Part 1Globalization is the motivating force behind the busines.docx

Part 1
Globalization is the motivating force behind the business
environment in the 21st century.
Debate the following the veracity of the following statement:
Globalization only significantly affects the CEOs of
multinational corporations and high-net-worth individuals.
If your last name begins with A-M you are to argue that the
statement is true. If your last name begins with N-Z you are to
argue that the statement is false. Reference your reading
material. Remember that any debate requires that you try to
persuade the reader to your point of view. Here are a few hints
for your success:
· Make sure to end your discussion with your best argument.
· Use stronger definitive word choice for your best arguments.
· Open your argument with you second best supporting point.
· Put your weakest point in the middle and choose words which
are descriptive to make it more interesting.
· NEVER USE “I think”, “I believe,” “I feel” or personal
pronouns of any kind. Unfortunately unless you are an expert
your opinions are not very convincing.
· Be creative with your ideas to keep the reader interested in
your point of view.
· Do not make this a presentation, report or quotes.
· USE YOUR OWN WORDS AND SELECT THEM
PURPOSEFULLY.
The category for the argument is to be true in nature for the last
name begins with A-M
References
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=we
b&cd=36&ved=0CDYQFjAFOB4&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.say
lor.org%2fsite%2ftextbooks%2fFundamentals%2520of%2520Gl

obal%2520Strategy.docx&ei=8bxsVKfJNoKyogTfpICwAQ&usg
=AFQjCNHlvHlxI7dvdIWPmXi2YVjeGmRiLg
http://www.manufacturing.net/articles/2010/06/the-pros-and-
cons-of-globalization
http://www.slideshare.net/efendievaz/globalization-29110435
http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2014/03/03/285335070/in-the-
new-globalized-diet-wheat-soy-and-palm-oil-rule
http://www.n2growth.com/blog/the-impact-of-globalization-on-
business/
Part 2
Remember our up and coming leader in the multinational
organization from last week?
What advice would “you” give “you” about how globalization
affects your job? What skills and characteristics do you need to
know to continue your success?
FYI:Organization Situation
A North America division (approximately 400 employees) of an
international company is experiencing rapid growth through it
success strategies and through a series of acquisitions. The
leadership team has doubled and the next level of management
has tripled with further increases expected to support overall
growth of the company. You have
been told that you will be promoted to the next level of
management. You want to “stand out” and keep moving up the
ladder in your career.
References
http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/7324.html
http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/leading_in_the_21st_century
/developing_global_leaders
http://www.ddiworld.com/DDI/media/trend-research/global-

leadership-forecast-2014-2015_tr_ddi.pdf?ext=.pdf
Research Essay Plan
Paragraph #1 - Introduction. Must include songwriter’s name
and title of song. Must include a
thesis that represents a debatable (two-sided) position. Must
clearly state which two
approaches to literary criticism will be used.
Short Essay #1
Paragraph #2 Introduction to first approach. Should include a
preview of the 3 points to be
covered supporting the relationship between the approach and
the song/songwriter.
Connection to thesis must be clearly stated.
Paragraph #3 – Specific support offered to explain relationship
between lyrics and research.
Paragraph #6 – Conclusion to first approach. Should restate the
3 points covered and remind

the reader of the relationship between the approach and the
song/songwriter. Connection to
thesis must be clearly stated.
Short Essay #2
Paragraph #7 - Introduction to second approach. Should
include a preview of the 3 points to be
covered supporting the relationship between the approach and
Paragraph #11 – Conclusion to second approach. Should restate
the 3 points covered and
remind the reader of the relationship between the approach and
Conclusion
Paragraph #12 and #13 – Restate thesis. Reiterate at least three

points that the two
perspectives have in common. Must include lyrics here to
reiterate common points
Paragraph #14 – Restate thesis again. Offer personal reaction
or reflection. Answer “So what?”
Works Cited Page
Lyrics with line numbers
Literary Criticism
Written by Mark Lund, Carver Center for the Arts and
Technology,
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Formalistic
3. Biographical / Historical
4. Archetypal
5. Deconstruction
6. Feminist

7. Philosophical
8. Psychological
9. Sociological
10. Glossary
11. Works Cited
12. Credits
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Introductio
n
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Formalisti
c
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Historical
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Archetypal
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Deconstru
ction
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Feminist
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Philosophi
cal
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Psychologi
cal
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Sociologic
al
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Glossary
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Works
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Credits

Introduction: What is Literary Criticism?
Literary criticism is the study, analysis, and evaluation of
imaginative literature.
Everyone who expresses an opinion about a book, a song, a
play, or a movie is a critic, but not
everyone's opinion is based upon thought, reflection, analysis,
or consistently articulated
principles. As people mature and acquire an education, their
ability to analyze, their
understanding of human beings, and their appreciation of
artistic craftsmanship should increase.
The study of literature is an essential component in this- growth
of reflection.
Sometimes students object to analysis and ask, "Why do we
have to analyze everything?
Why can't we just enjoy the books we read in English?" These
are good questions, and there are
some good answers for them. First, talking about an experience,
actual or vicarious, is one way
of increasing enjoyment. Second, sometimes talking about an
experience involves recreating it
in words, but it can also involve the search for meaning, in
short, analysis. Finally, as Socrates

said, "The life which is unexamined is not worth living."
Analysis, or examination, increases
awareness and understanding; it is part of the maturation
process. The analysis of literature has
always been part of a liberal education. When a work of
literature is studied without reference to
history or to the life of the author, the approach is intrinsic, or
formalistic. However, literature is
related to two other humanistic disciplines: philosophy and
history. Philosophy explores basic,
general ideas, such as truth, beauty, and goodness. History
attempts to ascertain what happened
in the past and why it happened. Philosophy may help readers
to understand the general ideas, or
themes, of a literary work. History helps to elucidate the life
and times of the author.
Traditionally, literary studies were conducted within the three
humanistic disciplines of
literature, history, and philosophy. In the twentieth century, the
social sciences have been used
to develop new approaches to criticism. Psychology has helped
to illuminate the motivations of
characters and the writers who create them. Sociology has

revealed the relationships between
the works the author produces and the society that consumes
them. Anthropology has shown
how ancient myths and rituals are alive and well in the plays,
poems, and novels that are popular
today.
Literary criticism has been a social institution for many
centuries. Different ages take
different approaches, but the activity is constant. Authors are
aware of criticism so that it is
probably not entirely fair to say that the literary critic reads
meanings into the texts that were
never intended by the author. Literary criticism is not "reading
between the lines" -it is reading
the lines very carefully, in a disciplined and informed manner.
This is why it is possible to speak
of some of the approaches discussed in this booklet as elements
of literature. That is, it is valid
to speak of archetypal elements in a literary text, sociological
elements in a literary text, and
formal elements in a literary text. The approaches to literature
do not put the elements there;
they are already there. The approaches help to reveal and

clarify them.
[Table of Contents]
http://www.teachrobb.com/documents/Criticism.htm#Contents
The Formalistic Approach
The formalistic approach began with Aristotle (384-322 BC), a
philosopher of ancient
Greece, who in his book The Poetics attempted to define the
form of tragedy. Aristotle wrote
that the tragic hero was an essentially noble individual who,
nevertheless, manifested a flaw in
character that caused him or her to fall from a high position to a
low position. The flaw in
character (hamartia) was a kind of blindness or lack of insight
that resulted from an arrogant
pride (hubris). During the course of the tragic action, the hero
came to a moment of insight-
today it might be seen as an epiphany-that Aristotle called
anagnorsis. Thus the tragic plot
moves from blindness to insight. As an imitation (mimesis) of a
serious action, the tragic plot

had to be written in a dignified style. The effect of the tragedy
was supposed to be catharsis or
the purging of the emotions of pity and fear. All the elements
of tragedy went together to
produce a formal unity: this is the essence of the formalistic
approach.
The twentieth century formalistic approach, often referred to as
the New Criticism, also
assumes that a work of literary art is an organic unity in which
every element contributes to the
total meaning of the work. This approach is as old as literary
criticism itself, but it was
developed in the twentieth century by John Crowe Ransom
(1888-1974), Allen Tate (1899-
1979), T.S. Eliot (1888- 1965), and others.
The formalist critic embraces an objective theory of art and
examines plot,
characterization, dialogue, and style to show how these
elements contribute to the theme or unity
of the literary work. Moral, historical, psychological, and
sociological concerns are considered
extrinsic to criticism and of secondary importance to the

examination of craftsmanship and form.
Content and form in a work constitute a unity, and it is the task
of the critic to examine and
evaluate the integrity of the work. Paradox, irony, dynamic
tension, and unity are the primary
values of formalist criticism.
Because it posits an objective theory of art, there are two
axioms central to formalist
criticism. One of these is The Intentional Fallacy which states
that an author's intention (plan or
purpose) in creating a work of literature is irrelevant in
analyzing or evaluating that work of
literature because the meaning and value of a literary work must
reside in the text itself,
independent of authorial intent. Another axiom of formalist
criticism is The Affective Fallacy
which states that the evaluation of a work of art cannot be based
solely on its emotional effects
on the audience. Instead, criticism must concentrate upon the
qualities of the work itself that
produce such effects. The formalistic approach stresses the
close reading of the text and insists
that all statements about the work be supported by references to

the text. Although it has been
challenged by other approaches recently, the New Criticism is
the most influential form of
criticism in this century.
Formalism is intrinsic literary criticism because it does not
require mastery of any body
of knowledge besides literature. As an example of how
formalistic criticism approaches literary
works, consider Shakespeare's Macbeth. All the elements of the
play form an organic whole.
The imagery of the gradual growth of plants is contrasted with
the imagery of leaping over
obstacles: Macbeth is an ambitious character who cannot wait to
grow gradually into the full
stature of power, but, instead, must grasp everything
immediately. A related series of clothing
images reinforces this point: because Macbeth does not grow
gradually, his clothing does not fit.
At the end of the play, his "Tomorrow and tomorrow and
tomorrow" soliloquy drives home the
point as we see, and pity, a man trapped in the lock-step pace of

gradual time. Formalistic critics
would immediately see that the repetition of the word
"tomorrow" and the natural iambic stress
on "and" enhance the meaninglessness and frustration that the
character feels. References to
blood and water pervade the play, and blood comes to
symbolize the guilt Macbeth feels for
murdering Duncan. Even the drunken porter's speech provides
more than comic relief, for his
characterization of alcohol as "an equivocator" is linked to the
equivocation of the witches.
Shakespeare's craftsmanship has formed an aesthetic unity in
which every part is connected and
in which the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
[Table of Contents]
Historical and Biographical Approaches
Historical criticism seeks to interpret the work of literature
through understanding the
times and culture in which the work was written. The historical
critic is more interested in the
meaning that the literary work had for its own time than in the

meaning the work might have
today. For example, while some critics might interpret
existential themes in Shakespeare's
Hamlet, a historical critic would be more interested in analyzing
the play within the context of
Elizabethan revenge tragedy and Renaissance humor
psychology.
Biographical criticism investigates the life of an author using
primary texts, such as
letters, diaries, and other documents, that might reveal the
experiences, thoughts, and feelings
that led to the creation of a literary work. For example, an
investigation of Aldous Huxley's
personal life reveals that Point Counterpoint is a roman a clef:
the character Marc Rampion is a
thinly disguised imaginative version of Huxley's friend, D.H.
Lawrence.
Historical criticism and biographical criticism are used in
tandem to explicate literary
texts. Sometimes the very premise of a novel may seem more
probable if the circumstances of

composition are understood. For example, students often
wonder why the boys in Lord of the
Flies are oil the island. Their plane has crashed, but where was
it going, and why? The book
may be read as a survival adventure, but such a reading would
not account for the most important
themes. Knowing that William Golding was a British naval
commander in World War II and
knowing some of the facts of the British involvement in the war
help in an understanding of the
novel. The most important fact relating to the premise of the
novel is that during the London
Blitz (1940-1941) children were evacuated from the
metropolitan area: some were sent to
Scotland, some to Canada and Australia. Golding imagines a
similar evacuation happening
during his scenario of World War III. The itinerary of the
transport plane is detailed at the
beginning of the novel: Gibraltar and Addis Ababa were stops
on an eastward journey, probably
to Australia or New Zealand. The aircraft was shot down, and
the boys are stranded on a Pacific
atoll. In the age of the intercontinental ballistic missile, the
evacuation seems impossible, but the

novel was published in 1954 when atomic weapons were still
delivered principally by bombers.
The history of the rise of Hitler and World War n also helps
readers to understand why Ralph's
democratic appeasements crumble under the ruthless aggression
of Jack's regime.
In short, the historical approach is vital to an understanding of
literary texts. Sometimes,
knowledge of history is necessary before the theme of the work
can be fully grasped.
[Table of Contents]
The Archetypal Approach
The archetypal approach to literature evolved from studies in
anthropology and
psychology. Archetypal critics make the reasonable assumption
that human beings all over the
world have basic experiences in common and have developed
similar stories and symbols to
express these experiences. Their assumption that myths from
distant countries might help to

explain a work of literature might seem a little far-fetched.
However, critics of this persuasion
believe it is valid.
Carl Jung (1875-1961), a student of Freud, came to the
conclusion that some of his
patients' - dreams contained images and narrative patterns not
from their personal unconscious
but from the collective unconscious of the human race. It was
Jung who first used the term
archetype to denote plots, characters, and symbols that are
found in literature, folk tales and
dreams throughout the world. Some of the principal archetypes
are described in the following
paragraphs.
The Hero and the Quest
According to Joseph Campbell, the story of the hero is the
monomyth, or the one story at
the bottom of all stories. The hero is called to adventure. This
means that the hero must go on a
quest. The first stage of the quest is separation: in this stage
the hero separates from familiar
surroundings and goes on a journey. The second stage of the

quest is initiation: the hero may
fight a dragon, conquer an enemy or in some other way prove
his or her courage, wisdom and
maturity. The final stage is the return: the hero must return to
society to use the courage and
wisdom gained in the initiatory phase. Often the initiation
involves a journey to the underworld,
and the return phase is regarded as a kind of rebirth. This links
the myth of the hero to the next
archetypal motif. (Mary Renault's The King Must Die (1958) is
a good actualization of this
pattern.)
The Death and Rebirth Pattern
Many myths from around the world reflect the cycle of the
seasons. Sometimes mythic
thought requires a sacrifice so that the seasons can continue. A
sacrificial hero (in myth it is
usually a god or king) accepts death or disgrace so that the
community can flourish. Although
the sacrifice is real, it is not necessarily to be regarded as final:
the god who dies in the winter
may be reborn in the spring. Characters like Oedipus and
Hamlet, who sacrifice themselves to

save their kingdoms, are based on the archetype of the dying
god. Shirley Jackson's "The
Lottery" reflects this archetypal pattern in a contemporary
setting.
Mother Earth Father Sky
A surprising number of cultures regard the earth as the mother
of all life, and she is
sometimes seen as the original divinity who was wedded and
superseded by the archetypal male
divinity, the sky god. The offspring of the earth mother and the
sky father are all of the creatures
that inhabit the world. Earth mother characters in literature are
characterized by vitality,
courage, and optimism. They represent embodiments of the life
force. Shug Avery in Alice
Walker's The Color Purple represents a modern version of the
earth goddess: she gives Celie the
courage to live.
Culture Founder, Trickster, Witch
Culture founders are heroes who invent rules, laws, customs,
and belief systems so that

society can function and people can live. Prometheus was the
great culture founder of the
Greeks. He created mankind and invented writing,
mathematics, and technology so that human
beings could survive. Because he stole fire from the gods and
gave it to men, he also became a
sacrificial hero, condemned to be tortured in the Caucasus
Mountains until he was freed by
Heracles. Modern characters who derive from the culture hero
archetype would include Mr.
Antrobus in The Skin of Our Teeth and Finny in A Separate
Peace. Both of these characters are
creative inventors, organizers, and leaders. The antithesis of
the culture hero is the trickster.
Representing the forces of chaos, the trickster delights in
mischief. At times the trickster may
appear evil, but the essential quality embodied by this archetype
is childishness. Hermes is the
trickster in Greek myth; Loki, in Norse myth. Native American
myths have many trickster
figures. In William Golding's Lord of the Flies Ralph's culture-
founding efforts are constantly
subverted by Jack, a trickster figure who is motivated only by
the idea of fun. The female

trickster contrasts with the earth goddess figure in that she
devotes herself to pleasure rather than
nurturing: she is referred to as the outlaw female or witch.
Medea comes close to epitomizing
this archetype.
Four Elements = The World
Earth, water, fire, air: these are the symbolic elements that
compose the world. Earth
usually has the connotations of nurturing life. Water may
purify, and flowing rivers represent
the flow of life; but water may also destroy when it is
uncontrolled, as in a flood. Fire represents
destruction, but it can also purify and make way for the new.
Air is the spiritual element; words
denoting the spirit are often derived from the words for wind.
The other term for archetypal criticism is myth criticism.
Literary critics, poets, and
storytellers all use myths in the creation and interpretation of
literature. This reflects their belief
that the old myths, far from being falsehoods, reveal eternal
truths about human nature.

[Table of Contents]
Deconstruction
Most people would identify the current era of literature as the
modern period;
surprisingly, literary critics and historians do not.
Contemporary literature (1945 to the present)
is called Postmodernist. Modernism as a literary term is applied
to the writers of the first half of
the twentieth century who experimented with forms of writing
that broke age-old traditions:
writers like T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Langston
Hughes, and William Faulkner.
These writers viewed human beings as trapped in tragic
paradoxes that could only be expressed
by difficult and unorthodox styles. The writings of the
modernists are regarded as classics of the
twentieth century, but contemporary writing has moved beyond
them. The tragic stance has
given way to irony, and the break up of the culture is treated
with sardonic humor. Since 1945
everything is disposable: books, culture, social mores, even-
with nuclear weapons- planet Earth

itself. Television, with its thousands of stories and its parodies
of literary classics, cuts against
the privileging of any story as a work of art. In the Postmodern
Age, there is no literature, there
are only stories; there is no wisdom, there is only information,
and information is, almost by
definition, disposable.
Tom Stoppard's play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
illustrates some of the
principal qualities of Postmodern literature. Aristotle's notion
of the noble hero is undercut by
two bumbling antiheroes who don't have enough individual
identity to be able to tell themselves
apart. They intrude from the margins of Shakespeare's Hamlet,
wander and wonder aimlessly,
and are finally packed off to a meaningless execution,
disposable tools in a nasty internecine
conflict. Shakespeare's play has form and purpose; the hero has
a role to play in life, even
though he may have doubted this at the beginning of the play.
Stoppard's heroes make jokes
about death, about fate, about everything. Stoppard's plot

doesn't really go anywhere because
like Pirandello's six characters and Beckett's two tramps,
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are
characters in search of a plot. Worse, they are characters in
search of personalities. In the film
version, pages of dramatic scripts float and swirl about all the
scenes like autumn leaves or trash
escaped from the recycling bin. The tragic world of Hamlet is
subverted by the ironic
Postmodern interlopers, proving that even a mighty
Shakespearean text can be deconstructed,
that is, reduced to meaninglessness. Deconstruction is the
movement in criticism that best
expresses the Postmodern consciousness. It has supplanted New
Criticism in most of the
literature departments of American colleges and universities.
Deconstruction might be regarded as the antithesis of
formalism. Where the formalist
critic seeks to demonstrate the organic unity of a literary work,
the deconstructionist tries to
show how attempts at unified meaning are doomed to failure by
the nature of language itself.
Thus, to deconstruct a literary work is to show that it is self-

contradictory.
Originating in a radical skepticism about the capacity of
language to mean anything,
deconstruction thrives on the paradoxes of twentieth century
thought. As Freudian psychology
destroyed the notion that the conscious self controls the person,
as Einsteinian physics
undermined ideas of objectivity, deconstruction assaults the
belief that language is unequivocal
in its meaning and that literary works have a stable meaning
intended by the author. Formalist
critics accepted the intentional fallacy because they thought that
the literary text could stand on
its own without reference to authorial intention, but for the
deconstructionist literary texts
crumble into contradictions under analysis.
Before deconstruction became a trend in criticism, even before
the word deconstruction
entered the language, Lawrence Durrell (1912-1990), wrote
what might be regarded as the
classic deconstructive narrative, The Alexandria Quartet.

Completed in 1960 and composed of
four novels that relate the same events from different points of
view, the Quartet does not
attempt to establish one version of the story as definitive.
Rather, in a relativistic universe
perspective rules the world: one step to the left or right and the
whole picture changes.
[Table of Contents]
Feminist Criticism
During the 1960s a new school of criticism arose from the
struggles for women's rights.
While social and economic justice were the most obvious goals
of the feminist cause, many
women realized that the roots of the inequality were cultural.
This perception led to the
development of feminist literary criticism. Using
psychological, archetypal, and sociological
approaches, feminist criticism examines images of women and
concepts of the feminine in myth
and literature.

Feminist critics have shown that literature reflects a patriarchal,
or male dominated,
perspective of society. Patriarchalism is an ideology that
causes women to be depicted in two
ways: as goddesses when they serve the patriarchal society in
the role of virtuous wives and
mothers as prostitutes and witches when they do not. Plays and
novels often reveal both views
of women. Thornton Wilder parodies these stereotypes with the
characters of Mrs. Antrobus and
Lily Sabina in the play The Skin of Our Teeth. Wilder does not
spare the patriarchal Mr.
Antrobus, whose foibles are plain for all the audience to see.
A fresh approach to the investigation of literature, feminist
criticism often focuses on characters
and issues that have been neglected or marginalized in previous
studies. So much has been
written about Prince Hamlet, that feminist interpretations of the
motivations and conflicts of
Queen Gertrude and Ophelia are often striking in their
originality. Similarly, Charlotte Gilman-
Perkins "The Yellow Wallpaper" brings feminist criticism to the

foreground. It is this freshness
of approach that makes feminist criticism one of the most
exciting contemporary approaches to
literature.
As a form of sociological criticism, feminist criticism shares
some qualities with Marxist
approaches. Both are critical of society, as it is presently
constituted. Both are concerned with
the lives of those oppressed or marginalized by the dominant
culture. Both investigate literature
as a means of bringing about changes in attitudes and ultimately
in society.
[Table of Contents]
The Philosophical Approach
The philosophical (or moral) approach to literature evaluates
the ethical content of
literary works and concerns itself less with formal
characteristics. Philosophical criticism always
assumes the seriousness of literary works as statements of
values and criticisms of life, and the

philosophical critic judges works on the basis of his or her
articulated philosophy of life.
Assuming that literature can have a good effect on human
beings by increasing their compassion
and moral sensitivity, this form of criticism acknowledges that
books can have negative effects
on people as well. For this reason, philosophical critics will
sometimes attack authors for
degenerate, decadent, or unethical writings.
While this description may make philosophical critics seem
similar to censors, these
critics rarely call for burning or banning of books. Unlike
censors, they try to deal with the
whole literary work rather than with passages taken out of
context. Some people might criticize
J .D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye because Holden
Caulfield is a poor role model. The book
might also be attacked because of its profane language. In fact,
these aspects of the novel have
led to its being banned in many school districts throughout the
United States. Although the
philosophical critic may find both of these aspects of the novel
disturbing, he or she might still

believe that, on balance, the book was to be commended for its
indictment of hypocrisy and
materialism. For the philosophical critic, it is not a question of
objectionable characters and
passages; it is a question of the totality of the work. Instead of
banning books that they find to be
without redeeming social merit, philosophical critics write
scathing reviews explaining why they
consider the books they are attacking to be decadent or
unethical. In the twentieth century,
philosophical critics have tended toward a humanistic belief in
reason, order, and restraint. This
explains their reluctance to ban books despite their moral
concerns: if human beings are rational,
as the philosophical critic believes, they will listen to reason
when it is spoken; and they will
reject evil and embrace the good.
[Table of Contents]
The Psychological Approach

The psychological approach has been one of the most
productive forms of literary inquiry
in the twentieth century. Developed in the late 1800s and early
1900s by Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939) and his followers, psychological criticism has led to new
ideas about the nature of the
creative process, the mind of the artist, and the motivations of
characters.
Freud's principal ideas are essential to an understanding of
modern literature and
criticism. Although the works of Freud consist of many
complex volumes, there are four main
ideas that have been so influential that it is hard to believe they
were not always with us.
The Unconscious
According to Freud, human beings are not conscious of all their
feelings, urges, and
desires because most of mental life is unconscious. Freud
compared the mind to an iceberg: only
a small portion is visible; the rest is below the waves of the sea.
Thus, the mind consists of a
small conscious portion and a vast unconscious portion.
Repression

Observing the conservative, prudish upper middle classes of the
late nineteenth century,
Freud came to the conclusion that society demands restraint,
order, and respectability and that
individuals are forced to repress (or sublimate) the libidinous
and aggressive drives. These
repressed desires, however, emerge in dreams and in art. The
artist and the dreamer are both
creators; both have a need to express themselves by creating
beautiful or terrifying images and
narratives. But the lust and aggression may not be represented
directly. This leads to the use of
symbols and subtexts in dreams and literature.
The Tripartite Psyche
Freud developed his psychoanalytic theory around three
principles: the ego, the id, and
the superego. The ego is conscious and represents the part of
the mind that interacts with the
environment and with other people in social situations. As the
conscious waking self, the ego is
the reasonable, sane, and mature aspect of the mind capable of
mastering impulses and dealing
effectively with the stresses of daily life. Common parlance
may show disrespect for the "big

ego," but for Freud the supercilious attitude denoted by this
phrase would, paradoxically, be an
indication - of a weak ego. The id is unconscious and is
comprised of the basic drives of hunger,
thirst, pleasure, and aggression. The id is removed from reality,
that is, from the outer world of
society and environment. The id is the mind of the infant,
demanding instant gratification,
incapable of tolerating the delayed gratification that makes the
ego socially acceptable. At first,
Freud thought that the id had only one principle, the pleasure
principle, also known as the libido
or sex drive. However, he found he could not account for
aggression, violence, and self-
destructiveness without postulating a second principle, the
aggressive drive, also known as the
death wish. The superego is the final part of the tripartite
psyche. Representing parentally
instilled moral attitudes, the superego may seem to be like the
conscience. Like the id, however,
the superego is largely unconscious. Sometimes the superego is
thought to represent an idealized
image (ego-ideal) towards which the ego strives. During the

normal course of development, an
individual gains in ego strength and is able to master basic
drives and mediate the demands of
the id, the superego, and the environment.
Many works of literature contain characters who embody mental
forces. Some of these
works were written long before Freud formalized his
psychological theory. Three famous works
of Victorian literature were published at about the time Freud
was developing his ideas: Oscar
Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), Robert Louis
Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
(1886), and Joseph Conrad's "The Secret Sharer" (1912).
Probably the most notorious id
character ever created, Mr. Hyde incarnates the aggressive drive
of the unconscious; however,
Dr. Jekyll makes it clear in his statement of the case that he
admired Hyde's tremendous love of
life. In a similar way, the captain in Conrad's story recognizes
that Leggatt has killed a man, but
he allows Leggatt to swim to a nearby island because he
admires the freedom and self-possession

of Leggatt. Both Dr. Jekyll and the captain live in L-shaped
dwellings: like Freud's iceberg, part
of the dwelling is seen and part remains hidden. Wilde's Dorian
Gray resorts to hiding his
portrait (which shows his moral state) in the attic. In each of
these works, an ego character must
mediate between the social environment and the desires of the
id character. The id is not so
much immoral as amoral. It is the way in which the ego
character deals with the drives of the id
that constitutes the moral action of the story.
The Oedipus Complex
In Greek myth, Oedipus was a king of Thebes who, having been
abandoned in childhood
and consequently ignorant of his own identity, unknowingly
killed his father and married his
mother. In describing the psychosexual development of
children, Freud analyzed the powerful
feelings that develop between mother and son. Freud believed
that boys develop strong
attractions to their mothers during the phallic period (3-6), with
a corresponding rivalry
developing between the boy and his father. Usually these
conflicts are resolved as the boy

matures and develops love interests outside the home, but some
neuroses of adult life are
supposed to result from insufficiently resolved Oedipal
conflicts.
The Oedipus Complex has been very controversial and some
psychoanalysts have
modified or rejected it. Alfred Adler (1870-1937), one of
Freud's pupils, reinterpreted the
Oedipus Complex when he developed his own theory of the
Inferiority Complex. Adler believed
that the primary motivation for human beings is not the libido,
as Freud had posited, but the will
to power. For Adler, then, the Oedipus Complex is essentially a
power struggle between the boy
and the father, in which the boy tries to overcome feelings of
inferiority by successfully
capturing the mother's attention. Adler also coined the term
masculine protest to refer to the
rebellion of by young women (and some young men) against the
inferior status that women have
in many societies. Masculine protest consists of aggressive
behavior towards others in an
attempt to allay feelings of inferiority.

Writers were interested in the powerful conflicts that arise in
families long before Freud,
but writers of the twentieth century exploring these conflicts in
their works will be labeled
Freudian whether they acknowledge the influence of Freud or
not. D.H. Lawrence's Sons and
Lovers explores the influence of a possessive mother on her
sons; the same author's story " The
Rocking- Horse Winner" depicts a boy who believes he can win
his mother's love by being lucky
in gambling on racehorses. Frank O'Connor's "My Oedipus
Complex" is a humorous treatment
of Freud's ideas. The same author's "Masculine Protest" makes
use of the Adlerian notion of the
inferiority complex.
The literature of the past has been reexamined in the light of
psychoanalysis. Freud
himself started this trend when he named a complex after
Oedipus: this reinterpreted the play. In
fact, the play was profoundly psychological in its original

conception. Oedipus goes to Delphi
and receives, prophecies from the gods: what better way to
express the working of the
unconscious? Jocasta tells Oedipus that many men have
dreamed of sleeping with their mothers:
dreams do reveal unconscious desires. Finally, having sorted
out his identity, Oedipus, analyst
and patient in one paradoxical person, blinds himself and leaves
the stage to wander the world, a
sadder and a wiser man.
Since the late 1940s Shakespeare's Hamlet has been interpreted
as having an Oedipal
Complex. He expresses love for his mother, and seems
obsessed by the idea of Claudius and
Gertrude sleeping together. His jealousy and aggression
towards Claudius are overt. Of course,
c Claudius is not Hamlet's father but his stepfather. Hamlet
idealizes and adores his real father.
These facts do not deter the psychological interpreters. Perhaps
the concept of masculine protest
is as, applicable to the playas the Oedipal conflict. Hamlet
feels that Gertrude is weak; worse, he

feels implicated in her weakness. Much of the play dwells on
Hamlet's feelings of weakness and
inferiority, and his aggressive behavior at the end may be
interpreted as masculine protest.
Poets, dreamers, and madmen all tap the fountainhead of the
unconscious, the source not
only of aggressions and desires but of the will to live. The
psychological approach to literature
delves into the symbolic fictions that arise from the primordial
springs of the imagination and
attempts to explain them to the rational, waking selves who
inhabit the daylight world.
[Table of Contents]
The Sociological Approach
Sociological criticism focuses on the relationship between
literature and society.
Literature is always produced in a social context. Writers may
affirm or criticize the values of
the society in which they live, but they write for an audience
and that audience is society.

Through the ages the writer has performed the functions of
priest, prophet and entertainer: all of
these are important social roles. The social function of
literature is the domain of the
sociological critic.
Even works of literature that do not deal overtly with social
issues may have social issues
as subtexts. The sociological critic is interested not only in the
stated themes of literature, but
also in the latent themes. Like the historical critic, the
sociological critic attempts to understand
the writer's environment as an important element in the writer's
work. Like the moral critic, the
sociological critic usually has certain values by which he or she
judges literary work.
Marxist Criticism
One of the most important forms of sociological criticism is
Marxist criticism. Karl
Marx (1818-1883) developed a theory of society, politics, and
economics called dialectical
materialism. Writing in the nineteenth century, Marx criticized

the exploitation of the working
classes, or proletariat, by the capitalist classes who owned the
mines, factories, and other
resources of national economies. Marx believed that history
was the story of class struggles and
that the goal of history was a classless society in which all
people would share the wealth
equally. This classless society could only come about as a
result of a revolution that would
overthrow the capitalist domination of the economy.
Central to Marx's understanding of society is the concept of
ideology. As an economic
determinist, Marx thought that the system of production was the
most basic fact in social life.
Workers created the value of manufactured goods, but owners of
the factories reaped most of the
economic rewards. In order to justify and rationalize this
inequity, a system of understandings or
ideology was created, for the most part unconsciously.
Capitalists justified their taking the lion's
share of the rewards by presenting themselves as better people,
more intelligent, more refined,

more ethical that the workers. Since literature is consumed, for
the most part, by the middle
classes, it tends to support capitalist ideology, at least in
countries where that ideology is
dominant.
Marxist critics interpret literature in terms of ideology. Writers
who sympathize with the
working classes and their struggle are regarded favorably.
Writers who support the ideology of
the dominant classes are condemned. Naturally, critics of the
Marxist school differ in breadth
and sympathy the way other critics do. As a result, some
Marxist interpretations are more subtle
than others. Take the Marxist approach to Shakespeare's The
Tempest for example. The standard
Marxist party line would be to interpret Prospero as the
representative of European imperialism.
Prospero has come to the island from Italy. He has used his
magic (perhaps a symbol of
technology) to enslave Caliban, a native of the island. Caliban
resents being the servant of
Prospero and attempts to rebel against his authority. Since

Prospero is presented in a favorable
light, the Marxist critic might condemn Shakespeare as being a
supporter of European capitalist
ideology. A more subtle Marxist critic might see that the play
has far more complexity, and that
Caliban has been invested with a vitality that makes it possible
for audiences to sympathize with
him. Certainly, the Marxist view of the play brings out ideas
that might be overlooked by other
kinds of critics and, thus, contributes to the understanding of
the play.
Sociological criticism, then, reflects the way literature interacts
with society.
Sociological critics show us how literature can function as a
mirror to reflect social realities and
as a lamp to inspire social ideals.
[Table of Contents]
Glossary

abstruse: difficult to understand; abstract
Adlerian: of, or relating to, the pschological theories of Alfred
Adler ( 1870 -1937)
stressing the will to power as the primary human motivation
aesthetics: the philosophical study of beauty and the arts
amoral: without a sense of morality
anagnorisis: the moment of revelation at the end of a tragedy
antithesis: polar opposite
artifact: an object made by human beings for an intended use
criterion: a standard or guideline for evaluation
deconstruction: a literary approach that seeks to undermine the
notion that a literary text
has a fixed meaning
ego: the Freudian term for the conscious, waking self
epiphany: a sudden moment of clarity or recognition
existentialism: philosophy stressing the radical freedom of the
individual; according to
this philosophy human life has no meaning except that created
by
individuals

expressive theory: the idea that a work of art emanates from the
experience and imagination
of the artist
extrinsic: exterior; approaches to criticism that depend upon
non-literary criteria
Freudian: of, or pertaining to, the psychological theories of
Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939) stressing the libido as the primary human motivation
hamartia: a flaw in character resulting in moral blindness
hubris: arrogant pride which leads to a fall
id: the aspect of the unconscious mind that encompasses the
libido and
aggressive drive
ideology: intrinsic system of understandings which may be
conscious or
unconscious
inferiority complex: lack of self -esteem deriving from feelings
of powerlessness
integrity: wholeness; the parts of a literary work are assumed
by New Critics to

constitute a meaningful whole
intentional fallacy: the theory that an author's purpose in
creating a work is irrelevant to the
interpretation of the work
intrinsic: interior; the formalist approach to criticism
emphasizes purely literary
criteria
irony: a technique in which the expected is subverted by the
unexpected
libido: Freudian term for the pleasure principle or sexual drive
mimetic theory: the idea that a work of art imitates life
modernism: literary movement of the first half of the twentieth
century characterized
by experimentalism and anxiety
New Criticism: a twentieth century formalistic approach
emphasizing organicism, irony,
and tension
objective theory: the idea that a work of art is to be analyzed
by intrinsic criteria
Oedipus Complex: the Freudian idea that young boys have

libidinous feelings for their
mothers with corresponding feelings of guilt and aggression for
their
fathers
organicism: the New Critical idea of the work of art as a unity
that transcends the sum
of its parts
pathetic fallacy: the New Critical rejection of effect on the
audience as a criterion for
evaluation
postmodernism: the literary period since 1950 characterized by
decentralization, skepticism
and parody
pragmatic theory: the idea that the rhetorical effect of a work
on the audience is the central
criterion for evaluation
roman a clef: [Fr. novel with a key] a novel in which the
characters are based on real
people whose names have been changed
superego: aspect of psyche that incorporates parentally-
instilled morals

[Table of Contents]
Works Cited
Guerin, Wilfred L.,et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to
Literature. 3rd. ed. New
York: Oxford UP, 1992.
Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts. New York: Harper Collins,
1994.
Meyer, Michael, ed. The Bedford Introduction to Literature.
New York: St. Martins, 1994.
[Table of Contents]
Literary Criticism:
A Primer
An English Office Publication
By
Mark Lund
Carver Center for the Arts and Technology

Baltimore County Public Schools
Towson, MD
1996
[Table of Contents]
What are you listening to?
Pick out your favorite song of all time. Have you ever stopped
to wonder what the
lyrics of your favorite song "really" mean? Sure, you might
think you know what the
song is about. You might even think you know what the author
wanted you to get out
of the song. But do you “really” know what the song means?
We’ve discussed in class the meaning of meaning. Who
determines the meaning of an
action, word, or symbol? Where does the meaning exist? Is the
sender’s intention more
important than the perception of the receiver? Does the meaning
exist somewhere

between the sender and the receiver? Does the meaning exist in
the message itself. In
the black box, maybe? Does the meaning exist in the context?
Does meaning change
from person to person or does the meaning remain the same for
all people in all times
in all cultures? These are all questions we’ve asked in class.
These questions are at the heart of literary criticism?
Your assignment is to write an essay that explains the meaning
of the song
you’ve chosen. You will need to select two different approaches
to literary criticism in
your attempt to explain what the song “really” means. You may
NOT use the formalist
approach for this assignment. Your essay will essentially offer a
comparison of the two
interpretations given to the song. You will need to show the
similarities or common
points between the two approaches in order to support your
thesis.
Your essay must include lyrics from the song as well as
reference to the artist
responsible for the lyrics. You must include the full lyrics of
the song as an appendix to
the essay. Your essay must also include research to support the
two literary approaches
you have used in examining the song. You must use at least six
different sources (3 for
each approach) in the essay. Your essay must be written
following MLA guidelines. This
class assumes that your are competent with MLA formatting and
rules - especially
works cited and in-text citations. Your essay must exhibit a

strict adherence to MLA
guidelines. Your essay must be at least 1200 words. See the
assignment schedule for
the due date.

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