
much-hated queen as a loving mother had an important
propaganda purpose. People were spreading rumors about Marie
Antoinette saying she poisoned her baby, so she asked the artist
to paint this work of her as a loving mother to counter such
hateful attacks. Unfortunately, it had no effect and people
continued to demonize and scapegoat her. Please
watch this:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eRwrNyhx3I
The English
never accepted Rococo like the French, but indeed had a
profound impact in that it established the first English school of
painting since the medieval era. Hogarth created works such as
this as modern morality scenes or tales. His figures resemble
actors on a stage acting out a story. He made these paintings as
well as engravings in sets for public sale. There are
many visual clues for the viewer of the time to understand
Hogarth’s message. He is indeed the first artist in history to
become a social critic in his own right. In the first of the series,
he shows an arranged marriage between the son of bankrupt Earl
Squanderfield and the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city
merchant. The son looks indifferent while the merchant's
daughter is distraught and has to be consoled by the lawyer
Silvertongue. We look at the next painting in the
series in the next slide…
Please watch:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-
enlightenment/britain-18c/britain-ageof-revolution/v/william-
hogarth-s-marriage-a-la-mode-c-1743

Moralizing
images: one being of good morals the other illustrating
immorality. It was propaganda for the production of English
made beer. The city became a prevalent backdrop for scenes
such as these since the population was leaving the countryside
behind. From artble.com: “The theme
of this work is gin and the negative effects it has when
consumed in high quantities as opposed to the 'healthy'
consumption of much weaker English beer which was believed
to cause less social problems. In Beer Street
happy and healthy drinkers celebrate the king's birthday after a
hard day's work. Business on the street is thriving apart from
the pawnbroker who hides from debt collectors.
On Gin Lane however, there is a shocking deterioration of
morals; the street is in a state of ill repair and the people are
almost skeletal and disheveled. People are pleading with the
pawnbroker to buy their wares in order to find more money for
gin and a neglectful mother lets her child fall to its death.
If Hogarth was encouraged to produce these prints by his friend
Henry Fielding they certainly continue in the same vain as many
other works that he produced around this time. Unlike many of
his earlier moral works, such as Marriage a la Mode which
satirized the foibles of the upper classes in a gentle manner,
Hogarth's later offerings became stark social warnings.
Prints such as Beer Street and Gin Lane were designed to
highlight the problems relating to drinking gin and to encourage
the viewer to choose beer instead. Not only was beer much
weaker, but it was also produced locally and in many ways
Hogarth uses it to promote a kind of national unity within this
picture. The consumption of large amounts of
gin was a real problem in 18th century England. It had been
introduced when Queen Anne married King George of Denmark
and gin began to replace local beers as the drink of choice for
the lower-class population. Gin was not only
cheap and strong but readily available and began to cause a
whole range of health and social problems across London,

including: Stealing and Robbery
Massive amounts of people living in small areas, encouraging
disease Prostitution Unemployment
Neglect of children In comparison, Beer Street
was an image demonstrating Hogarth's pride in his country and
shows an idyllic image of England without foreign influences.”
Portraiture was
the only constant source of income for English painters.
Gainsborough was first a landscape artist, but ended up the
favorite portraitist of English high society. This is a portrait of
the actress Sarah Siddons. It retains an aristocratic flair, but has
the Rococo softness.
Reynolds was
Gainsborough’s rival. He portrayed Sarah Siddons as the tragic
muse and is done in a style similar to Rembrandt especially in
its color and lighting, is rendered in a Rococo way, and the idea
is rooted in antiquity. Reynolds was the President of the Royal
Academy (founded in 1768). I show these two
portraits because they are distinctly different from one another
and demonstrates the wealth that some patrons had. Siddons
could not only afford one portrait by one of the most important
painters of her time, but two!

West was an
American artist who went to Rome, then London and became the
second President of the Academy. It is an interesting painting
that illustrates an actual event, the Battle of Quebéc between the
French and the British in 1759, but the figures are grouped, and
the figure of Wolfe himself, resembles a lamentation of Christ
scene. It has classical elements of a heroic battle, but instead of
putting the figures in classical clothing, he puts them in
contemporary military clothing. The clothing West depicted in
this scene was highly controversial at the time. Although the
event was relatively recent -- only eleven years prior -- its
subject matter made it a fitting example of the genre of history
painting, for which contemporary dress was unsuitable. During
the painting, several influential people, including Sir Joshua
Reynolds, instructed him to dress the figures in classical attire,
and after its completion, King George III refused to purchase it
because the clothing compromised the dignity of the event. The
work, however, eventually overcame all objections and helped
inaugurate more historically accurate practice in history
painting. The Indian in the picture adds an exotic/New World
flair to the painting about which Europeans were quite curious.
At the time
Copley painted him, Paul Revere was an accomplished
silversmith and engraver with a busy and varied trade. Active in
the Boston community, he served on many civic committees. In
1765, he joined the Sons of Liberty, a secret organization
formed to protest the Stamp Act. Copley shows Revere wearing
a plain linen shirt and open waistcoat, apparently considering
the design he will engrave on the silver teapot he holds; his
engraving tools are scattered on the table before him. This

portrait of a craftsman at work is unique in colonial American
painting. Many people consider this painting mysterious since
tea was a burning issue in colonial Boston: only Tories drank
tea, while Whigs (like Revere) drank “Boston Tea” which was
punch. However, it may simply be a portrait of a gifted
silversmith showing off his great skill.
A
contemporary of Benjamin West’s, Copley was a renowned New
England artist who moved to London two years before the
American Revolution. In this work, Dr. Watson commissioned
Copley to portray his horrific encounter with a shark while
swimming in Havana Harbor. Here the African man has the
same exotic effect as the Indian in West’s painting. The shark is
the embodiment of evil and the man with the spear plays an
“angelic” like role rescuing Watson from the shark. It is the
kind of moral allegory that would be exemplary of
Neoclassicism.
Kauffmann was
a Swiss-born, founding member of the Royal Academy in
London. This work shows an allegorical friendship between two
women – a theme that would last through the Romantic period.
The painting showcases the legend of Cornelia from the 2nd
century BCE. Cornelia was excellently educated, a master of
rhetoric, and corresponded with philosophers, scientist, and
other distinguished men. Through her sons she exerted political
influence. She was a virtuous woman, a role model for

generations of Roman women, but also for those of later
centuries. Kauffman presents the women with stylized faces,
simplified costumes and in the setting of austere architecture.
Glowing colors and warm tonality show Kauffman’s
achievements of the Venetian school. This was executed for
George Bowles who owned 50 of Kauffman’s works. It received
negative responses from English critics, but despite those
criticisms, other royalty commissioned versions of it.
Neo-Classical art
: Born out of the thinking of the Enlightenment and its authors
in England and in France: Hume, Voltaire, Rousseau, and others
who proclaimed that all human affairs ought to be ruled by
reason and the common good, rather than by tradition and
established authority. This return to reason, nature and morality
in art meant a return to the ancients. It is in the mid-18th
century that artists revolted against the ornate and aristocratic
Rococo. It is also important to note that antiquity was being
rediscovered as archeologists had excavated Pompeii (which
was buried by the eruptions of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE).
The role Jacques Louis David played during the French
Revolution (1789) and after: People broke
with the divine right of kings and the sanction of an official
church; the state was a completely human creation based on
human perception, thus could be observed, measured, and
changed Art as political propaganda: what it
does is links the personality of the individual with the
personality of some heroic figure who personalizes the state
David created works before the revolution with classical themes
that glowed with revolutionary fervor He
hoped his paintings would influence people and make them
more open to political change He was a

member of the Jacobins, whose leader, Robespierre, initiated
the infamous Reign of Terror in 1793 David
initiated great national festivals whose aim was to give the
people of France a new sense of mythic unity under the banner
of human reason His work was reproduced in
engravings as were other ideas that propagated in things like
Images d’Epinal: comic strips of their day that brought official
propaganda to the people The Oath of the Horatii
depicts the heroism of three brothers who defied the restoration
of a king in early Rome. It is prophetic in that the people of
France would behead King Louis XVI to establish a new
political order. This work is often thought of as the beginning
of modern painting as it reacts against linear perspective and
Renaissance ideals. David uses the elements of a sculptural
relief. It is frieze-like in composition because he limits the
space.
This painting
shows the Greek philosopher choosing death rather than accept
the unjust verdict rendered by the Athenian political process.
Again, it’s a link to the Revolution in that people were ready to
die for their cause.
This image is
for SmartHistory HW #8.

This home was
designed in a Palladian style (characterized by symmetry and by
the elaborated adaptation of classical architectural elements),
but known as the Georgian style in the United States. Not only
was Jefferson a founding father, a statesmen, an ambassador to
Italy, and a president, but he also was an architect, much like
the ancient Roman emperor, Hadrian (who designed the
Pantheon). The house is made from brick and
wooden trim (that’s what distinguishes it as Georgian style).
Jefferson used the Roman Doric order of columns: very plain
with no decoration at the top. There are 43 rooms in the
structure, and it is 11,000 square feet. This country home is
Jefferson’s essay on architecture. A dome room was added in
1800 and served as a bedroom for a married grandson,
storeroom, and a playroom for grandchildren. 60% of the
furnishings on display at Monticello are or may be items
original to Jefferson.
One of the
oddest sculptures you’ll see of George Washington.
The U.S. Congress commissioned Greenough to create a statue
for display in the U.S. Capitol rotunda. Greenough decided to
model his massive (30 tons) figure of “Enthroned Washington”
on the great statue of Zeus Olympios which was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (and which was destroyed
in late Antiquity). The seated and besandled
Washington gazes sternly ahead. He is bare-chested and his
right arm and hand gesture with upraised index finger toward
heaven. His left palm and forearm cradle a sheathed sword, hilt
forward, symbolizing Washington turning over power to the

people at the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War.
When the marble statue arrived in Washington, DC in 1841,
however, it immediately generated controversy and criticism.
Many found the sight of a half-naked Washington offensive,
even comical. The statue was relocated to the east lawn of the
Capitol in 1843. Disapproval continued and some joked that
Washington was desperately reaching for his clothes, then on
exhibit at the Patent Office several blocks to the north. In 1908,
Washington was finally brought back indoors when Congress
transferred it to the Smithsonian Institution. It remained at the
Smithsonian Castle until 1964, when it was moved to the new
Museum of History and Technology (now the National Museum
of American History). The marble Washington has been
exhibited on the second floor of that building since that time.
‹#›
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Europe and
America, 1700 to 1800: Rococo & Neoclassicism
‹#›
Figure 21-6 BALTHASAR NEUMANN, interior of the
pilgrimage chapel of Vierzehnheiligen, near Staffelstein,
Germany, 1743–1772.
Figure 21-7
ANTOINE WATTEAU, Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717–1719.
Oil on canvas, approx. 4’ 3” x 6’ 4”. Louvre, Paris.

Fête galante : French,
“amorous festival”. A type of Rococo painting depicting the
outdoor amusements of French upper-class society.
Figure 21-8
FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, Cupid a Captive, 1754. Oil on canvas,
approx. 5’ 6” x 2’ 10”. The Wallace Collection, London.
‹#›
Figure 21-9 JEAN-HONORÉ FRAGONARD, The Swing, 1766.
Oil on canvas, approx. 2’ 11” x 2’ 8”. The Wallace Collection,
London.
‹#›
Figure 21-10 CLODION, Nymph and Satyr Carousing, ca. 1780-
90. Terracotta, approx. 1’ 11” high. Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York.

Enlightenment : The
Western philosophy based on empirical evidence that dominated
the 18th century. The Enlightenment was a new way of thinking
critically about the world and about humankind, independently
of religion, myth, or tradition.
2. Reason enables one to
break free from primitive, dogmatic, and superstitious beliefs
holding one in the bonds of irrationality and ignorance
3. In realizing the liberating potential of reason, one not only
learns to think correctly, but to act correctly as well
4. Through philosophical and scientific progress, reason can
lead humanity as a whole to a state of earthly perfection
5. Reason makes all humans equal and, therefore, deserving of
equal liberty and treatment before the law
6. Beliefs of any sort should be accepted only on the basis of
reason, and not on traditional or priestly authority
7. All human endeavors should seek to impart and develop
knowledge, not feelings or character
1. Reason is the most significant and positive capacity of the
human style.visibility
style.visibility style.visibility
Figure 21-12

JOSEPH WRIGHT OF DERBY, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture
at the Orrery (in which a lamp is put in place of the sun), ca.
1763–1765. Oil on canvas, 4’ 10” x 6’ 8”. Derby Museums and
Art Gallery, Derby, Derbyshire.
Figure 21-13
ABRAHAM DARBY III and THOMAS F. PRITCHARD, iron
bridge at Coalbrookdale, England (first cast-iron bridge over the
Severn River), 1776–1779. 100’ span.
‹#›
Figure 21-14 JEAN-BAPTISTE-SIMÉON CHARDIN, Saying
Grace, 1740. Oil on canvas, 1’7” x 1’3”. Louvre, Paris.
‹#›
Figure 21-16 ÉLISABETH LOUISE VIGÉE-LEBRUN, Self-
Portrait, 1790. Oil on canvas, 8’ 4” x 6’ 9”. Galleria degli
Uffizi, Florence.
‹#›

ÉLISABETH LOUISE VIGÉE-LEBRUN, Portrait of Marie
Antoinette with Her Children, 1787
WILLIAM HOGARTH, The
Marriage Settlement, from Marriage à la Mode, ca. 1745
Figure 21-17 WILLIAM
HOGARTH, Breakfast Scene, from Marriage à la Mode, ca.
1745. Oil on canvas, 2’4” x 3’. National Gallery,
London.
WILLIAM HOGARTH, Beer Street and Gin Lane, 1751
‹#›
THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH, Mrs. Siddons, 1785

SIR JOSHUA
REYNOLDS, Mrs. Sarah Siddons as the Tragic Muse, 1784
Figure 21-21
BENJAMIN WEST, The Death of General Wolfe, 1771. Oil on
canvas, approx. 5’ x 7’ National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa (gift
of the Duke of Westminster, 1918).
‹#›
Figure 21-22 JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, Portrait of Paul
Revere, ca. 1768–1770. Oil on canvas, 2’ 11 1/8” x 2’ 4”.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
JOHN
SINGLETON COPLEY, Watson and the Shark, 1778
Figure 21-1
ANGELICA KAUFFMANN, Cornelia Presenting Her Children
as Her Treasures, or Mother of the Gracchi, ca. 1785. Oil on

canvas, 3’ 4” x 4’ 2”. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond.
Figure 21-26
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, Oath of the Horatii, 1784. Oil on
canvas, approx. 11’ x 14’. Louvre, Paris.
JACQUES-LOUIS
DAVID, Death of Socrates, 1787
‹#›
Figure 21-27 JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, The Death of Marat,
1793. Oil on canvas, approx. 5’ 3” x 4’ 1”. Musées Royaux des
Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels.
Figure 21-31
THOMAS JEFFERSON, Monticello, Charlottesville, United
States, 1770–1806.

Figure 21-34
HORATIO GREENOUGH, George Washington, 1840. Marble,
11’4” high. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington,
D.C.
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Contemporary Chat Image
Please compare to:
Figure 21-27 JACQUES-LOUIS
DAVID, The Death of Marat, 1793. Oil
on canvas, approx. 5’ 3” x 4’ 1”.
Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique, Brussels.
Figure 26-14A SANDOW BIRK,
Death of Manuel, 1992
JOEL-PETER WITKIN, The Raft of George W. Bush, 2006
Contemporary Chat Image
Please compare to: Figure 22-13 THÉODORE GÉRICAULT,
Raft of the Medusa, 1818–1819.
Oil on canvas, approx. 16’ x 23’. Louvre, Paris.

ROSA BONHEUR, Plowing in the Nivernais, 1849Rosa Bonheur.docx

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