1.
Theories of Motor Learning
Dr. Maheshwari H
M.P.TH (Neurosciences)
Asst. Professor
DVVPF College of Physiotherapy,
Ahmednagar

2.
Objectives
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What is motor learning
Theories of Motor learning
How it will be apply on patients

3.
Contents
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Define motor learning and learning
Procedural learning
Declarative and associated learning
Adam’s theory
Schmidt’s theory
Ecological theory
Motor learning occurs in stages
Measuring learning outcomes
Transfer of learning
Feedback and giving augmented
feedback
Practice conditions

4.
Definition
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Motor learning is the understanding of
acquisition and/or modification of
movement.
As applied to patients, motor learning
involves the reacquisition of previously
learned movement skills that are lost due
to pathology or sensory, motor, or
cognitive impairments. This process is
often referred to as recovery of function.

5.
Learning vs. Motor Learning
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Learning is a process of acquiring
knowledge about the world.
Motor learning: a set of processes
associated with practice leading to a
relatively permanent change in the
capacity for skilled actions.

6.
Concepts of Motor Learning
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Learning is a process of acquiring the
capacity for skilled action
Learning results from experience or
practice
Learning cannot be measured or observed
directly; it is inferred from behavior
Learning produces relatively permanent
changes in behavior; short term change is
not learning)

7.
Motor Performance ≠ Motor
Learning
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Motor Performance is the temporary
change in motor behavior seen during a
practice session
e. g. A patient learns how to shift
more body weight over the weaker leg
at the end of the therapy session.
However, the patient still bears more
weight on the unaffected leg at the
next visit to PT. Learning has not
occurred.

8.
Motor Performance ≠ Motor
Learning
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Performance may be influenced by
many other variables, e.g. fatigue, level
of learning/skills, anxiety, motivation,
cues or manual guidance given to the
learner
Motor Learning is a relatively
permanent change in motor behaviors
that are measured after a retention
period and only result from practice.

9.
Forms of motor learning
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10.
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11.
Nondeclarative (Implicit)
Learning:
Non-Associative Learning
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A single stimulus is given repeatedly and
the nervous system learns about the
characteristics of the stimulus
Habituation
↓ response to the stimulus, e.g.
exercises to treat dizziness in patients
Sensitization
↑ response to the stimulus, e.g. training
to enhance awareness of loss of balance

12.
Nondeclarative (Implicit)
Learning: Associative Learning
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Classical Conditioning
learn to predict relationships between
two stimuli
e.g. before learning: verbal cues +
manual guidance  stand up; after
learning: verbal cue  stand up
patients are more likely to learn if the
associations are relevant and meaningful

13.
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14.
Nondeclarative (Implicit)
Learning: Associative Learning
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Operant Conditioning
learn to associate a certain response,
from among many that we have, with a
consequence; trial and error learning
e.g. relearn stability limits after ankle
sprain; verbal praise from PT
behaviors that are beneficial and
rewarded tend to be repeated

15.
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16.
Procedural Learning
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Does NOT require attention,
awareness, or other higher cognitive
processes
One automatically learns the rules for
moving, i.e. movement schema
Learning requires repeating a
movement continuously under a variety
of situations
Patients with damage to cortex (e.g.
TBI, dementia, aphasia) can still ↑

17.
Declarative (Explicit) Learning
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Require attention, awareness, and
reflection
Results in knowledge or facts (e.g.
objects, places, events) that can be
consciously recalled and expressed in
declarative sentences, e.g. “1st
I move to
the edge of chair. 2nd
I lean forward and
stand up”; instruction from PT; mental
rehearsal; motor imagery

18.
Declarative (Explicit) Learning
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Practice can transform declarative into
procedural or nondeclarative knowledge
e.g. a patient first learns to stand up may
verbally repeat the instruction; after
repeated practice, the patient may be able
to stand up without instruction
Processes of declarative learning:
encoding  consolidation storage
retrieval

19.
Theories of motor learning
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20.
Adams Closed-Loop Theory
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In motor learning, sensory feedback
from the ongoing movements is
compared with the stored memory of the
intended movement
Memory trace selects and initiates a
movement
Perceptual trace, built-up over practice,
is the internal reference of correctness

21.
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22.
Adams Closed-Loop Theory
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Clinical Implications
Accuracy of a movement is
proportional to the strength of the
perceptual trace
Patient must practice the movement
repeatedly to ↑ the perceptual trace
Limitations
Cannot explain open loop movement.

23.
Schmidt Schema Theory
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Emphasizes open-loop control processes
and generalized motor program
“Schema” is a generalized set of rules for
producing movements that can be applied
to a variety of contexts
Equivalent to motor programming theory
of motor control

24.
Schmidt Schema Theory
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Information stored in short-term memory
after a movement is produced
1.Initial movement conditions, e.g. body
position, weight of an object, step height
2.Parameters of a generalized motor
program
3.Outcome of the movement, in terms of
knowledge of results
4.Intrinsic sensory feedback of the
movement

25.
Schmidt Schema Theory
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Information stored in short-term
memory is converted into two schemas
1.Recall schema selects a specific
response and contains rules for
producing a movement
2.Recognition schema evaluates the
response correctness and informs the
learner about the errors of a movement

26.
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27.
Schmidt Schema Theory
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Clinical Implication
Variability of practice↑ learning and
generalized motor program rules
Limitations
Vague; no consistent research finding in
support of variable practice
Cannot account for one-trial learning (In
the absence of a schema)

28.
Ecological Theory
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Learning involves the exploration the
perceptual and motor workspace
1.Identify critical perceptual variables, i.e.
regulatory cues
2.Explore the optimal or most efficient
movements for the task
3.Incorporate the relevant perceptual cues
and optimal movement strategies for a
specific task

29.
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30.
Ecological Theory
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Clinical Implications
Patients learn to identify relevant
perceptual cues that are important for
developing appropriate motor responses,
e.g. identify relevant perceptual cues for
reaching and lifting a heavy glass:
weight, size, or surface of the glass vs.
its color?

31.
Theories of Motor Learning
continue…….
Dr. Maheshwari H
M.P.TH (Neurosciences)

32.
Fitts and Posner Three Stage
Model: Cognitive stage
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Learner activities
Learn what to do
Learn about the task and goals
Require high degree of attention
Select among alternative strategies
Performance may be more variable
Fast improvement in performance
Develop a motor program

33.
Fitts and Posner Three Stage
Model: Associative Stage
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Learner activities
Refine the skills
Refine a particular movement strategy
Performance is less variable and
more consistent
Cognitive monitoring decreases
Improve the organization of the motor
program

34.
Fitts and Posner Three Stage
Model: Autonomous Stage
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Learner activities
Become proficient, save energy
Attention demands are greatly
reduced
Movements and sensory analysis
begin to become automatic
Able to perform multiple tasks, scan
the environment
Ability to detect own errors improves

35.
Implications for PT
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Motor learning probably occurs in
stages
Activities of the patient are different in
the different stages
Activities of the therapist should be
different in the different stages

36.
Systems Three-Stage Model
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Learners initially restrict degrees of
freedom (DOF) and gradually release
the DOF as the task is learned and the
skills improve
Novice Stage
Simplify movement by constraining
joints and ↓DOF, e.g. muscles co-
contraction
Less energy efficient

37.
Systems Three-Stage Model
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Advanced Stage
Gradual release of additional DOF
More adaptive to different contexts
Expert Stage
All DOF released
Efficient and coordinated movements
Exploit the mechanical and inertial
properties of the limbs and the
environment

38.
Gentile’s Two Stage Model
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Early stage
Understand the task goals, develop
movement strategies, recognize
regulatory features of the environment
Late stage
Refine the movement, consistent and
efficient performance
Closed skills become fixation/consistent
Opened skills become diversification/
adaptive

39.
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40.
Think-Pair-Share
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A patient is learning to use a walker. What
would the patient be able to do at each stage of
learning?
Cognitive stage (early)-
Association stage (late)-
Automatic stage (late)-

41.
Application of motor learning
theories
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42.
How to Measure Learning?
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To separate the relatively permanent
effects of learning from the transient effect
of practice, learning can be measured
using retention or transfer designs.
1.Test the subject after a retention interval,
typically >= 24 hr
2.Choose the same task (retention test) or a
variation of the task (transfer test)(e.g.
different speed or lighting conditions for
walking)

43.
Practice Level: How Much?
PRACTICE, PRACTICE,
PRACTICE
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Animal Studies
9,600 retrievals over 4 week period
(Nudo, 1996)
7,000 trials of food catching in 5
weeks (Pavlides, 1993)

44.
Feedback (FB)
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FB is all the sensory information that is
available as a results of a movement
Types by mode of delivery
Intrinsic (e.g. proprioception)
Extrinsic (e.g. instruction from PT)
Types of FB by information provided
Knowledge of results (KR)
Knowledge of performance (KP)

45.
Knowledge of Performance
(KP)
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Information about the movement
patterns
Usually intrinsic but can also be
extrinsic
Proprioception, Biofeedback, video
recording, verbal instruction (e.g. “Your
elbow was /is in flexed.”)

46.
Knowledge of Results (KR)
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Information about the result or outcome
of the movement in terms of the goal
Verbal instruction - proprioception (e.g.
feeling loss of balance during a fall)

47.
Characteristics of Good
Feedback
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Timing
Allow some time to reflect between trials
Summary FB
Summary FB after a few trials works
better than after every trial
Give more frequent summary feedback
(e.g. after every 5 trials) for complex
tasks than for simple tasks

48.
Characteristics of Good
Feedback
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Accuracy
Positively reinforce correct performance
Augmented (extrinsic) Feedback
Video/visual of movement patterns alone
does not help; need to provide error-
correcting cues as well
AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
Can be given concurrently or afterwards

49.
Characteristics of Good
Feedback
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Frequency and Fading Schedule
More impaired patients may require
more frequent FB.
Avoid giving FB every trial.
Decrease the amount of FB given
across learning stages so the patients
won’t become dependent on FB.

50.
Practice Conditions
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Massed vs. Distributed Practice Schedule
Distributed in early stage (e.g. 20 min X
3 days) to avoid fatigue and massed in
later stage (e.g. 60 min in one day)
Constant vs. Variable Practice
Usually variable practice (walk at
different speeds) results in better
learning outcomes than constant practice
(walk at the same speed) in health adults

51.
Practice Conditions
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Random vs. Blocked Practice
Random practice (practice multiple tasks
in 15 min) results in better learning than
blocked practice (practice one task in 15
min) in healthy adults but not necessarily
patients

52.
Practice Conditions
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Whole- vs. Part-Task Practice
Task specificity says the best practice
is the task itself
If utilizing a part technique, the part
(e.g. hip and knee flexion, extension)
must be a naturally occurring
component of the whole (e.g. walking)

53.
Practice Conditions
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Transfer
Amount of transfer is determined by the
similarity between the two tasks or the
two environments
The more closely the practice
environment resemble those in the
performance environment, the better the
transfer

54.
Practice Conditions
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Mental Practice
The same neural circuits producing
the movement are also active during
mental practice
Can produce large positive effects on
performance of the task (Rawlings
1972)
Physical + mental practice produces
the best learning outcome

55.
Practice Conditions
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Mental Practice
The same neural circuits producing
the movement are also active during
mental practice
Can produce large positive effects on
performance of the task (Rawlings
1972)
Physical + mental practice produces
the best learning outcome

56.
Summary
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Def’n of Learning & Motor Learning
Theories of Motor learning
Forms of Motor Learning
Three stage model
Application on patient’s

57.
Questions
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Enlist the name of theories of motor
learning. - 3M
Write down any three theories of motor
learning - 7M
Theories of motor learning
- 15M

58.
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THANK U……..