This document provides an overview of various energy sources in India, including both renewable and non-renewable sources. It discusses fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas which currently provide most of India's energy but are limited. It also covers renewable sources like solar, biomass, wind, and biogas energy which have potential to meet more of India's future energy needs in a sustainable manner. The document aims to evaluate both conventional and alternative energy sources and conservation practices important for India's development and environmental protection.

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ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
By
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore
Mysore

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Introduction to Energy Sources:
Energy is the capacity to perform work.
When one thinks of energy then it should be
born in mind that there are several sources of
energy and methods of consumption. The sources
differ from a developed country to a developing
country.
Energy, in developed nations, is obtained through
coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower, nuclear,
biomass, wind, solar and geothermal sources.

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In developing countries, requirement of energy is
met through animal manure, Fossil fuels, fuel
wood, crop by products and food.
The major sectors of energy conservation
includes transportation, space or house heating
(including cooking, lighting, etc) and industries.
The sources are classified into two major groups
as;
1. Renewable sources - water, sun, wind (solar,
Hydroelectric, wind )

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2. Non-renewable energy sources-Fossil fuels
(coal, oil and gas), fissionable materials for
nuclear power generation and geothermal sources.
Broadly the sources are classified as;
A. Fossil fuel sources and their availability -coal,
oil, gas,
B. Energy from the sun-solar
C. Energy from plants-Biogas
D. Energy from wind- wind mill
E. Energy from water-Hydroelectric power

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F. Energy from Radioactive minerals-Nuclear
power
G. Geothermal energy
About 26 %'o of the Indian population live in
urban areas. Their energy needs are met by non-
commercial and commercial sources. A sizable
share of the rural households is met by non-
commercial sources (Fuel wood, agricultural
residues; animal waste, and human and animal
power). Now, these resources are getting steadily
replaced by using commercial fuels.

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Fossil Fuels:
Energy conservation is made through the use of
fossil fuels.
In a few developed nations, nearly 90 % is met
through the energy production from coal, natural
gas and petroleum. It depends on the availability
of the fossil fuel resources, or reserves.
In order to maintain our industrial society and the
quality of environment, it is essential to evaluate
the potential energy sources and conservation
practices.

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Coal:
Coal is a fossil fuel made up of organic, material
which has escaped from oxidation in the carbon
cycle.
Coal is an altered residue of plants and trees of
older forests, which have been buried under
sediments, and were subjected to a set of
geological processes.
This is a progressively compressed material.

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There are four types of coal in the order of
decreasing carbon content, volatiles and moisture,
as
a. Anthracite
b. Bituminous coal
b. Sub-bituminous coal and
d. Lignite.
Peat and wood are the basic materials before the
formation of lignite. Coal is ranked, based on the
percentage of carbon. The heat content is
maximum in bituminous coal and minimum in
lignite, due to its high moisture levels.

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The sulphur content varies in coals. This may be
low (< 1%) or medium (1-3%) and high (> 3%).
The lignite reserves are mainly available in Tamil
Nadu (7730 mt), Rajasthan (870 mt), Pondicherry
(586 mt) and Gujarat (388 mt).
A coal with less sulphur content will cause less air
pollution. Coal is mined through strip mining or
underground mining methods.
The coal reserves of India are estimated as about
196 billion- tonnes.

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Nearly 98 % of these deposits belong to the
Goadwana age of the geological history. They
mostly lie in the Bihar-Bengal coal-belt confined
to the Damodar Valley.
Others are found in the valleys of Godavari,
Wardha, Son and Mahanadi. Bihar is the largest
producer, amounting to 50 % of the country's total
production.

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Nearly 35 % of the coal produced in India is
consumed by thermal power plants, 20% by Iron
and steel industries and the remaining (23%) are
used up by bricks and kiln factories
railways(11%) and cement and Fertilizer
industries (12%).
Thermal Power
Energy in the form of electric power is a basic
need for all modern, developmental activities. It
can be generated by a variety of methods,
materials and mechanics.

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Due to
1.the failure of monsoons and low production of
hydel power,
2.the availability of less oil reserves and
3.the problems of nuclear power plants, coal is
considered to be a primary and principal source of
electricity in India.
The production of thermal power depends on the
ash content of the coal used.
Higher the ash content, lower the efficiency of the
boiler and furnaces.

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Power Plant Pollution
For every megawatt of a thermal plant, about one
acre of land is needed to dump the wastes (ash).
The material volume may be more.
Coal-based thermal plant pollutes the atmosphere
by gaseous emissions of sulphur-dioxide,
nitrogen oxide, etc causing acid rain, and produce
tremendous amount of solid wastes, fly ash and
bottom ash.

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Coal is also a repository of many toxic metals
like, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Ni, uranium, etc.
Besides toxic metals, coal carries about 0.3 to 0.5
% of halogens, (chlorine, fluorine, etc).
Coal mining, transport, washing, processing,
shipping, combustion and final disposal of ash- all
there activities pertaining to coal lead to
potentially adverse environmental effects like
a. aesthetic degradation,
b. noise,
c. dust pollution and the

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d. release of trace elements into water, soil and
air.
OIL AND GAS
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
accompanied by some amounts of related
compounds containing N, S and O. In general,
Petroleum and natural; gas (methane) are
hydrocarbons. They are fossil fuels formed from
organic material, escaped from complete
decomposition after burial.

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Oil is the most abundant fluid in the earth's crust,
react to water.
Crude Petroleum is a mixture or a mutual solution
of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, mostly
of the paraffin series.
The major source for oil and gas is the fine
grained, organic rich sediments that are buried to
a depth of S00 m or below under stagnant oceanic
water. These might have experienced a thrust due
to an increase in pressure and heat.

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The water is deficient in oxygen. The ultimate
result of the geological and biological (bacteria)
processes start with the chemical transformation
of these organic materials into hydrocarbons.
They tend to migrate through the porous
sediments called reservoir rocks.
The reservoirs will mostly be enriched with
entrapped pressure and salty water.
The properties and value of the crude oil differs,
due to the presence of some other chemical
substances in small quantities.

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Crude oil is refined to produce propane, gasoline,
jet fuel, heating oil, motor oil and road tar. The
chemicals present in oil are extracted for the
production of plastics, medicines, etc.
Automobiles, aircrafts and all home furnaces
depend on the oil reserves.
The potential oil bearing horizons in India exist
along the Northen plains, coastal strips, plains of
Gujarat, Assam, the Thar desert and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.

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The estimated reserve is 21.31 billion tonnes, of
which 61 % lies offshore and 39 % on land.
The richest field of offshore oil is the Bombay
High, the seabed off Bombay Island (115 km
away from the shore).
Our resources are limited and meager.
The demand for oil is in significant when
compared to that of the developed nations.

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The Oil and India Limited (OIL) and ONGC are
the two public sector agencies, engaged in both
exploration and production of oil and allied
products in the Northeast region.
Natural Gas:
Natural Gas is a combustible gas often found
together with oil in sedimentary oil-trap beds. Gas
accumulates above the oil. Being in gaseous form,
natural gas may also occur alone in separate
reservoirs.

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Sometimes, it is entrapped between, liquid
petroleum and impervious cap rocks in a
petroleum reservoir. Under conditions of greater
pressure, it is intimately mixed with or dissolved
in crude oil.
Typical gas consists of hydrocarbons, having a
very low boiling point. Methane CH4, the first
member of the paraffin series, and with a boiling
point of -245deeg F makes up 85 % of the typical
gas. The following types have been recognized
based on their composition:

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l. Dry or Lean gas - mostly methane
2. Wet Gas - considerable amounts of the so
called higher hydrocarbons
3. Sour Gas - much hydrogen sulphide
4. Sweet Gas - with little H2S.
5. Residue Gas - higher paraffin having been
extracted
6. Casing head Gas - derived from an oil well by
extraction at the surface.

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Natural gas is used for domestic and industrial
applications.
The average utilization of gas during 1991-92 in
India was 30 MCM per day. The consumption
rating for different sectors is given below:
Fertilizers ( 36 % )
Power generation (27 %) Industrial sectors (8 %)
Extraction of liquefied Petroleum gas or cooking
gas, the rest.

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Natural gas has no distinct odor. It is present in
almost all sedimentary systems of rocks belonging
to the Cambrian age of the geological records.
Propane and butane are obtained by processing
natural gas.
SOLAR ENERGY
The energy received from the sun's radiation is
called solar energy. It could be used to produce
electric power. This is a non-conventional energy
source.

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Every 29 seconds, the solar energy that falls on
the earth is equivalent to the human energy, needs
of a day. India has a potential availability of 5 x
10**15kwhr / year of solar energy.
But only the generation made through solar
thermal devices is less than 130 million kwh/
year. The simplest use of solar energy is to orient
and design the house so that the house structure
itself can collect and store the daily heat. Solar
collectors are used to trap this solar heat.

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A solar collector consists of a coil of copper pipe,
brazed to a blackened metal base.
This assembly is covered by a transparent glass
plate or a plastic sheet.
Water is passed into the pipe. It gets heated up by
the radiations and used for the household work.
Electricity is also generated using solar cells.
These cells are the devices made from crystals of
silicon to produce electricity from sunlight. This
is called as Photovoltaic technology.

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EQUIPMENTS
The equipments available commercially for
producing low grade thermal power are
a. Flat Plate collector water heating systems
b. Box type solar cookers
c. desalinators using parabolic Trough collectors
d. solar convectors for timber seasoning and
drying of crops.

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Research is focused on the other solar thermal
applications such as Water pumping, refrigeration,
solar ponds, temperature control in buildings, etc.
Solar ponds are made as a cheaper alternative to
flat plate solar thermal systems for large amounts
.of hot water requirements.
Two centres have been commissioned at
Hyderabad and Delhi, to generate 20 and 50 kw
power respectively, in India.

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Merits and Demerits
Consumption by Solar energy has more
advantages, like the
1.Un limited supply,
2.no way of producing air, water, thermal, and
noise pollution,
3.no possibilities of large scale disasters,
4.Conserves earth's resources and
5. the technology available for immediate usage.
The major disadvantage is the expense involved in
establishing the plants.

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Solar cells are more expensive. They can not
completely replace the conventional fuels.
Biomass
Biomass fuel is the new name given for the oldest
human fuel. It is the organic matter that can be
burned directly or indirectly as a fuel. Wood was
used as a major source until the last century, in
several parts of the world.

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Firewood is the best known biomass fuel. Cow
dung or cattle dung is burnt for cooking in India
and a few other countries.
Peat is used in countries like Scotland, where its
availability is more. On a global scale one billion
people use still the biomass fuel.
Burning of biomass gives energy to produce
electricity, to heat water and air. The distillation
of biomass is done to produce alcohol for fuel.

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There are three major sources as
1.Forest products,
2.Unused agricultural products and
3. Urban wastes.
The main advantage is that the biomass, under
several conditions, can be recycled. The main
disadvantage is the requirement of an energy for
processing the biomass into a convenient form of
energy. Biomass energy is available locally (Eg.
Sugar cane farms and sugar production plants -
Riu straw or Hey).

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The consumption of biomass fuel can produce air
pollution (due to smoke) and sometimes degrade
the land.
ENERGY PLANTATIONS
Tree Plantations can give substantial input for the
energy requirements. Cultivation of traditional
(Sugar cane, pineapple, corn, peanuts, soy beans,
sunflower, etc) and non-traditional crops (trees)
can be made for their energy content.

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Gashole is a motor fuel containing 10% ethanol
and 90% gasoline. Ethanol could be obtained
from the fermentation of ordinary corn. Some
trees give a sap which could be directly used in
the diesel-powered vehicles.
AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry integrates agricultural and forest
production under a common management. This is
a collective name for the land use systems
combined with crops and animals on the same
land.

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Agroforestry combines the production of multiple
output (food crops, tree crops and livestock) with
protection of the resource base.
Agroforestry has two functional attributes as:
1. Productive functions - Food, Fodder, Fuel
wood, other woods and other products.
2. Protective functions - Wind-break, shelter-belt,
soil conservation, moisture
conservation, soil improvement and shade for
crop, animal and man.

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Energy Production from agroforestry
1. Wood fuels ( Fire wood, Saw mill wastes )
2. Charcoal, oil, gas
3. Ethanol from fermentation of high carbohydrate
fruits (palm) or other tree parts (Sago palm).
4. Methanol from destructive distillation using
woods, feed stocks.
Environmental Benefits
1. Reduction of pressure on forests
2. Recycling of nutrients
3. Ecosystems protection

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4. Reduction of surface runoff, nutrient leaching
and soil erosion.
4. Improvement of microclimate, soil nutrients
and structure.
Socio-Economic Benefits
1. Increase in output (many ways)
2. Reduction in total crop failure
3. increase in productivity and income
4. Improvement in rural living standards,
nutrition and health.

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Indian Scenario
The total area of the country is 329 mha. The
forestland covered is 67.4 mha. The cultivable
wasteland is 1.69 mha, and permanent pasture and
grazing lands cover 12.1 mha.
WIND ENERGY
The rapid depletion of fossil fuels and the increase
in environmental pollution call for an efficient use
of energy sources and alternate sources for energy
development.

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Wind is the best renewable energy source.
The harnessing method of wind energy is simple.
The blow of wind is allowed to rotate the blades
of a windmill, which is coupled to a turbine. This
drives a power generator.
Out country is a high wind zone in the world with
an estimated potential of 20, 000 MW.
Only 45 mw is being tapped now in Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu and Andra Pradesh.

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Merits And Demerits
1. The generation period is low ( 5 months ).
2. Power generation starts immediately after
commissioning the plant.
3. Power is cost free, generation is cheaper and
recurring cost is less.
4. Installation cost is heavy, and the maintenance
of machinery is also expensive.
5. Pollution free and environment friendly
generation of power.

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A wind power plant is also a source of income. A
wind power generator of 200 kw/250 kw,
generates at an average of six to seven lak h units
annually. Tamil Nadu is on the top in producing
20mw power through this way.
BIOGAS
Biogas is the methane gas produced or released
from the organic wastes (sewage, garbage,
manure or crop residues) which are decomposed
in the absence of air.

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This is similar to the natural gas in origin. Biogas
can be collected using a container filled with the
wastes and closed at the top with a tap for
trapping the gas. The wastes (mostly animal) are
allowed to decay and decompose naturally inside
the container. After producing the gas, the used
up materials can be used as a high quality organic
manure in agriculture. India has been one of the
pioneering countries in the development and use
of biogas technology.
Our government has established a National
Project for Biogas Development.

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Over 12 to 13 lakh biogas plants have been
installed in India.
They include; Community biogas plants,
Industrial biogas plants, Night soil biogas plants,
Family size biogas plants and Improved chulhas.
HYDRO ELECTPICITY
Hydropower is a renewable energy source. In
olden days, water wheels were used to generate
mechanical energy to run some mills and
machineries.

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Today the hydroelectric power can meet nearly 1S
% of the energy requirements.
This is generated by storing water in dams and
using that water to forcefully operate the wheels
of the power generators, through large diameter
pipes.
Waterpower is clean power. It requires no burning
of any fuel. Waterpower generators do not pollute
the atmosphere or the hydrosphere.

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Nepal has the greatest potential for waterpower in the world.
Important Indian Hydropower Projects
l. Nagarjunasagar. 2. Bhakra Nangal
3.Chambal valley (386mw). 4. Damodar valley
(1181mw)
5. Hirakud. 6.Tungabadra (126 mw )
7. Sharavati (891 mw). 8.Koyna (540 mw)
9. Idduki (390 mw). 10. Narmada (1450 mw)
Tidal Power:
The tides, which are dashing against the shores
continuously, can generate the tidal power. This
can be obtained by using a tidal dam built with a
turbine.

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This is more expensive when compared to the
hydroelectric power installations. The variations
in tidal dynamics along a coast has to be taken
into account
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
This refers to the heat energy emanating from the
earth's interior which could be used for heating or
for generating electricity. In USSR, Japan and
New Zealand this energy is used to produce
electricity.

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The method is simple by installing a pipe into
wells drilled over the geothermal source regions
and connect them to a turbine.
HYDRO GEOTHERMICS
Earth's crust has got several hydro geothermal
systems with thermal and mineral waters. Thermal
water is groundwater with a temperature of 20 C
to 10deegC. This water is used for several
purposes (including therapeutic bathing).

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Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and many
European nations have the potential sources of
hydrogeothermal energy. The following are the
major classes of thermal waters:
1. Low temperature water (20-10deeg C) used in
heat engines, heat pumps, etc.
2. Mid-temperature water (100-150deeg C) used
for power generation.
3. High temperature water( over 150° C)-used for
power generation.

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Energy Comparisons:,
One of the most easily recognisable measures of
energy is the Kilowatt-hour (kwh). This
corresponds to the electricity used by a small
electric fire (1kwatt) in an hour. Some of the facts
related are:
1 kwh = 0.86 x 106 calories
1 calorie = the energy required to make 1 cc of
water to become ldeegC hotter.
The combustion of 1 ton average coal yields about
9000 kwh.

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Since electricity is generated from all sources like
fuels, sunshine, steam wells, tides, winds and
nuclear fission, a comparison can be made to
assess the nature of energy productions, on a
global scale.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Many of the environmentally conscious countries
in the world depend on nuclear power for their
electricity generation.

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At present about 17 % of the worlds electricity is
generated through nuclear sources.
Nuclear source is clean, compact and
concentrated.
This has no effects like acid rain or heavy metal
pollutants.
Sources are available in the form of fuel bundles,
which once loaded in the reactor core, provide
energy for 1 1/2 to 2 years at a stretch before
discharge.
One kg of Uranium gives an energy equivalent to
25,000 kg of coal.

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It is generated through nuclear fission, which is
the splitting of Uranium (U 235) by nuclear
bombardment. The reaction produces three more
neutrons released from Uranium, fission
fragments and heat. Repetition of these processes
in a chain reaction generates a huge quantity of
power. The isotopes of Uranium used here are
1.U23 2.U235 and 3.U234.
U235 is the fissionable material and is the source
for nuclear energy.

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It counts to only 0.7 % of natural uranium. This is
processed to increase the amount to about 3 %
before it is used in a reactor.
The processed fuel is called as enriched uranium.
Uranium 238 is not fissionable.
But it is fertile. Upon bombardment by neutrons it
can be converted into plutonium -239.
This is fissionable.

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Reactors
Nuclear power plants are similar to coal plants in
that heat is used to produce steam to drive a
turbine. But the basic difference between them is
the atomic fission instead of chemical
combustion. A nuclear reactor requires a fuel
substance whose nuclei can undergo fission. Such
substances are called fissionable substances. U235
and plutonium 239 are the widely used fuels. In
addition to the fuel, reactors require neutrons.
These are the stimulators for chain reaction.

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Safety, design and operation of reactors depend
on the way by which these neutrons are managed.
Nuclear reactors are classified based on the fuel,
coolant and moderator used to support the nuclear
chain reaction. There are mainly five types of
reactors, as
1. Pressurised Water Reactors ( PWR)
2. Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
3.Pressurised Heavy water Reactor(PHWR)
4. Gas Cooled Reactors (GCR) and
5.Liquid Metal cooled Breeder Reactors (LMBR)

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There are about 434 reactors used in operation in
26 countries. India has chosen PHWR type as the
mainly of its Nuclear Power Programme since it
is suited to our condition
Non-Breeders
A nuclear reactor consists of the following parts:
l.The Fuel - Uranium-di-oxide is fabricated in a
ceramic form and inserted in the form of pellets
into long thin stainless steel tubes technically
called rods.

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Many rods are bundled into an assembly and
inserted into the reactor core.
2.The Moderator: Fission is more efficient with
slow neutrons, but the reaction releases fast
neutrons. In order to slow down the neutrons,
moderators are used. Water is mainly used for this
purpose and also as a coolant.
3.The Coolant: Water becomes the coolant if used
as a moderator.

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4. Control Rods: These serve to regulate the flow
of neutrons, and smooth running of the production
process without wastages.
Breeders
Breeder reactors have the following features: The
fuel contains U238 mixed with a higher
percentage of U235 and Plutonium captured by
the U238 to produce fissionable liquid sodium.
This eventually transfers its heat to make steam.

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Occurrence of Uranium
The natural concentration of uranium in the
earth's crust is about 2ppm.
Uranium originates in magma. It is concentrated
to about 4ppm in granitic rocks, pegmatites, etc.
They occur in a large number of minerals. They
are called rare-earth minerals (or) radioactive
minerals. They contain Uranium or Thorium as an
essential part of their chemical composition.

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Some of them are Oxide-Uranite, Pitchblende,
Vanadates, carnotite, Silicate-coffinite,
Phosphate-Autunite and Torbernite, and the
complex oxides as Brannerite and Davidite.
The chief Thorium minerals are Thorite (silicate)
Thorogummite and Thorianite ( oxide).
The chief source of Thorium is the rare-earth
phosphate mineral monazite.

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Impact of Nuclear energy on the Environment
The disposal of nuclear wastes, some radio-active
liquids, gases will affect the environment
severely. The safety and security of life nearer the
plants depend on
1.the safe design and operation,
2.the availability of a substitute in case of a
failure,
3.the accident warning or alarming system,
4.the careful and continuous maintenance of
plants and

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5.the methods to save the life or minimize the
death toll.
Radio-active emissions are continuously expected
even in safe designs. Krypton-85 is a product of
fission which can escape into the atmosphere.
The wastes should be properly disposed after
reprocessing.
Cancer is a common disease, in these zones. The
radiation will definitely affect the biological
systems.

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Introduction to natural resources:
Natural resources are of several kinds. They-arc
broadly classified into the following groups:
1.Land resources,
2. Soil resources,
3.Water resources,
4.Forest resources,
5.Marine resources,
6. Mineral resources,
7.Grassland' and livestock and
8. Human resources.

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Land resources include all the terrestrial
ecosystems including mountains, rivers, lakes, etc.
(Marine resources have already been discussed in
chapter-III).
MINERAL RESOURCES
Man's first began to use minerals and rocks for his
needs far back in ancient times. Stone played a
large role in the primitive society.

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The stoneage man used stones and clays to
prepare things which were necessary for his
defense, hunting and household articles as well as
ornaments. He used rocks for construction.
identified the valuable metallic ores and
gemstones.
Aristotle was the first naturalist to classify the
stones. mining for copper, lead and silver began in
the sixth and seventh centuries. Large mining
enterprises were started during fifteenth century.
Utilization of mineral resources greatly increased
during the eighteenth century.

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Due to the progress in industrial growth more and
more natural resources are being used in one way
or the other. The branches of earth science
connected to mineral resources are:
a. Crystallography- science of crystals, their form,
internal structure, origin and properties of
crystalline matter.
b. Mineralogy - deals with the study of
morphology, chemical compositions, impurities
and internal structure of minerals.
c. Economic geology - the study of mode of
occurrence, origin and classification of economic

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mineral deposits. (Minerals are naturally
occurring inorganic substances having a set of
definite physical properties and chemical
composition).
Many minerals are of very high practical value.
They are classified into
A. Metallic Minerals - Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni
1. Ferrous minerals - Fe, Mn, Tungsten, Ni, Co.
2. Non-ferrous minerals - void Silver, Cu, Pb, Zn,
Bauxite, Tin and Mg.

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B. Non-metallic minerals -Limestone, dolomite,
mica, Gypsum, Asbestos, Graphite, Salts, etc.
C. Radioactive minerals
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Minerals form the raw material in many
industries. They are the backbones of modern
industrial life. The list of minerals used in
different industries are given below:

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1. Fuels-Coal, Petroleum, gas.
2. Refractories - Fire clay, Kaolin; Kyanite,
Sillimanite, Magnesite, graphite, Chromite,
Quartz, etc.
3. Abrasives -Diamond, Corundum, Emery,
garnet, red ochre, Quartz, Felspar, etc.
4. Paints - Hematite, Ochres, barite, ilmenite,
chromite, celestite, graphite, slates, calcite, FZre
clay, china clay, wollastonite, etc.
5. Cement - Limestone, clays, Gypsum, Bauxite,
Asbestos, Magnesite, calcite, etc.
6. Glass -Quartz, Felspar, Kyanite, Fluorspar

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7. Ceramics - Kaolin (china clay), Felspar, Tac,
Gypsum, Mica, Vermiculite, celestite, Ochres,
Cordierite, Red oxide, Kyanite, Albite, Zircon,
ete.
8. Insalators - asbestos, Mica, magnesite,
wollastonite, Fire clay, feldspar, Quartz, talc,
calcite.
9. Paper and Rubber - Kaolin, barite, gypsum,
mica, sulphur, Talc, Rutile, Silica, Calcite.
10. Optical and scientific instruments - calcite,
Fluorite, Gypsum, agate, Quartz, mica,
tourmaline.

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11. Gemstones - Diamond, Garnet, Topaz, Ruby,
saphire corundum, Beryl, Olivine, amethyst,
Jasper, Tourmaline, Rhodonite, Apatile, Agate,
Emerald, Spinel.
12. Radioactive minerals: Pitchblende, monazite,
etc.
Indian Minerals
India is fortunate to have some basic mineral
resources for its industries. India is considered to
be more or less self-contained in mineral
resources.

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The country is rich with iron. and manganese
ores, along with bauxite, mica and fossil fuels.
The following -table gives the list of economic
mineral deposit occurring in India.
The others are given below.
1. Chromite is found at Mysore, Salem, Bihar,
Orissa.
2. Stibnite occurs in Jabalpur and Mysore.
3. Columbite and Tantalite occur in Bihar.
4. Thorium - monazite occur in Travancore.
5. Graphite - Orissa, vizag, Tirunelveli,
Hyderabad.

73. 73
6. Corundum-Coimbatore, Salem, Assam,
Rajasthan.
7. Fluorite - MP, Rajasthan,Gujarat.
Building stones
Rock type, color, Grain size, texture, hardness,
durability, porosity, density, strength, sonic
velocity, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and
permeability are the characteristics determining
the suitability of a stone (or) a rock for
construction purposes.

74. 74
Granite family of rocks are available in~ plenty in
the peninsular crystalline shield. They are used in
the construction of most of the temples and public
edifies in the South India.
Charnockite is the black veriety of granite. It is an
excellent building stone and is being exported to
various countries.
Sandstones of older geological formations have
been extensively used as a building material in
India.

75. 75
The other building materials are
1. Limestones, Marble,
2. Cudappah slabs (slates) and
3. Laterite , etc.
Water Resources:
1. The available water is one of the important
aspects of a country's resources. India's water
resources are finite and greatly diversified in
space and time.

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It is mainly required for the survival of
population, agriculture, expanding urbanization,
increasing industrialization and other causes.
Water is required for food, habitat, energy,
recreation and tourism. Water resources can be
classified into
l.Surface water resources and
2. Groundwater resources. Surface water
resources encompass the availability of water in
dams and reservoirs, lakes, ponds, tanks and
rivers.

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Groundwater resources denote the occurrence and
availability of water in different subsurface
geological formations.
3.Surface water Resources: The main source of
surface water resources is the amount of
precipitating rainwater. The quantity which can
be collected and stored in any area depends on the
size of the catchment, and the capacity of a
reservoir.

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The following are the advantages of surface water
resources:
a. Surface water flowing as a waste can be
stopped and stored in reservoirs.
b. It can be used for generating power.
c. Additional energy is required for its
distribution. d. It, naturally, recharges the
subsurface zones.
e. It can be distributed for agriculture through
normal river courses.

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f. It can be used as a transporting media. g. It is
good for tourism development.
4. The quality of surface water would be always
fresh with lessamount of dissolved solids.
India's Surface Water Wealth
India is blessed with an adequate rainfall
potential. The average annual rainfall is about
119.4 cm. Nearly 90 % of it is received during
southwest monsoon (June to October).

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The statistics is as follows:
Area considered = 329 Mha (Million hecta metres)
Rain fall = 392 M ha m to 400 M ha m.
Loss due to evaporation = 70 M ha m.
Surface outflow = 115 M ha m.
Subsurface infiltration = 215 M ha m.
The total surface water resources of our country is
180 M ha m. This includes
a. 20 M ha m of water available in streams and
rivers
b. 40 M ha m contribution of groundwater
seepage and

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c. 115 M ha m as direct contribution from rainfall
or snow fall (which is 10 M ha m).
Out of the available resources nearly one-third is
considered to be unsuitable, due to the limitations
of topography, climate, soil and drainage network.
The utilization of surface water is only 28.5 M ha
m.

82. 82
Drainage Basins:
The physiography of the catchment along with its
stream network is called as a river basin (or) a
drainage basin.
Each basin is treated as a single hydrological unit,
characterized by an upstream catchment, a set of
tributaries and a mainstream with its mouth as
outlet.
Dams and reservoirs come as a part of drainage
basins, in regulating the surface flow.

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River water flow depends ~ o the shape and size
of the basin, intensity and duration of the rainfall.
Indus, Ganga, Bramaputra, Sabarmati, Mahi,
Narmada, Tapti, Subarnarekha, Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cauvery are the
major river basins of India.
Out of the average Annual runoff (flow) as about
177 M ha m only 65 M ha m is being utilized. The
total surface water resources of India is nearly
1768058 Million cubic metres.

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Problems of surface water resources:
l. They will be affected by air pollution.
2. May be evaporated at a constant rate.
3. Excessive rainfall leads to flood in river
channels.
4. Municipal sewages are normally disposed into
the streams.
5. People claim riparian rights.
6. Waterlogging and salinity are expected.
7. A major percentage of agricultural production
depends on surface water facilities.

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8. Reservoir sedimentation, siltation, etc. will
reduce the storage capacity.
Groundwater Resources:
The quantity of water that can be stored in an
aquifer depends on the hydrologic properties of
rocks like
a. Porosity - amount or volume of Pore or void
space present in a given volume of rock.
b. Permeability - ability of a rock in moving water
from one place to the other

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c. Storativity - water storing capacity, and
d. Specific yield - water yielding capacity of a
bed. It also depends on the thickness of aquifer
zones, geometry and physiographic setting.
Groundwater is of 3 kinds, based on its origin.
The water obtained from precipitation is called
meteoric water. The water which was entrapped
into the sub-surface rock chambers during a
distant geological past is known as the fossil
water or connate water.

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The water emanating from a magmatic source is
called as the juvenile or magmatic water.
Indian Groundwater Potential:
Out of the 400 M ha m of rainfall, nearly
a. 215 M ha m infiltrates into the subsurface in
which
b. 1G5 M ha m is retained as soil moisture
leaving
c. only 50 M ha m into the aquifer media. The
present groundwater utilization in only 13.5 M ha
m.

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Nearly 85 % of this is used up for irrigation.
Problems:
l. Groundwater flow can not be stopped.
2. They will be easily contaminated by domestic,
municipal and industrial effluents.
3. Storage depends on the geological conditions.
4. Flow rate is slower than surface water flow:
5.There is no legal binding for the utilization or
extraction of groundwater.

89. 89
6.Salinity problems can be expected near coastal
zones.
7.Quality changes with reference to the residence
time.
8. Energy is required for lifting water.
9. It can not be used for power generation and
10. Outward seepage will reduce the quantity
from storage.