1) The patient presented with a large multinodular goiter and initial FNAC suggested benign nodular colloid goiter.
2) He later underwent subtotal thyroidectomy and the biopsy revealed papillary carcinoma.
3) This case demonstrates that FNAC can sometimes miss malignancy, so biopsy remains the gold standard
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Thyroid Nodule
1. Grand round
Dr. Beka Aberra [IM- R2]
Dr. Astarkew Alene [IM – R1]
Dr. Bethelhem Berhanu [R – R2]
Dr. Zinabu A. [SR – R4]
2. Outline
1. Identification
2. History
3. Progress of the patient
4. Case Discussion
5. Multi Disciplinary Approach to Thyroid Nodule
6. Inter Departmental Discussion
7. Take home message
8. References
3. Identification
MRN - 494576
NAME – E.Y.
AGE - 57
SEX - MALE
ADDRESS – GULELE, ADDIS ABABA
MARTIAL STATUS - MARRIED
DOR - 27/03/2008 E.C
PHONE NO.- +251-913247089
4. HISTORY [06/12/2008]
A 57 yrs old male, known asthmatic patient >20yrs on Intermittent Salbutamol puffs
Presented with Anterolateral neck swelling >10 Yrs, not increasing in size
Has bilateral leg swelling, burning sensation around umbilicus and extremities.
No Shortness of breath
No Hyper/Hypo thyroid symptoms identified at the time.
No Other compressive symptoms identified
No Weight loss/Loss of appetite.
No History of smoking or alcohol intake.
No History of DM,HTN.
No Family history of similar illness.
5. Physical Exam
General Appearance : Well Looking
Vital Sign: BP: 160/100 PR:84 RR: 18 T:36.70c SpO2: 97%,on atmospheric air
HEENT: Pink conjunctivae, Non-icteric sclera
LGS: 7*6 cm Anterolateral Neck Swelling, more on the right side, multinodular
soft-firm consistency, non tender, which moves with deglutination.
CHEST: Clear and Resonant
CVS: Flat JVP; Heart sounds (S1/S2) are well heard, no murmur or gallop.
Abdomen: NAD
MSS: Bilateral Pitting edema
CNS: NAD
6. HISTORY [06/12/2008]
Assessment: CHF 20 to ? HHD+ Renal simple cyst
Plan;- Lasix 20mg po /day, Nifedipine 20 mg po bid,
Enalapril 5mg/day, Omeprazole 20mg po bid
CBC/UA/RFT/LFT/FBS/LIPID PANEL
CXR/Abdominal U/s/ ECG/ECHO
Neck U/s and FNAC
8. CXR: There is a Soft tissue mass around right neck area with compression
on trachea. Normal Pulmonary parenchyma and Cardiac size.
Abdominal U/s: Single Lower pole echo lucent lesion 3.66 cm * 2.94 cm, no
free fluid or lymphadenopathy seen; Renal Simple Cyst.
ECG: Left Axis deviation
ECHO: Normal
Investigations [09/12/2008]
9. progress [12/12/2008]
NECK U/S: The Normal Thyroid Parenchyma is replaced by multiple
well defined heterogeneously hyperechoic masses.There is a left lobe
3*2 cm relatively hypoechoic nodule with micro calcification.
CONCLUSION: Multinodular Goiter 2o to ? Thyroid Adenoma to r/o
Papillary Thyroid Cancer; Please do U/s Guided FNAC.
* Come and discuss for U/s Guided Biopsy.
FNAC: Aspiration 3*3, hemorrhagic and fluid; Benign Nodular Goiter
with Cystic degenerative changes.
ASST: Multi Nodular Colloid Goiter with cystic degeneration
+ Dyslipidemia + HTN
Plan: TFT; Started on Atorvastatin 40mg.
10. progress [26/12/2008]
Started on Thyroxine 50 µmg Po/Day; Linked to Surgical OPD
TFT Range
fT3 3.65 3.1 - 6.8 pmol/l
fT4 0.92 12 – 22 pmol/l
TSH 0.345 0.28 - 4.3 µlUml
RFT
Cr 0.98 mg/dl
BUN 16.3 mg/dl
LFT
ALP 55 IU/L
GPT 39.7 IU/L
GOT 33.8 IU/L
LIPID PANEL
CHOL 167.8
TG 180.4
HDL 26.4
LDL 113.1
Direct BL 0.185
Total BL 0.564
FBS 89 mg/dl
11. Regular SOPD [26/12/2008]
P: MNG r/o Papillary Cancer + HTN+ Asthmatic
Hx: No hypo/hyper thyrodism sx, no cough ,SOB, no weigth loss
O: G/A:Well Looking; BP: 130/70 PR: 84(Full) T: ATT
Spo2: 93% with atmospheric air.
LGS: Right Anterolateral neck swelling,multinodular ,non tender, no bruit, no LAP
detected.
Chest: Audible Wheezes over chest
Plan :Continue Antihypertensive/ Asthma Meds and link to SRC.
12. SRC Progress [03/01/2009]
ASS: Euthyroid nodular goiter + Asthma+ HTN
Subjectively ;no new complaint
Bp= 110/70 , PR=88
LGS: there is about 8*6cm anterior neck mass which moves with swallowing more on
the right side.
Plan;
- Add Beclomethasone 200 µmg Po BID
- Admit to ward for Elective Surgery
13. Surgical Ward Admission Note
[01/05/2009]
P: MNG+ Hypertensive + Asthmatic
Hx: No hot and cold intolerance, hoarseness of voice, cough, shortness of breath ,
No history of radiation
O: G/A: Stable ; BP: 130/80 PR: 84 (Full) RR: 18 T: ATT Spo2: 93% with Atm air
LGS: Same as before
Chest: Clear and resonant
Investigations: Updated CBC with BG; Spirometry/CXR/TFT’s planned
Plan: Prepare for Elective Surgery on [05/05/2009]
14. Progress [01/05/2009]
CBC
WBC 11,300
Neut. 72.1 %
Lymph. 18 %
Hemoglobin 17.6 gm/dl
Hematocrit 52 %
MCV 96.5
MCH 32.7
Platelet 175,000
BG & RH A -
Stool Exam
Few RBC/Pus Cells
Trophozoites of G. Lamblia
seen
Treated with Tindazole
2 gm po Stat
15. Progress [05/05/2009]
P: Euthyroid Nodular Goiter + Hypertensive + Asthmatic
Procedure Note: Subtotal Thyroidectomy done [Bilateral STT + Isthmusectomy + Pyramidal Lobe
removed]
Plan: Thyroidectomy sample sent for Biopsy.
– Immediate Post Op Evaluation
O: G/A: Stable and Conscious ; BP: 130/80 PR: 82 (Full) RR: 18 T: ATT Spo2: 93% with Atm air
LGS: Surgical Dressing over neck
Chest: Clear and resonant
Asst; Smooth Post op and Discharged on 08/05/2009 and appointed to come with
biopsy result.
16. Smooth Post STT; To come to SRC with Biopsy result; 2 weeks sick leave given.
[24/05/2009] Biopsy Result
Sections from Solid area showed branching papillae with fibro vascular core and
follicles lined by cells with ovoid enlarged nuclei, nuclear overlapping ,grooves
and clearing
Sections from Colloid area showed macrofollicular growth pattern distended
with colloid; Consistent with nodular colloid goiter.
Diagnosis:Thyroid (Thyroidectomy)_ Papillary Carcinoma
Progress [16/05/2009]
17. SRC Progress [20/07/2009]
TFT Range
T3 0.914 0.8 – 2.0 ng/ml
T4 4.14 5.1 – 14.1ug/dl
TSH 1.49 0.28 - 4.3uIU/ml
Asst: Post Thyroidectomy hypothyroidism
Plan: Thyroxine 100 µg po/day
[29/09/09]
P: Same
Subjectively ;headache
V/S BP 150/100 mmhg
Asst: Post Thyroidectomy hypothyroidism +
Stage 2 HTN
On Thyroxine 100 µg po/day
Continued with Nifedipine 20 mg po bid, Life style
modification
19. ERC Progress (15/06/2010)
P-HTN+ hypothyroidism (post thyroidectomy)
-on Nifedipine 20 mg po bid, levothyroxine 50mcg po/d
Subjectively: no compliant
Objectively: BP 140/80
TFT- not done
Asst : fairly controlled HTN+ same
PLAN: refill and see him after 1 month with TFT
20. ERC Progress [1/13/10]
P-Iatrogenic hypothyroidism +HTN+ asthma
-on nifedipine 20 mg po bid, levothyroxine 50mcg po /d.
-Subjectively: dyspepsia, no other complaint
Objectively‘; BP 140/90,PR=72,To=35
TFT: FT3=3.88(2.02-4.43pg/ml),
FT4 =0.924(0.93-1.71 ng/dl)
Asst : fairly controlled HTN+ same
Plan: refill and see him after 3 month with TFT
21. P- Post subtotal thyroidectomy +biopsy proven papillary carcinoma +bronchial asthma
-on nifedipine 20 mg po bid, levothroxine 50mcg po /d, almitamine PRN
Subjectively: dyspepsia,no other complaint
Objectively‘; BP 140/90
-TSH= 4.77(0.15-5)
Plan; -target TSH <0.25
- levothyroxine 75mcg/d
-repeat U/S and see after 01 week
12/6/11- U/S ;bilateral thyroid lobes have normal flow with normal echogenicity and small size,
no mass seen,no cervical LADP
ERC Progress [7/6/2011] endocrinologist
evaluation
22. P- post subtotal thyroidectomy + biopsy proven papillary CA+ bronchial
asthma+ HTN
-On Nifedipine 20 mg po bid, levothyroxine 75 mcg po /d, almitamine PRN
Subjectively: no other complaint
Objectively: BP 130/90
TSH =2.75 (0.15-5),FT4=10.34(9-20),FT3=4.46 (4-8.3)
Plan:- levothyroxine 100 mcg/d
Appointed 06 wks. with TSH.
ERC Progress [19/7/2011] endocrinologist
evaluation
25. THE PATIENT CASE
A 57 yrs old male, Presented with Anterolateral neck
swelling >10Yrs, not increasing in size.
LGS: 7*6 cm Anterolateral Neck Swelling, more on
the right side, Multinodular Soft-firm consistency,
Non tender, which moves with deglutination.
NECK U/S [12/12/2008]
The Normal Thyroid Parenchyma is replaced by
multiple well defined heterogeneously hyperechoic
masses.There is a left lobe 3*2 cm relatively
hypoechoic nodule with micro calcification.
CONCLUSION: Multinodular Goiter 2o to ? Thyroid
Adenoma to r/o Papillary Thyroid Cancer; Please do
U/s Guided FNAC.
• FNAC [12/12/2008]
Aspiration 3*3, hemorrhagic and fluid;
Benign Nodular Colloid Goiter with Cystic
degenerative changes.
• Biopsy Result [24/05/2009]
Sections from Solid area showed
branching papillae with fibro vascular
core and follicles lined by cells with ovoid
enlarged nuclei, nuclear overlapping…
Sections from Colloid area showed
macrofollicular growth pattern distended
with colloid; Consistent with nodular
colloid goiter.
Conclusion: Papillary Carcinoma
26. Benign Neoplasms
These lesions are common (5–10% adults), particularly when assessed by sensitive
techniques such as ultrasound.
The risk of malignancy is very low for macrofollicular adenomas and
normofollicular adenomas.
Microfollicular, trabecular, and Hurthle cell variants raise greater concern, and the
histology is more difficult to interpret.
27. Thyroid Cancer
Thyroid carcinoma is the most common malignancy of the endocrine system.
Malignant tumors derived from the follicular epithelium are classified according to
histologic features.
Differentiated tumors, such as papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) or follicular
thyroid cancer (FTC), are often curable, and the prognosis is good for patients
identified with early-stage disease.
In contrast, anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is aggressive, responds poorly to
treatment, and is associated with a bleak prognosis.
28. Thyroid Cancer
The incidence of thyroid cancer is ~12/100,000 per year in the United States
and increases with age.
Prognosis is worse in older persons (>65 years).
Thyroid cancer is twice as common in women as men, but male gender
is associated with a worse prognosis.
Additional important risk factors include…
29.
30. Thyroid Cancer
Pathogenesis And Genetic Basis
Radiation
TSH and Growth Factors: Many differentiated thyroid cancers
express TSH receptors and, therefore, remain responsive to TSH.
Higher serum TSH levels, even within normal range, are associated with
increased thyroid cancer risk in patients with thyroid nodules.
These observations provide the rationale for T4 suppression of TSH in
patients with thyroid cancer.
Residual expression of TSH receptors also allows treatment with TSH-stimulated
uptake of 131I therapy.
Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes
RET, BRAF; RAS mutations rarely occur in the same tumor, suggesting that
activation of the MAPK cascade is critical for tumor development.
31. Treatment of Well differentiated Thyroid Ca
Surgery
Neartotal thyroidectomy is preferable in almost all patients; complication rates are
acceptably low if the surgeon is highly experienced in the procedure.
TSH Suppression Therapy
Because most tumors are still TSH-responsive, levothyroxine[T4] suppression of
TSH is a mainstay of thyroid cancer treatment.
No prospective studies define the optimal TSH suppression level.The degree
of TSH suppression must be individualized based on risk of recurrence.
Radioiodine Treatment I131
After near-total thyroidectomy, substantial thyroid tissue often remains;
Postsurgical radioablation of the remnant thyroid eliminates residual normal
thyroid, facilitating the use of Tg determinations and radioiodine scanning
for long-term follow-up.
32. Treatment of Well differentiated Thyroid
Cancer
New Potential Therapies
Kinase inhibitors are being explored as a means to target
pathways known to be active in thyroid cancer, including the RAS,
BRAF, EGFR,VEGFR, and angiogenesis pathways.
A multicenter randomized controlled trial of the multikinase inhibitor
sorafenib in 417 patients with progressive metastatic thyroid cancer reported a
doubling of progression-free survival to 10.8 months in the treatment group
compared with the placebo group.
35. Results: The revised guidelines for the management of thyroid
nodules include
Recommendations regarding initial evaluation,
Clinical and Ultrasound criteria for Fine-needle aspiration biopsy,
Interpretation of fine-needle aspiration biopsy results,
Use of molecular markers, and
Management of benign thyroid nodules.
Recommendations regarding the initial management of thyroid
cancer.
Recommendations related to long-term management of
differentiated thyroid cancer.
Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules/Neoplasms
36. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules/neoplasms
(A) Serum thyrotropin (TSH) should be measured during the initial evaluation of a
patient with a thyroid nodule. (Strong recommendation, Moderate-Q Evidence)
(B) If the Serum TSH is subnormal, a radionuclide (preferably 123I) thyroid scan
should be performed. (Strong recommendation, Moderate-Q evidence)
If the nodule is hyperfunctioning (‘‘hot,’’ i.e., tracer uptake >> surrounding normal thyroid),
isofunctioning (‘‘warm,’’ i.e., tracer uptake = surrounding thyroid), or nonfunctioning (‘‘cold,’’
i.e., has uptake << surrounding thyroid tissue). Since hyperfunctioning nodules rarely harbor
malignancy,
(C) If the Serum TSH is normal or elevated, a radionuclide scan should not be
performed as the initial imaging evaluation. (Strong recommendation, Moderate-Q
evidence)
38. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules
The next step in evaluation is Thyroid ultrasound for three reasons:
1. Ultrasound will confirm if the palpable nodule is indeed a nodule.
About 15% of “palpable” nodules are not confirmed on imaging,
and therefore, no further evaluation is required.
2. Ultrasound will assess if there are additional nonpalpable nodules
for which FNA may be recommended based on imaging features and
size.
3. Ultrasound will characterize the imaging features of the nodule,
which, combined with the nodule’s size, facilitate decision making
about FNA.
39. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules/neoplasms
Thyroid sonography with survey of the cervical lymph nodes
should be performed in all patients with known or suspected thyroid
nodules. (Strong recommendation, High-Q evidence)
Ultrasound should evaluate the following:
Thyroid parenchyma (homogeneous or heterogeneous) and gland
size; location, and sonographic characteristics of any nodule(s);
The presence or absence of any suspicious cervical lymph nodes
in the central or lateral compartments.
43. Thyroid Imaging Reporting And Data System
(TI-RADS):intro
Thyroid nodules - common and overwhelmingly benign
50% of the general population, palpable – 3-7%.
Malignancy – 5-7%
US can avoid unnecessary and costly interventions such as FNAC
and Biopsy.
2015 – ATA developed the pattern based classification – 5 groups
Pattern may not fit and may lead to subjectivity, vs point based
TIRAD
2017 – ACR-TIRADS – Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System
5 ultrasound features -------> 5 TR scores.
52. Lymph nodes
Lateral neck dissections for sonographically detected
LN mets will improve patient long term survival and
decrease tumor recurrence rates.
Clinically occult LN mets will be detected.
LN mets in the presence of a very
small nodule – decreases our
threshold to do FNAC
54. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules
FNA biopsy, ideally performed with ultrasound guidance, has good
sensitivity and specificity when performed by physicians familiar
with the procedure and when the results are interpreted by
experienced cytopathologists.
The technique is particularly useful for detecting PTC.
However, the distinction between benign and malignant
follicular lesions is often not possible using cytology alone.
55. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules
In several large studies, FNA biopsies yielded the following findings:
65% Benign,
5% Malignant or suspicious for malignancy,
10% Nondiagnostic or yielding insufficient material for diagnosis,
20% Indeterminate.
The Bethesda System is now widely used to provide more uniform terminology
for reporting thyroid nodule FNA cytology results.
Specifically, the Bethesda System subcategorized cytology specimens previously
labeled as Indeterminate into three categories:
• Atypia or Follicular Lesion of Undetermined Significance (AUS/ FLUS),
• Follicular neoplasm, and
• Suspicious for malignancy.
56. Approach To The Patient with
Thyroid Nodules/neoplasms
Thyroid nodule FNA cytology should be reported using diagnostic groups outlined in the
Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology. (Strong recommendation,
Moderate-Q evidence)
58. Thyroid Cytopathology
• The Bethesda System 2017, An Overview
• Best Practice
• Challenges in the Local Context
• Best Practice in the Local Context?
59.
60.
61.
62. Thyroid Cytopathology
The provisional goal of limiting AUS/FLUS interpretations to 7%
of all thyroid FNA interpretations is increased to 10%.
The AUS/FLUS to malignant ratio may be a useful laboratory
quality measure that should not exceed 3.0.
Narrative comments are strongly recommended to further
describe the findings, especially if it would potentially
influence management.
The possibility of a compromised sample with artifactual
changes should be acknowledged in the report.
63. FNAC of Thyroid: Some Observations
Practice started in the 1980s
The incidence of malignant thyroid nodules in patients with one or more
nodules ranges from 6% to 13%
Provides diagnostic information in 85% of patients with accuracy > 95%
Most common thyroid lesion is the benign colloid nodule, followed by
nodular goiter, hyperplastic nodules, plain cysts, subacute thyroiditis
and lymphocytic thyroiditis.
Number of punctures required for the diagnosis of thyroid nodules is not
well established in the literature.
Recommendation: 2 to 3 punctures on different areas nodule
64. Non Diagnostic Specimens/Error Rate:
Are related to:
Failure in puncture technique (operator error)
Very small nodules
Mixed lesions (cystic/solid contents)
Fibrotic nodules or I
Insufficient number of cells in the specimen
Recommendation: US-Guided FNAC for TBS I &
Suspicious lesions
65. The Local Context & Challenges
Prevalence of thyroid enlargement?
4% to 7% of general population
Use of US: increase to 30% to 50%
Patient load?
Rejection criteria ?
Radiology department?
Lack of uniformity & standard
66. Best Practice, Local Context:
Priority: Standardized reporting format (adapted to local
context)
Four categories: Non diagnostic; Benign; Malignant, &
Suspicious for malignancy or Undetermined (follicular
neoplasia or Hurthle cell neoplasm)
US-Guided FNAC ? For TBS 1 & suspicious lesions
Rejection criteria?
Instituting Quality Metrics in Cytopathology demands strong
inter-departmental collaboration
67. OUR CASE
57/M with Anterior neck swelling of 10years
P/E 7*6 cm Anterolateral Neck Swelling, more on the right side,
Multinodular Soft-firm consistency, Non tender, which moves with
deglutination.
NECK U/S: The Normal Thyroid Parenchyma is replaced by multiple
well defined heterogeneously hyperechoic masses.There is a left lobe
3*2 cm relatively hypoechoic nodule with micro calcification.
FNAC: Aspiration 3*3, hemorrhagic and fluid; Benign Nodular Goiter
with Cystic degenerative changes.
FT4= 0.92 FT3= 3.65 TSH= 0.345
P: Euthyroid Nodular Goiter + Hypertensive + Asthmatic
Procedure Note: Subtotal Thyroidectomy done [Bilateral STT +
Isthmusectomy + Pyramidal Lobe removed]
Points that speak for malignancy
age, male, size
? Hypothyroidism
Most importantly U/S finding
Sonographic suspicious features
(hypoechoic, micro calcification,
increased central vascularity, infiltrative
margin or taller than wide in transverse
plan)
?? U/S guided FNAC
Surgery?? At least left total
68. Post op
Biopsy =Papillary
Carcinoma
fT4 = 0.914 TSH= 1.49,
2.53, 4.77
??Post Thyroidectomy
hypothyroidism
Plan: Thyroxine 100 µg
po/day
Follow up
Adjuvant treatment
TSH suppression
RIA ablation
TSH/ Thyroglobulin
Low risk TSH= 0.1- 0.5
High risk= < 0.1
69. Is he candidate for completion?
When complete total thyroidectomy after lobectomy:
Aggressive variant
Macroscopic multifocal disease
Positive isthmus margins
Cervical lymph node metastases
Extra thyroidal extension
Aggressive=Tall cell, columnar cell, insular, oxyphilic, or poorly differentiated features
Sections from Solid area showed branching papillae with fibro vascular core and follicles lined by cells with ovoid
enlarged nuclei, nuclear overlapping…
Sections from Colloid area showed macrofollicular growth pattern distended with colloid; Consistent with nodular
colloid goiter.
72. Low risk ….2015 ATA guidelines…
LOBECTOMY
Papillary tumor size less than 1 cm
Unifocal
No cervical lymph nodes
No extra thyroidal extension
No hx of neck radiation
No family hx
Low stage
73. High risk …. 2015 ATA GUIDLINE
Recommendation…NTT/TT
Size >1cm
Multifocal
Cervical lymph nodes
Extra thyroidal extension
No hx of neck radiation
Family hx
Male
Female >50
Bilateral diseases
74. Follow up
P/E every 3-6 month for 2 yr ,then annually if disease free
Serum thyroglobulin level at 6 and 12 month ,then annually if
disease free
RAIA
THYROXINE for TSH suppression
Periodic NECK U/S and CXR
TSH
CT /MRI
75. Surgical Summary
Lobectomy is optimal treatment for low risk groups.
Near total or total thyroidectomy should be standard of
care for the high risk groups.
Lymph node dissection should be therapeutic.
Post op follow up should be to the standard.
77. Take Home Message
The evaluation of a thyroid nodule is stressful for most patients.They
are concerned about the possibility of thyroid cancer, whether verbalized
or not.
When a suspicious lesion or thyroid cancer is identified earlier, the
generally favorable prognosis and available treatment options
can be reassuring.
78. Take Home Message
The Surgeon should have a clear plan before surgery based on TIRAD Scores/
The Bethesda System report and subsequent Post Surgical follow-up through
“MDT” groups.
The main goal of this presentation is to identify, in a “cost-effective manner”, the
small subgroup of individuals with malignant lesions at an earlier stage; by
having a Multidisciplinary Diagnostic Approach to Thyroid nodule involving
the Surgeon; the Radiologist; the Pathologist and the Internist.
79. Reference
Harrison’s Principles of Internal medicine 20th ed.
2015 American Thyroid Association Management: Guidelines for Adult Patients with Thyroid Nodules and
Differentiated Thyroid Cancer.
2017 American College of Radiology
RSNA Articles
Schwartz 11th ed.
Clarks Endocrine Surgery 3rd ed.
Up-to-date 21.6
Patient’s Chart
Hypothyroidism secondary to what?
&lt;number&gt;
Updated TFTS Not Sent.
&lt;number&gt;
GAP ON BIOPSY RESULT
&lt;number&gt;
&lt;number&gt;
Several unique features of thyroid cancer facilitate its management:
Thyroid nodules are amenable to biopsy by FNA;
Iodine radioisotopes can be used to diagnose (123I) and treat (131I) differentiated thyroid cancer, reflecting the unique uptake of this anion by the thyroid gland;
Serum markers allow the detection of residual or recurrent disease, including the use of Tg levels for PTC and FTC, and calcitonin for medullary thyroid cancer (MTC).
&lt;number&gt;
Early studies of the pathogenesis of thyroid cancer focused on the role of external radiation, which predisposes to chromosomal breaks, leading to genetic rearrangements and loss of tumor-suppressor genes. External radiation of the mediastinum, face, head, and neck region was administered in the past to treat an array of conditions, including acne and enlargement of the thymus, tonsils, and adenoids.
Radiation exposure increases the risk of benign and malignant thyroid nodules, is associated with multicentric cancers, and shifts the incidence of thyroid cancer to an earlier age group.
&lt;number&gt;
aCriteria include:
T, the size and extent of the primary tumor (T1a ≤1 cm; T1b &gt;1 cm but ≤2 cm; T2 &gt;2 cm but ≤4 cm; T3 &gt;4 cm or any tumor with extension into perithyroidal soft tissue or sternothyroid muscle; T4a invasion into subcutaneous soft tissues, larynx, trachea, esophagus, or recurrent laryngeal nerve; T4b invasion into prevertebral fascia or encasement of carotid artery or mediastinal vessels);
N, the absence (N0) or presence (N1a level IV central compartment; N1b levels II–V lateral compartment, upper mediastinal or retro/parapharyngeal) of regional node involvement;
M, the absence (M0) or presence (M1) of distant metastases.
&lt;number&gt;
Many differentiated thyroid cancers express TSH receptors and, therefore, remain responsive to TSH.
Higher serum TSH levels, even within normal range, are associated with increased thyroid cancer risk in patients with thyroid nodules.
These observations provide the rationale for T4 suppression of TSH in patients with thyroid cancer.
Residual expression of TSH receptors also allows TSH-stimulated uptake of 131I therapy
Of note, simultaneous RET, BRAF, and RAS mutations rarely occur in the same tumor, suggesting that activation of the MAPK cascade is critical for tumor development, independent of the step that initiates the cascade.
&lt;number&gt;
Background: Thyroid nodules are a common clinical problem, and differentiated thyroid cancer is becomingincreasingly prevalent.
Since the American Thyroid Association’s (ATA’s) guidelines for the management ofthese disorders were revised in 2009, significant scientific advances have occurred in the field.
The aim of these guidelines is to inform clinicians, patients, researchers, and health policy makers on published evidence relatingto the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer.
&lt;number&gt;
Include those relating to screening for thyroid cancer, staging and risk assessment, surgical management, radioiodine remnant ablation and therapy, and thyrotropin suppression therapy using levothyroxine.
Include those related to surveillance for recurrent disease using imaging and serum thyroglobulin, thyroid hormone therapy, management of recurrent and metastatic disease, consideration for clinical trials and targeted therapy, as well as directions for future research.
&lt;number&gt;
With the discovery of a thyroid nodule, a complete history and physical examination focusing on the thyroid gland and adjacent cervical lymph nodes should be performed. Pertinent historical factors predicting malignancy include a history of childhood head and neck radiation therapy, total body radiation for bone marrow transplantation (42), exposure to ionizing radiation from fallout in childhood or adolescence (43), familial thyroid carcinoma, or thyroid cancer syndrome (e.g., PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome [Cowden’s disease], FAP, Carney complex, Werner syndrome/progeria, or MEN 2, a risk for medullary thyroid cancer [MTC]) in a firstdegree relative, rapid nodule growth, and/or hoarseness.Pertinent physical findings suggesting possible malignancyinclude vocal cord paralysis, cervical lymphadenopathy, andfixation of the nodule to surrounding tissue.With the discovery of a thyroid nodule &gt;1 cm in any diameter, a serum TSH level should be obtained. If the serumTSH is subnormal, a radionuclide thyroid scan should beobtained. If overt orsubclinical hyperthyroidism is present, additional evaluationis required. (45,46).
&lt;number&gt;
A higher serum TSH level, even within the upper part of the reference range, is associated with increased risk of malignancy in a thyroid nodule, as well as more advanced stage thyroid cancer
&lt;number&gt;
Evidence-based guidelines from both the ATA and the AACE provide recommendations for nodule FNA based on sonographic imaging features and size cut offs, with lower size cut offs for nodules with more suspicious ultrasound characteristics.
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The US report should convey nodule size (in three dimensions) and location(e.g., right upper lobe) and a description of the nodule’s sonographic features including composition (solid, cystic proportion, or spongiform), echogenicity, margins, presence and type of calcifications, and shape if taller than wide, andvascularity. The pattern of sonographic features associated with a nodule confers a risk of malignancy, and combined with nodule size, guides FNA decision-making
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Thyroid US has been widely used to stratify the risk ofmalignancy in thyroid nodules, and aid decision-makingabout whether FNA is indicated. Studies consistently reportthat several US gray scale features in multivariate analysesare associated with thyroid cancer, the majority of which arePTC. These include the presence of microcalcifications,nodule hypoechogenicity compared with the surroundingthyroid or strap muscles, irregular margins (defined as eitherinfiltrative, microlobulated, or spiculated), and a shape tallerthan wide measured on a transverse view. Features with thehighest specificities (median &gt;90%) for thyroid cancer aremicrocalcifications, irregular margins, and tall shape,
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(A) For a nodule with an initial nondiagnostic cytologyresult, FNA should be repeated with US guidance and, ifavailable, on-site cytologic evaluation(Strong recommendation, Moderate-q uality evidence)(B) Repeatedly nondiagnostic nodules without a highsuspicion sonographic pattern require close observation orsurgical excision for histopathologic diagnosis(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)(C) Surgery should be considered for histopathologic diagnosis if the cytologically nondiagnostic nodule has ahigh suspicion sonographic pattern, growth of the nodule( &gt;20% in two dimensions) is detected during US surveillance, or clinical risk factors for malignancy are present(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
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Spongiform - &gt;50% of the volume of the nodule should be occupied by cysts.
Cystic – colloid cyst
Spongiform
Mixed – xer of the solid component. Eccenteric vs concentric, acute angle vs obtuse angle, microcalcifications
Solid – follicular adenoma
88% - of thyroid cas are solid.
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Frame of reference – surrounding normal thyroid parenchyma.
Anechoic – simple coliod cyst
Hyperechoic – colloid nodule
Hypoechoic – RCC mets
Markedly – Papillary Ca
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W/T – 53 yr old with follicular adenoma
T/W – 47 yr old male with papillary ca.
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Smooth – 43 yr old – follicular adenoma
Ill def. – 82 yr old – poorly differentiated ca
Irreg – 47 yr old – papillary Ca
Ext thy – 73 yr old anaplastic ca.
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Comet -
Macro – 47 yr old with a benign colloid nodule
Rim – 43 yr old follicular ca
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Cystic changes, microcalcifications, other calc, round shape, loss of hilum etc.
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Latest TIRAD classification not available at the time.
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American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists
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Given the existing controversies in the field, differences in critical appraisal approaches for existing evidence, and differences in clinical practice patterns acrossgeographic regions and physician specialties, it should not be surprising that the organizational guidelines are not in complete agreement for all issues.
Such differences highlight the importance of clarifying evidence uncertainties with future high quality clinical research
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