H2O Molecular Geometry and Orbital Diagram

Mat 540 Final
Optimize the molecular geometry of a water molecule (H2O) at HF/STO–3G level of theory in
Gaussian–09 through the GaussView Visualization software package on the desktops provided.
Give optimized bond length lengths and angles using this combination of methods and basis set.
Ans. Bond Length = 0.98927 Å and the Bond Angle H–O–H is 100.035 degrees
Recalculate the geometry using an alternative method of your own choice.
Ans. Using Semi–empirical (PM6) we get a bond length of 0.94911 Å and a Bond Angle H–O–H is
107.488 degrees.
Give molecular orbital diagram with drawings of the molecular orbitals. You may have to rerun the
calculation with pop=full included.
¬Ans. Molecular orbitals for isolated H–O–H molecule were calculated using ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Draw the dipole moment of the chair and boat configuration. Which of those structures will dissolve
better in water and why?
Ans. Chair conformer of cyclohexane has negligible dipole moment due to symmetry and equal
charge distribution. On the other hand Boat conformation of cyclohexane has dipole moment due to
the shape of the conformer making it polar due to charge distribution and steric effects. BOAT
CONFORMER (Note: – Grey spheres are C atoms and Blue spheres are H atoms)
Hence the boat conformer is able to dissolve in water but stabilizes soon and turns into the chair
conformer making it non–polar and separating it from water.
How many different configurations of Fluoro–cyclohexane exist? Draw structures but do not
minimize in Gaussian.
Ans. Dipole moments of Fluoro–Cyclohexane have increased by a factor of 611.6 as compared to
cyclohexane.
This explains how the presence of a single fluoride atom instead of a hydrogen impacts the structure
and charge distribution of the cyclic hydrocarbon. In turn adding a Fluoride atom also increases the
energy of the cyclic hydrocarbon creating less stable structures in boat, twist and half chair
increasing ΔG and decreasing the amount of other conformers in a solution compared to chair.

... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Essay on Hydrogen Fusion is the Future Source of Energy
Hydrogen Fusion, the Future Source of Energy Abstract The world is currently in an energy crisis
with no end in sight. Many technologies can help reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and have the
possibility of ending the energy crisis. Hydrogen fusion holds great promise with its no pollution
energy output. If more energy can be created than is used to start the fusion process, the energy
crisis might become a thing of the past. Over half of the energy used now comes from fossil fuels,
which is around 2.77*10^14 KJ in 2003. ITER, which is under construction right now in France,
will have the possibility of releasing 500 MW of energy as an output. By developing methods that
reduce the energy needed to start the fusion ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
JET is a Tokamak developed by the UK in the 1970's. JET stands for Joint European Torus. The fuel
used in JET is a mixture of deuterium and tritium. It was first fired up in 1983 after five years of
construction and in 1997 it hit its peak output of 16 MW. JET is currently shutdown because it is
being upgraded to increase its power output to 40 MV. The upgrades are occurring to help out in the
development of the largest hydrogen fusion generator, ITER. ITER is the newest fusion generator
that is currently under construction in eastern France. It is being funded by the European Union,
Russia, the US, Japan, South Korea, and China. The project is expected to run for at least thirty
years, ten for its construction and twenty for its usage. The project is expected to cost at leas 10
billion euros, with the European Union paying a hefty part of the sum. The Torus at ITER is
designed to create at least 500 MW for about 500 seconds. The problem with hydrogen fusion is that
it still is in an experimental phase. Humans are still trying to develop a method to gain more energy
than is put in. Molecules of deuterium and tritium are the main components in hydrogen fusion.
Both deuterium and tritium are stable isotopes of hydrogen. Fusion shows a lot of promise because
it when tritium and deuterium fuse, they release 17.6 MW of energy, the only problem is creating a
way to do this efficiently. We believe

Hydrogen Bomb Research Paper
Hydrogen bomb was first studied at the second world war together with the researches of nuclear
fission.The main element used in it is hydrogen. Hydrogen was first found in later 16th century but
it was not confirmed as a kind of chemical element by Henry Cavendish before 1766. It is a
chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. That means it is the first one on the periodic
table and each atom just has one proton and one electron.And with a standard atomic weight of
1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. In addition ,it is the most abundant
chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. On Earth,most
of hydrogen exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds Hydrogen belongs to
alkali metals and its family has three members,whose names are protium deuterium and tritium.The
difference is that protium just have on neutrons but deuterium has one and tritium has too.

Chemistry : Melting Points Were Obtained With An Electro...
Experimental Section:
Chemistry: Melting points were obtained with an Electro thermal digital melting point apparatus
(model 9100) and are uncorrected. IR spectra (KBr) were measured on Perkin–Elemer FT/IR
spectrophotometer, 1H–NMR spectra were recorded on JEOL (500 MHz) at Faculty of Science,
Alexandria University in DMSO–d6 as solvent, using tetramethyl silane (TMS) as internal
reference. Elemental analysis (C, H, and N) and Mass spectra were performed at the Micro
analytical Unit of Cairo University using a Vario III CHN analyzer and DI analysis Shimadzu QP–
2010 plus mass spectrometer, respectively. The chemical reagents used are Aldrich and BDH.
Synthesis of 2–amino–3–cyano–4.6–diarylpyridines (2a–d)
General procedure:
A mixture of substituted chalcone 1a–d (0.01mole), dicyanomethane (0.01mole) and ammonium
acetate (0.8mole) in 100 ml ethanol was refluxed for 22 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled and
poured into crushed ice with constant stirring. The yellow suspension was filtrated, washed with
water, dried and recrystallized from ethanol to give the corresponding 2–amino–3–cyano–4.6–
diarylpyridines 2a–d (yellowish white crystals, the yield, 63–70%).
Synthesis of 5–(5–substitutedfuran–2–yl)–7–(4–substitutedphenyl)–3H–pyrido[2,3–d] pyrimidin–4–
one (3a–d)
General procedure:
A mixture of 2a–d (0.01mol) in formic acid (99%, 30 ml) and catalytic amount of conc. H2SO4 was
heated under reflux for 16 hours. Then the reaction mixture was cooled, poured into ice cold

P120 Energy And Technology Research Paper
P120: Energy/Energy & Technology Fall 2015 Homework 11 1. The energy that is released in a
fusion reaction comes from the loss of mass. 2. The sun is successful in providing energy via fusion
reactions because its energy output comes from nuclear burning. Nuclear burning is the
transformation of 4 million tons of matter into energy every second. 3. 50m x 2m x 10m= 1000m3
volume 1000m3 water x 1 gal/0.00375m3 x 1 gal deuterium/ 8 gal water = 3.3 x 104 gal deuterium
Need 4000 bbl/day of oil 4000bbl/day x 1 yr/365 days x 5.8x106 Btu/ 1bbl x 1 gal gas/1.24 x 105
Btu = 6.83 x 107 gal gas 5.3 x 109 kWh is enough for I million people for a year, so 5.3 x 108 kWh
would be enough for the 100,000 5.3 x 108 kWh x 1 gal/ 11 kWh= 4.8 x 107

The Energy Source Of Energy
In an era where fossil fuels are the dominant source of energy, environmentalists and scientists are
looking for alternative energy sources in the fear that fossil fuels will sooner or later become
consumed by our energy needs. In the hunt to find a strong alternative energy source, scientists have
reverted back to an old formula E=MC2. The indicated formula was first thought up by Albert
Einstein to describe a part of general relativity in the paper "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend
Upon Its Energy Content?" Furthermore, in his publication Albert Einstein explains that mass and
kinetic energy are proportionally equal. Meaning you can transfer energy into mass and vice versa.
In addition if you are able to transfer mass into energy that mass will be multiplied by the speed of
light (C) squared, meaning that a little mass can turn into a lot of energy. Moreover, Einstein's
reasoning for using the speed of light is because atoms when separated travel the speed of light thus
carrying a lot of energy. At the time Einstein was working on trying to find ways to separate and or
fuse atoms in order to gain energy and put his formula to use. However, today we have found two
different ways of doing so in what we call nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
Nuclear fusion has been around since the big bang, as it is the process that powers stars just like ours
and is how our universe continues to grow. Moreover, nuclear fusion occurs when two or more
atoms fuse together at very high

Why Fossil Fuels Are Not Only Bad
Why Fossil Fuels Are Not Only Bad, But Not Good Enough Coal, petroleum, natural gas. Together,
they are the producers of approximately eighty percent of the world's energy, and, according to the
US Energy Information Administration, are predicted to remain as such throughout the early to–mid
twenty–first century (EIA 6). Yet there are far more efficient fuels options than these, as the
profound xkcd cartoon to the right suggests, and these options do not involve polluting the
atmosphere, exacerbating climate change, or contaminating marine life with black goo. Additionally,
fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources, and by definition cannot be expected to last forever. They
are simply not a feasible long–term option. Therefore, rather than merely limit the use of fossil fuels,
world policymakers should put as much effort as possible into developing cleaner, more efficient
energy options like nuclear fusion. When fully commercialized, these more potent fuel sources
should make fossil fuels obsolete by their very presence in the economy.
Part 1: Fossil Fuels Are Not Particularly Good at Efficiency First, fossil fuels are much less energy
efficient than their domination in the energy market suggests. This fact is best illustrated by
comparing the energy densities of the various fossil fuels to those of some alternatives. The energy
densities of the different fossil fuels vary by type. Anthracite and bituminous coal, for example,
generally release somewhere between 24 and 35

The And Characterization Of Project Mn ( Bpmp )
Syntheses and characterization of [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] catalysts
BPMP was synthesised via the published procedure [2b] and expected, the piperazine ring adopts
the more stable chair configuration, and the methylpyridyl substituents are found in the equatorial
positions. Reaction of BPMP with Mn(OTf)2 (ratio 1 : 1) in CH3CN under air the atmospheric
conditions this complex [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. Removing of the volatiles and washing with diethyl
ether leads to white solid that analyses as [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. while uncoordinated BPMP was
identified in the ether (washing) phases. The molecular structure is shown in Figure (compare
Scheme 1). The coordination around the manganese atom can be described as distorted trigonal
prismatic, and the piperazine ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This heterogeneous catalyst can be applied to a wide variety of activated and non–activated primary
and secondary alcohols. As shown in Table 3, benzyl alcohol and substituted benzyl alcohols are
converted to their corresponding aldehydes efficiently. In the case of benzyl alcohol, after 30 min,
only benzaldehyde was obtained in 99% yield. In longer reaction times (1h), the obtained products
are 97% p–OCH3 benzaldehyde and 3% p–OCH3 benzoic acid. The results show that the
substituent's have no major effect on the oxidation of benzylic alcohols. A good selectivity
experimental in the case of cinnamyl alcohol and only oxidized in alcoholic group and no epoxide
yield was obtained. Manganese(II)non–heme was also used for oxidation of secondary alcohols and
their corresponding ketones were obtained in good yields. We used hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as
the oxidant and [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] as the catalyst for the oxidation of alcohols. To a mixture of
substrate (1mmol), manganese non–heme catalyst (1mol %), and solvent (CH3CN = 3mL) was
added H2O2 (1.2mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min at room temperature. This
system has shown high catalytic activities for the oxidation of non–activated and activated alcohols
under mild conditions as shown in Table 4. Secondary alcohols were easily converted to the
corresponding ketones in excellent yields and reaction selectivity was over 99% in all cases. Cyclic
alcohols

Water In Your Glass Might Be Older Than The Sun Summary
The article "Water in Your Glass Might Be Older Than the Sun" presented in the New York Times
(Times) by Nicholas St. Fleur is based on the article "The ancient heritage of water ice in the solar
system" from Science magazine by Cleeves et al., and while the Times article correctly summarizes
the article in Science, it is written in a manner that uses vague words to appeal to a general audience
and the article disregards a majority of important information. The article from the Times begins by
explaining the theory of waters' origin, stating that it is from ice specks that existed in a cosmic
cloud before the Sun's formation. In order to test the theory, the Times article goes on to say that
water from the oceans were analyzed, specifically

The Beginning Of The Universe: The Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang theory.
The Big Bang, what is it? What does it tell us? How do we know that The Big Bag is a viable
theory?
The BIg Bang theory is currently the best theory (astro)physicists and cosmologists have to describe
the beginning of the universe in which we live. The theory also has implications on how
cosmologists think the universe will end. We call it the big bang as it was originally thought of as a
preposterous theory; That the universe didn 't exist at some stage and then it just decided to 'blow up
' or 'expand ' from 'nothingness '. However, over the past century many great minds have contributed
to the discovery of physical concepts that have made The Big Bang theory a more accepted theory
on how the universe was born.
So what does theory suggest about the beginning of the universe? The Big Bang Theory suggest first
of all, that the universe did have a finite beginning and before that point, there was nothing. This
beginning was around 13.7–8 billion years ago and that it came into existence from a singularity
(something that still defies physical laws as we know them). A singularity is a point that is infinitely
dense and are infinitely small. The universe began from something infinitely dense, small and hot.
Where this singularity came from? We don 't know, something that cosmologists debate about
constantly. After the Big Bang had occurred from this singularity, space expanded in to itself at
incredibly high rates. This initial expansion called

Tritium Research Paper
Tritium
Tritium is a radioactive chemical and is highly hazardous when the tritium chemical is not handled
properly. It can be classified as physical, chemical, biological, and even clinical medicine. Some
advantages from tritium can be used in weapons manufacture such as: iron sights, scopes and
watches, objects with luminous compounds. Tritium is a form of Hydrogen, found naturally in air
and water. Unlike most hydrogen, tritium has two extra neutrons in the nucleus.
A few scientists have discovered Tritium in 1939, such as: Lord Ruthfird, Sir John Cockroft, Ernest
Lawrence, Luis Alvarez and a few more. Tritium was discovered through the method of isolation of
deuterium oxide to prepare deuterium gas. By flooding the elements with accelerated ions such as
protons and helium ions it becomes possible to produce ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, it can be harmful if too much of it is taken in. Because tritium has one electron, it can
easily form compounds similar to hydrogen; thus, a person will likely be exposed two ways. One is
similar to hydrogen gas (HT) or by liquid HTO ( tritiated or heavy water). The HTO is the only form
that has great exposure hazards. With HT gas only .005% of the tritium is deposited in the lungs;
whereas, with HTO almost 100% is inhaled and digested. Tritium can also be absorbed through skin
or open wounds; contaminated materials can also increase exposure. If one has been exposed
through HTO, it will eventually be evenly circulated through out the body's fluids. The removal of
tritium varies differently to people due to their bodily excretion rates, temperature and fluid intake.
Tritium (H–3) emits low energy beta with a 12.3 year half–life. It does not emit gamma rays.
Biological half–life of tritium is about 9.4 days to 10days. Tritium can be shortened by increasing
fluid intake, as we can see in the diagram below (Fig

The Pros And Cons Of Nuclear Power Plants
A continual struggle of humanity is the search for a stable foundation of resources. With the growing
rate of technological advances within the recent centuries, a stable source of energy is continually
sought after. While non–renewable sources such as oil, coal or natural gas offer momentary gains in
energy production they remain a limited and ever depleting resource.
Renewable sources, such as solar or wind driven solutions, offer a constant energy source but
require impractical necessities for large–scale application. Although nuclear power plants are often
seen as heath and safety hazards, the nuclear fission based facilities offer the current best method of
energy production. Despite this, nuclear fission is dwarfed when compared to the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A finite, straight tube presents the issues of ''spill[ing] right out'' (Seife 64), of the ends of the tube.
The solution to this problem was building a torus (a circular tube, which by its geometry has no
end). This new geometry solves one issue while presenting another. In the linear case a magnetic
coil would compress the plasma uniformly through the perpendicular force implemented by
magnetic fields on the moving charged particles. Wrapping a wire around a torus creates areas closer
to the center of the loop where the wires are more densely wrapped near the center. This causes a
gradient in the magnetic field that leads to the tendency for protons and electrons to separate. The
separation of the particles ruins the tight confinement required for potential nuclei collisions.
However, as magnetic containment development was being further explored, another possible
process was being considered, which offered solutions which magnetic containment failed to

The Physics Concepts And Principles Behind Nuclear Fusion
This report outlines the physics concepts and principles behind nuclear Fusion, the advantages and
disadvantages of fusion and whether nuclear fusion could be used in New Zealand. Also, this report
outlines the comparison between Fusion and Fission.
A fusion is when a reaction in light nuclei combines to form a nucleus with greater mass. Fusion can
take place only under extremely high temperature conditions. Another name for this process is
thermonuclear reaction.
The process of nuclear fusion is important to the future of power production in New Zealand. At the
moment New Zealand relies on energy sources such as hydroelectric, wind power and solar.
Hydroelectric and wind power are limited by the possible locations which means another source of
power will be needed. These sources provide consistent, clean energy, nuclear power sources may
be able to provide energy in much greater quantities. The New Zealand nuclear free zone,
disarmament and arms central act of 1987 presents any nuclear power plants from being constructed
or opening in New Zealand.
It is expected that the first nuclear fusion power generator will be operational by 2030, being
presented by a nuclear fission making it possible for New Zealand to consider a nuclear power
programme. If New Zealand were to open nuclear power stations, the most likely approach would
be deuterium–tritium fusion.
The advantages of nuclear fusion are, theres no CO2 emissions as no fossil fuels are burned, there is
no

Rosetta Research Paper
On March 2 2004, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched the Rosetta spacecraft with the
Philae lander on a 10 year trajectory towards the comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko(67P). Comet 67P
was not the planned destination for the Rosetta mission however, the mission was planned for comet
Wirtanen(46P). However, due to the failure of the Hot Bird 7 launch, the mission had to be delayed
until they determined the cause of the problem. The mission was set for a new comet, 67P. The
Rosetta mission was deployed using an Ariane 5 rocket, built by the ESA and launched on March 2
2004 at 7:17 GMT from Guiana Space Center.
The mission included many flybys, specifically, 3 earth flybys, 1 mars flyby, and 2 asteroid flybys
before reaching its destination, 67P. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Figure 2 shows one of these pictures, nicknamed "The Fist" because of its fist like appearance. This
is an indication of tectonic layering in the comet. The other photograph was of a crack. Experts
currently do not know why a crack would form on the surface. The only theory right now is that
there is tectonic movement that caused the crack to form. The Rosetta mission also measured non
visual data. Rosetta found that the magnetic fields of 67P oscillated at 40–50 millihertz. It was
discovered later that the magnetic fields were caused by solar winds, not the comet's core. This
means that the magnetic field varies based on the solar winds at that moment of time. Rosetta took
the isotopic signature of water vapor in the coma, the gasses surrounding the comet. The water was
compared to the water found on earth and it was found to have more deuterium than on earth. The
deuterium to hydrogen ration was three times that on earth. Thus, water on earth could not have
been brought by comets like 67P, the comet would have to have similar ration of deuterium to
hydrogen ratio. The water vapor being released by 67P is increasing as the comet heads towards the
sun. In June of 2014, there was an ejection of 300 milliliters of water per second. By August, there
was 1200 milliliters of water being ejected each second. This increase of water vapor in the coma is
one of the comet's behaviors as

The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor Essay
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)
The ITER is an internationally funded research and development project which focuses on
constructing the world's first largest experimental nuclear fusion reactor. This project intends to
adopt the experimental and theoretical studies of plasma physics or 'tokomak' (a device utilizing
electromagnetic fields to trap plasma) and apply it to construct a fully functional, nuclear fusion
power plant which will harness the energy made from nuclear fusion to create electricity.. This
project is funded by USA, China, India, the EU, Russia, Japan and South Korea. The stated
countries have funded a total of 6.6 billion pounds to the French government in order for the project
to commence.
ITER ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will ensure safety in case of any complications with the reactor.
With regards to the advantages of nuclear fusion, the raw fuel or energy itself is readily available.
The elements, deuterium and tritium are basically unlimited. Fusion will not emit toxic gas and
other deadly compounds into the atmosphere, unlike burning coal. Fusion will only release helium
gas, which will not have any effects on the atmosphere, as helium is very abundant on the
atmosphere, therefore it will not contribute to global warming. With regards to disadvantages, the
overall cost of constructing a facility which will harness the energy of nuclear fusion is extremely
high. ITER's project costs 10 billion Euros. With nuclear fission, the advantages are that, it is
inexpensive to create and harness the energy. Fission also does not create greenhouse gas. The
disadvantages are that, wastes are created from fission which can directly harm life and there is a
risk of a nuclear meltdown which will release electromagnetic radiation to its surroundings.
With chemical changes such as fossil fuel burnings, the advantages are that a lot of energy is
released during the combustion reaction and extremely cheap. Disadvantages are that, fossil fuels
release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which contributes to global warming.
From the stated advantages and disadvantages, nuclear fusion seems to the cleanest source of
energy. It does

What Are The Factors That Affect The Efficiency Of A Process?
Efficiency What is the efficiency of a process? There are many factors that are taken into account
when calculating the efficiency of a process, but efficiency can simply be summed up as the ratio
between the energy input and the energy output of the system. According to the First Law of
Thermodynamics, the efficiency of a system cannot be more than one hundred percent. The First
Law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. As stated before, there are
many factors that can affect the efficiency of a system. A few examples of this may be but are not
limited to: excess heat dispersion throughout the system and loss of heat during delivery (i.e. copper
pipes). A fusion reactor's efficiency has the same difficulties as other processes do in terms of having
multiple variables that can affect the efficiency of the process. A fusion reaction can lose efficiency
due to loss of heat during the delivery of the hot plasma. This is caused by the use of copper piping
and the lack of insulation that copper piping has. The reason that the heat from the system travels to
the surrounding air is due to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that energy also has
a quality and flow rate. Energy has a tendency to flow from a system that has a higher energy
state(fusion reactor) to a system with a lower energy state(air or atmosphere). Another way that the
efficiency can be affected during the fusion process is dependent on the length of the pulse. It has
been proven that having a long pulse during the process will increase the efficiency. The use of
spherical tokamak in the design from David Kingham, Alan Sykes, and Mikhail Gryaznevich has
proven to increase the efficiency of the fusion reactor as it allows the system reduce the magnetic
field by a factor of ten which in turn also increases the stability of the plasma throughout the system.
In their study, the results they found for their "Super Compact Neutron Source" were on the less
impressive side considering the hopes for a fusion reaction were very high. According to their
report, they were able to get approximately anywheres from one to two megawatts of of output for
an input of six megawatts of neutral beam

Nuclear Fusion Research Paper
Nuclear Fusion: The Future of Energy
Nowadays, energy is pivotal to almost every major challenge and opportunity the world confronts.
Be it for jobs, security, climate change, food production or increasing incomes, access to energy for
all is essential. Sustainable energy is needed for strengthening economies, protecting ecosystems
and achieving equity. In accordance with The UN Conference on Environment and Development,
energy consumption is expected to increase dramatically over the next 50 years as the world's
population grows and developing countries become more industrialized. With environmental
requirements for lower CO2 emission sources and the need to invest in a sustainable energy mix,
new energy sources must be developed. At the same time, climate change is known to be one of the
most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These fossil sources are the biggest origin of CO2 production – the main cause of a worldwide
climate change. Renewable sources offer an enduring, clean energy holds, however, they produce a
small amount of energy, leave an expansive natural impression and their variances in time require
capacity frameworks and reserve energy plants. Nuclear fission present a demonstrated option yet
creates extensive radioactive waste that requires transportation and re–preparing. On the contrary,
Fusion reaction will be accessible as a future energy choice by this mid–century, and could add to a
supportable, secure and safe source. Nuclear fusion can possibly give a manageable answer for
American and worldwide energy needs. Fusion could begin providing business power in around 30
years, and it is likely to supply up to 20% of the world's power needed by the year 2100. Its points
of interest incorporate not radiating any CO2 gasses, effective energy, copious fuel sources, safe
frameworks and no seemingly perpetual radioactive waste ("Fusion for

Nuclear Fusion Essay examples
The Industrial Revolution sparked a need for large sources of energy. Human and animal labor could
not provide the power necessary to power industrial machinery, railroads, and ships. The steam
engine and later the internal combustion engine provided the bulk of the energy required by the
industrial age. Today most nations are still heavily reliant on energy that comes from combustion.
Usually coal, petrolium, and natural gas are used. Some hydroelectric, wind power, and nuclear
fission sources are used, but in the US they accounted for less than 20% of the total energy
consumption in 1997 (1). Many experts are worried that natural resources such as coal and
petrolium are being depleted faster than they are being replenished, which could ... Show more
Unlike solids, liquids, and gasses, plasmas have no electrons surrounding the nuclei of its atoms.
Scientists have been trying for many years to build nuclear reactors that would allow a sustained
fusion reaction to occur. There are several factors that influence a fusion reaction. Since very high
kinetic energies are needed for nuclei to fuse, the plasma in which fusion occurs is extremely hot.
Temperatures in excess of 100 million degrees celsius are required for the easiest fusion reaction to
take place. Plasmas are fluids, and therefore they have no permanent shape and will quickly disperse
if not confined. A 100 million degree plasma will vaporise any container in which it is placed, so
magnetic fields are used to contain the plasma.
Since the electrons are stripped from the atoms in a plasma, all that remains is the positively charged
nucleus, which can be acted on by magnetic fields. In magnetic confinement reactors, so–called
magnetic bottles are created with magnetic fields that confine the plasma. In experiments, however,
plasmas can only be contained for a few seconds before their oscilations cause them to come into
contact with the walls of the reactor. The biggest problem in controlling plasmas with magnetic
confinement is their chaotic behaivior. With continuing research, longer containment times are being
recorded.
Inertial confinement reactors use a different approach. Small fuel pellets containing isotopes of

Proposal for a Homemade Fusion Reactor
Proposal for a Homemade Fusion Reactor
Table of Contents Introduction
Dangers
Project Overview – Parts (a page for each part)
Part List
Cost
Research
Competitions
Future Uses
To Add
Cost List
Electrical System Design
Calculations for Radiation
List of safety procedures
Introduction
Nuclear fusion is a form of nuclear reaction which occurs when two or more atomic nuclei collide at
a very high speed and as a result, join to form a new type of atomic nucleus. During this process,
matter is not conserved because some of the mass of the fusing nuclei is converted into energy.
Fusion is currently the process that powers active stars. Fusion was first achieved in 1951 with the
Greenhouse Item nuclear test. Research ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gamma radiation is also a possible byproduct from a fusion reactor. However, the amount of gamma
rays produced will be noticeably less than the amount of x–rays produced and anything that is
sufficient enough to shield from x–rays will be more than enough to shield from gamma rays. The
only other places radiation can come from are from the top and bottom of the vacuum chamber.
Regardless of how much radiation will be coming from the bottom of the chamber it will not affect
us because we won't be looking under the chamber or above the chamber most likely when the
reactor is running.
On top of this both the top of the bottom are being built from aluminum which will stop some
radiation. Lastly, a thin sheet of lead, or a some water / dirt can be placed on top or under the
container in order to help block the radiation a lot more.

Due to the risks that can occur from high radiation levels, a backup plan has been developed in the
case of high radiation levels. To start, at the start of the project a Geiger Counter will be purchased
in order to keep track of all the radiation and determine whether the radiation ever reaches unsafe
levels.
Should the radiation level be determined to be harmful, the reactor will be surrounded by material in

Nuclear Fusion a Feasible Source of Power Essay example
Is Nuclear Fusion a Feasible Source of Power?
Abstract:
Nuclear fusion may be an effective solution to the energy problem in today?s world. Fusion is
environmentally friendly and has the potential to generate massive amounts of power. It is evident
that the Sun?s power is fueled by nuclear fusion. Recent advancements such as ITER and NIF may
bring us closer to being able to use fusion. We find that nuclear fusion is a long–term solution to a
continuing problem.
Introduction:
Since the Industrial Age, energy from fossil fuels has become widespread. In recent times, the
depletion of fossil fuels is forcing humanity to search for other alternatives, such as nuclear fusion.
Fusion has been an attractive method of energy for a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scientists aim to gain knowledge and improve the power output, the time duration, and the energy
cost.
Nuclear fusion is a process that occurs when two hydrogen isotopes (tritium and deuterium) fuse
together. This reaction produces a neutron and also a large amount of energy. However, a massive
amount of heat is necessary for the reaction to initiate because the nuclei (which have very strong
opposing charges) must fuse together. The temperature necessary for this to occur is over one
hundred million degrees Kelvin. When the reaction occurs, the energy is so great that it is very
difficult to contain. So far the known methods of containment are magnetic confinement and inertial
confinement. The magnetic confinement uses a very powerful magnetic field, and the inertial
confinement uses the inertia of the reaction.
(Figure 1, wikipedia, ?nuclear fusion?) We will investigate published literature that either supports
or reflects if fusion is feasible. We believe fusion would be a feasible source of power if it could
produce reasonably more energy that is put in.
Results and Discussion
There are several methods to create nuclear fusion for power. The most successful is the star, which
uses gravity and pressure to fuse hydrogen and create helium.
Unfortunately we cannot harness a sun and harvest it on earth for raw fusion energy.
However, we can create small reactions similar to that of the sun in the lab and turn the radiant
energy

The Major Differences Between UPLC And HPLC
As previously mentioned the major difference UPLC and HPLC is the pressure and particle size.
Pressures of up 1000 bar can be achieved with UPLC, which is necessary to maintain shorter
retention times. In UPLC smaller particles are used. These smaller particles provide a greater
surface area of the stationary phase within the column, making the separation of the substances
much more efficient. However, the smaller the particles are, the more pressure that is required. A
summary of the main differences between HPLC and UPLC can be seen in the table below:
Attribute HPLC UPLC
Pressure 6000 Psi 100,000 Psi
Particle Size 5μm 1.7μm
Flow Rate Millilitres per minute Microlitres per minute
Max Resolution Relatively low Relatively high
The lower particle size is the true reason for UPLC increased flow rate and resolution. This can be
shown mathematically using Van Deemter's equation: H = A + B/µ + Cµ. H being the plate height
and µ being the particle size. The A constant remains constant independent of flow rate (known as
the 'Eddy diffusion term'). The B constant is the diffusion coefficient, and C is the "analyte mass
transfer" coefficient. As µ decreases, the A and C values ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gumustas et al [3] reviewed that UPLC was more efficient than HPLC. In comparison to HPLC,
UPLC can run higher resolution methods, using shorter columns, smaller size of particles, with
higher flow rates under high pressure. The injection volume of UPLC is almost ten times smaller
than that of HPLC, which results in good peak shapes and low carryover effects related to column
diameter. It was also reviewed that the major disadvantages of UPLC were the high prices of
purchasing and maintaining the instrument as well as the shorter column life due to the increased
back pressure. However, the advantages of less solvent consumption, faster chromatography and
better resolution properties overcome these

Taking a Look at Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion Assignment
1. Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier one. However, controlling
a nuclear fusion reaction has proven to be difficult. State three critical requirements which must be
meet in order to achieve controlled fusion. Firstly, high thermal energies are needed to achieve
controlled fusion. High temperature enable the particles to overcome the Coulomb barrier, the
energy barrier due to electrostatic interaction that two nuclei need to overcome so they can get close
enough to undergo a nuclear reaction. This energy barrier of the electrostatic potential energy is that
temperature must be maintained for a sufficient confinement time and with a sufficient ion density
in order to obtain a net yield of energy from a fusion reaction. A necessary part in nuclear fusion is
plasma, which is a mixture of atomic nuclei and electrons that are required to initiate a self–
sustaining reaction which requires a temperature of more than 40,000,000 K. Second, difficulty of
forcing deuterium and tritium nuclei within a close proximity needed to be overcome. The reason is
because the nucleus contains protons, and in order to overcome electrostatic repulsion by the
protons of both the hydrogen atoms, both of the hydrogen nucleuses need to accelerate at a super
high speed and get close enough in order for the nuclear force to start fusion. The net result of these
opposing forces is that the binding energy per nucleon generally increases

The Rosetta / Philae Mission
The Rosetta/Philae mission was an international space mission sent to study the small icy worlds
that are comets. Specifically, the target of interest for this mission was the comet 67P/Churyumov–
Gerasimenko. The spacecraft was launched in 2004 and arrived at the comet 67P/Churyumov–
Gerasimenko on August 6, 2014. This space mission was unlike any other because this mission
marks the first time in spaceflight history that a spacecraft entered orbit around a comet and
deployed a lander to the comet's surface. The lander itself was a great research vessel as it included
an array of instruments ranging from spectrometers, to microscopic imaging instruments, radio
tomography systems, gas analyzers, drilling equipment, and various surface sound monitors. When
the Philae lander was being lowered by the Rosetta craft, it suffered from an unfortunate series of
events which culminated in the lander making final touchdown on the opposite side of the crater
than where it was supposed to observe. The Rosetta/Philae mission not only set a number of first in
space travel, but also increased humanity's knowledge about comets in many different ways. The
mission set history by being the first spacecraft to use solar cell technology as the spacecraft's main
power source, send back images from the surface of a comet, make the first analyzation of the
composition of a comet, and have a probe land on a comet to perform surface operations and
examinations.
Despite the lander not being in the

A Report Analyzing The Viability Of The Nuclear Fusion
Dear Upper Hutt City Council
Today I am writing you a report analysing the viability of the use of Nuclear Fusion as a energy
source in your community. I will analyse the feasibility of this kind of nuclear power in your
community by firstly explaining what nuclear fusion is and how it works. I will then use
calculations to estimate how this new energy produced could compare to the amount of energy used
by the city currently.
Nuclear Fusion occurs when two small nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus (this is not to be
confused with fission). A large amount of energy is released, which can be explained simply enough
by the binding energy per nucleon. The nucleons in extremely small nuclei have more energy than
those in slightly larger nuclei. Because these nucleons have more energy, they have less binding
energy per nucleon (because the same total binding energy must be split evenly, therefore more
energy=less binding energy to go around). Because of this, when the reaction of two smaller nuclei
fusing takes place, the nucleons must have to lose energy. The subsequent energy that they lose is
the energy that is released. For all of this to happen, a fusion reaction requires utterly immense
temperature of millions of degrees celcius, just in order to force the nuclei to move fast enough to
fuse and stick.
The Prime example of Nuclear Fusion is the sun. It is obvious that atoms do not rest: the hotter they
get, the quicker they move. Temperatures reach 15,000,000° C in the

How Water Shaped Michigan Essay
How Water Shaped Michigan
People often wonder how the continents, states, and other landforms develop their shape and
structure. Our earth, continents, countries, and states developed over billions of years and water
played a huge roll in the development, shape, and structure. Within this exploratory essay you will
gain knowledge on how Michigan, specifically, was shaped and how water affects the state in many
ways and will continue to do so every single day until the earth ceases to exist.
Description of Michigan
Michigan is one of the fifty states within the United States of America and is favored with having
the largest shoreline within the U.S. It is characterized by two peninsulas, the upper peninsula
(which is obviously cooler) and the lower peninsula which holds a vast majority of the land and also
a big chunk of us, Michiganders. The name Michigan comes from the Chippewa Indian word
Michigama which means great or large lake. Lake Michigan was called Michigama by the
Chippewa Indians. Our unique state is luckily surrounded by four of the five Great Lakes. The Great
Lakes in our region have vastly influenced our state and those around us. Without Lake Michigan,
Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Erie, we would not have the large fresh water sources we
currently are blessed with, many jobs would not exist, recreational activities would be slim to none,
and we simply wouldn't have the gorgeous views all around us. To say the very least, the state of
Michigan is

Big Bang And The Creation Of Energy And Matter
Big Bang Theory:
Explain what occurred during the Big Bang, including the creation of energy and matter:
The universe was created by the Big Bang. Just before the Big Bang, the universe was just
unbelievably hot and at a very dense point, it burst to expand space faster than light which was at
10–34of a second. The universe doubled in size at least 90 times from the dense point. But the speed
of the space spreading became to change to a slower rate still continuing at this time and day. As
space, expanded universe cooled itself down and matter formed. Another second after the Big Bang
neutrons, protons, electron, anti–electron, photons and neutrinos came into existence. Light elements
were born from the process known as Big Bang ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Redshift is the red end of the spectrum which is radiation from distant galaxies, stars, and other
objects. Astronomers found that the further we are from a star the more its light is redshifted. This
tells us that galaxies are moving away from us and that the further the galaxy is the faster it moving
away. The further away the galaxy the more its light is redshifted. The Theory of the Big Bang says
that this expansion started billions of years ago.
Scientists discovered that there are microwaves coming from every direction in space. The theory of
the Big Bang says that this energy was created at beginning of the universe just after the big bang
and has been moving through space ever since then.
The universe cool to let quarks combine to make protons and neutrons.
Temperature has decreased to 1014 degrees Kelvin.
The basic building blocks of matter form.
1quadrillionth of a Second
10–35 Seconds
Size is now the shape of a grapefruit.
10–40 Seconds
Currently, the universe is packed into the size of an atom which has a temperature of near infinity.
0 Seconds
Fundamental Forces that were involved at this state are Electromagnetic Force and Gravity.
The Big Bang:
Timeline from Threshold 1 to Threshold 2: Part 1
The size suddenly changed to 1025meters and the new fundamental force that was involved was
Strong Nuclear Force.
New Fundamental Force that was involved is a weak

Pros And Cons Of Nuclear Fusion
Development of alternative energy sources is ever growing. One such source, nuclear fusion, is
gaining increasing prominence in the energy world. The principles of nuclear fusion provide the
opportunity of incredible energy production. This review covers the concepts, current prospects, and
the challenges and future developments necessary for the realization of nuclear fusion as a power
source. Tremendous research and development has already occurred into the realization of fusion.
Two popular mechanisms are studied: Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF) and Inertial
Confinement Fusion. MCF utilizes magnetic entrapment of superheated plasma in a device known
as a tokamak to achieve fusion conditions. ICF utilizes ablation and compression techniques in ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These issues combine to place an unfavorable light on the potential of nuclear power. Nuclear
fission, however, is not the only source of nuclear power. Nuclear fusion is another method which
offers the potential to combat some of the ailments of nuclear fission in addition to providing long
lasting power. Nuclear fusion offers several benefits to energy industry. Among the benefits of
fusion power is that fusion fuel is readily available, power produced is reliable, has a low
environmental impact, does not produce fissile materials, and carries the same terror risk as
conventional fossil fuel plants [6]. To understand why some of these benefits are true, an
understanding of the science behind nuclear fusion is necessary.To start, nuclear reactions involve
the protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom. This is different from how chemical
reactions, like the burning of fossil fuels, involve the electrons of an atom. In nuclear fission
reactions, heavier elements are torn apart. The resulting products are more stable than the reactant,
and energy is

Energy Through Fusion
Benjamin Baker Dr. Grigg Engineering 2200 11 November, 2015 Sustainable Energy through
Fusion The bombs that were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first ever atomic bombs ever
created that had the capability to destroy entire cities, within seconds, and leave suffering for
generations after. Then came the hydrogen bomb, which used the initial fission explosion of an atom
bomb to create the process of fusion, an even more deadly and powerful weapon. Why am I so
fascinated with a process that is so devastating? Well the answer lies within the sun. During the
early 1920's, it was recognized that the sun probably produced its energy from constant fusion
reactions in its core (Hydrogen). The core, which happens to be the hottest part of the ... Show more
The motivation to overcome this obstacle is the fact that the materials are very easy to obtain.
Lithium, the element that cell phone batteries are made from, is a very highly obtainable substance
that is found in a larger percentage in the Earth's crust than lead or Tin, and can be turned into
tritium by simple nuclei reactions; deuterium, which is not very common, can be created in an
almost limitless supply using the hydrogen in water (Provide). The only major problem, is that to
mimic the reaction found in the sun, there needs to be intense heat and enormous amounts of
pressure (Provide). Also, like the energy from the sun, the energy from the plant will dissipate and
become less and less the further out from the initial reaction it goes, therefore, to get the most out of
the energy, the pressure needs to not only condense but contain as well (Planet). The best way to get
a confining pressure field is to create a magnetic field. To date, there are several reactors that use a
magnetic field to contain the reaction, including the Joint European Torus (JET) and the Mega Amp
Spherical Tokamak (MAST) (World). There is currently a project in France called the ITER
(International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), which will open in the 2020s and will be the
largest tokamak built and will have 500 megawatts of energy

Fission Vs Fusion
What's the difference between Fission and Fusion? Science is a measurement of true knowledge to
the world and for some is a bragging front to show the amount of intelligence and power some
countries have. Through certain aspects of science, countries can demonstrate any amount of
dominance they have by demonstrating new technologies and theories. Fusion and Fission is one of
the great explorations that man has discovered due to the benefits it brings to human life. The
promise of fusion is enormous due to how big of an energy system it gives and it comes together by
fuel that is obtained by seawater and is also mixed with lithium from the earth's crust. Most people
get Fission and Fusion confused and they figure that it is the same thing. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Most prefer Fission because it can be controlled but if defense is an option fusion would win. Fusion
can be three to four more times powerful than fission. Fusion has a higher energy rate and blast
range capacity. Hydrogen bombs that have been tested have been seen to remain better and greater
than the atomic bombs. A hydrogen bomb uses a fission reaction to trigger the isotope Deuterium in
the bomb which causes a thermonuclear reaction which then is lead by a fusion reaction. During the
process the fusion reaction implodes in and the explodes out, that is why hydrogen bombs are shown
to have a higher release of energy and a more destructive outcome. Most people like the United
states prefer Fusion bombs over fission bombs due to the capability of their results. The megaton
bomb that Korea is testing has a blast range of 1.7 miles, while Castle Bravo (USA) has a impact
about 80 times stronger than the megaton. Most countries have developed fusion bombs and Iran is
now conducting research on its nuclear capacity. Due to the knowledge that the United States has
about both fusion and fission, this is why it is so concerning that other countries are testing nuclear
bombs. If they can perfect their formulas, and get the right range right this could put many countries
including the United States in danger. Overall,

Synthesis Of Heterocycles Lab Report
Synthesis of heterocycles 4 and 9a,b To a solution of isothiocyanate 2 (0.68 g, 2 mmol) in
dichloromethane (10 mL), a propriate amine (2 mmol) was added with stirring. The mixture was
stirred for 1–3 hours and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure giving compounds 4
and 9a,b. Diethyl 2–(2–(ethoxycarbonyl)hydrazinecarbothioamido)–4,5–dihydrothieno–[2,3–
c]pyridine–3,6(7H)–dicarboxylate (4) Colorless crystals from methanol (0.61 g, 69 %). M.p. 197–
198 oC. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO, ppm): δ 1.16 (t, 6H, J¬ = 7.1 Hz, 2COOCH¬2¬CH¬3), 1.32
(t, 3H, J ¬= 7.1 Hz, COOCH¬2¬CH¬3), 2.79 (t, 2H, J¬ = 5.6 Hz, H–4), 3.61 ( t, 2H, J = 5.1 Hz, H–
5), 4.16 (q, 4H, J¬ = 7.0 Hz, 2COOCH¬2¬CH¬3), 4.30 (q, 2H, J¬ = 7.0 Hz, COOCH¬2¬CH¬3),
4.48 (s, 2H, H–7). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
M.p. 294–295 oC. 1H NMR (300 MHz, DMSO, ppm): δ 1.22 (t, 3H, J¬ = 7.1 Hz,
COOCH¬2¬CH¬3), 2.85 (t, 2H, J¬ = 5.6 Hz, H–5), 3.56 (s, 3H, ¬CH¬3), 3.62 ( t, 2H, J = 5.1 Hz,
H–6), 4.09 (q, 2H, J¬ = 7.0 Hz, COOCH¬2¬CH¬3), 4.53 (s, 2H, H–8). 7.13 (s, 1H, NH2), 13.55 (s,
1H, NH). 13C NMR (75 MHz, DMSO, ppm): δ 14.3 (CH3), 25.0 (C–5), 36.2 (CH3), ¬40.1 (C–6),
42.6 (C–8), 60.9 (CH2, carbamate), 119.2 (C–4a), 126.3 (C–4b), 129.0 (C–8a), 154.6 (C–9a), 156.3
(C–2), 157.8 (C=O), 163.3 (C=O, carbamate). Anal. Calcd for C13H17N5O3S (323.37): C, 48.28;
H, 5.30; N, 21.66; Found: C, 48.10; H, 5.13; N,

Scientific Creation And The Overlap With Creation Research...
Scientific Creation and the Overlap with Mythology
Jordan Weber
University of Northern Iowa
UNIV 1092–01
Dr. John Burnight Scientific Creation and the Overlap with Mythology Since their creation, humans
have wanted to understand the reasons for their existence. Experts in religion, philosophy, and
science have all proposed different reasons for and methods of creation. In recent years, especially
with the rise of technology, science has started to become the medium charged with explaining the
universe and its creation. This increased focus on scientific reasoning has changed the way humans
understand creation. Some religious leaders have attempted to figure out how to interpret new
findings into their scripture. Others have refused to acknowledge scientific facts. Is what they
believe still relevant? While their methods of creation are not, some of the archetypes may be
present in scientific theories. Science is constantly changing, and these findings contribute to new
ways of religious thinking.
The Steady State Theory: Science Proves Itself Wrong
Science and myth have been known to have conflicting ideas often. However, also not uncommon
for science to disagree with itself. This can be seen by the two creation theories that were the most
widely supported, the Big Bang and the Steady State theories. The Steady State Theory was the Big
Bang's primary competitor. It proposed that the universe "...was steady or unchanging, except for its
size and the amount of matter it contains" (Jones, 1992, p.116). This idea of creation was based upon
the notion that matter was constantly being created in the universe with "...no beginning or end in
time, and from any point within it the view on the grand scale...is the same" (Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2016, n.p.). This creation was extremely slow, at a rate of one atom per 1,000 cubic
miles of space every century. Matter that is created appears to be relatively the same as matter seen
previously. In other words, it appears in the same forms observed in the universe, such as stars,
galaxies, and planets.
Many people are not aware that the Steady State Theory exists. This is because scientific research
has surfaced that favors the notion of the Big Bang. First, the Steady

The Future Is Bright with Fusion
With the world's supply of fossil fuels declining, alternative sources of power are an important issue
in the minds of scientists and world leaders alike. While everyone scrambles to find the most
effective way to harness solar, wind, and water power, they forget about a form of producing energy
that has been researched for 70 years and is only a hair's breadth from being usable(26). Fusion, the
same power that fuels the sun, could fuel the world's homes and cars. A 1000 megawatt coal–fired
power plant requires 2.7 million tons of coal per year(21) whereas proposed fusion power plant
designs only require 250 kilos of fuel per year to produce more power(22).That's 1/10800000 of the
fuel required to run a coal–fired plant. Even with all fusion could accomplish, funding for it has
been cut dramatically in the past few years because of the inability of scientists to attain sustained
fusion. Fusion is the key to ending our dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas because sustained
fusion would produce 4 million times the energy that current methods produce and the fuel is
harmless and readily available.(thesis statement)
Producing electricity in almost any power plant is a very similar process. In each, a fuel heats water
into steam, which then flows through pipes to spin turbines. When the turbines spin they produce
usable power. The main difference between the power plants are the form of fuel used and how it is
used. In a coal–fired, wood, or natural gas power plant the fuel

What Is The Unequal Sharing Of Electrons In Nuclear Molecules
Chapter 2: The Chemistry and Energy of Life
Concept 2.1
What is the arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom? An equal amount of protons
and neutrons are placed together in the center of the atom. The nucleus contains the protons and
neutrons. Electrons are surrounded on the outside rings of the atom.
According to the octet rule, what would be the simplest way for a sodium atom to achieve electron
stability? A sodium atom only has one valence electron. So, the best way to achieve electron
stability is to bond with a halogen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Explain why or why not. Generally, the neutron determines its chemical stability, although in the
case of deuterium the isotope remains stable. This is because there is insignificant mass difference
between protons and neutrons.
Concept 2.2
How do differences in electronegativity result in the unequal sharing of electrons in polar
molecules? A molecule containing an atom with high electronegativity will be more polar than a
molecule containing an atom with a lower electronegativity. The higher the electronegativity the
more insatiable the atom becomes when it comes to sharing.
For each of the following, is it a Hydrogen bond donor, acceptor, both, or neither? Aldehyde is a
hydrogen bond acceptor. Amino is a hydrogen bond acceptor and donor. Hydroxyl is both a
hydrogen bond donor and acceptor.
What are the functional groups on this molecule? What is the R group to which they are attached? Is
the R group hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

The Atom And The Atomic Of The Energy Level Of Its Electrons
This energy will excite the affected atom, raising the energy level of its electrons. If these electrons
are excited past the range of the nuclei's binding attractive force, then the electron will jettison from
the atom. These two particles, the ionized atom and electron, are now detectable indicating the
presence of a neutron. This is the material ionization phenomenon (Crane and Baker). The nuclear
reaction induction phenomenon occurs when a larger nucleus is struck by a neutron. There is a
probability that the nucleus will absorb the neutron and become unstable. This instability results in
the decay of gamma rays or other particles such as alpha particles and protons. These particles are
easily detected and also indicate the presence ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the conversion of alternating current to direct current, electrons from alternating current will also
enter the diode on the left. However, in part to the oscillating nature of alternating current, the diode
output of direct current will be relatively choppy, since electrons can only move towards the electron
holes in the P–type semiconductor (Kuphaldt).
As a result of the choppy nature of the direct current output, a capacitor is used to smooth the
electron fluxes (Copello). A capacitor is an electrical component that stores charge. In its most basic
form, a capacitor is made up of two metal plates with an insulated layer between them
("Capacitors"). As the electrons flow into the capacitor, their concentration and charge builds up on
one plate. Additionally, due to the repulsive nature of electrons, the buildup of electrons on one plate
will push the electrons from the other plate, creating a current out of the capacitor ("Capacitors").
This makes one plate positively charged and the other negatively charged. At this point, the
capacitor is storing energy. So, the capacitor smooths the fluctuating direct current by slowly
releasing its charge between input spikes ("Capacitors"). This generates a more consistent flow of
direct current to the electric grids.
Another primary component of the Farnsworth Fusor is its two concentric electrical grids. The DC
current produced by the diode will be run

The Modern Lifestyle Requires Energy
The modern lifestyle requires energy. Industries need energy in their production; homes need energy
to provide a comfortable environment. With the growing awareness of the need of environmental
protection, however, there are debates about sources of energy. For the past centuries, fossil fuels
have always been the most prominent source of energy generation, but it is certain that they will run
out eventually. They are also criticized for polluting the environment and causing the global
warming. There are many new energy sources like solar, tidal, or nuclear fusion. Among all the
choices, nuclear fusion, although still not practical, has the greatest potential and best outlook.
Governments should develop fusion as the future energy source for three reasons. It is efficient,
safe, and nearly inexhaustible. First of all, nuclear fusion is the most efficient energy source. It
produces a huge amount of power from little material. Moreover, its 'waste' product can be used as
fusion fuel again. Nuclear fusion produces a large amount of energy. The fusion process happens
when two light atoms, typically hydrogen, helium, lithium and their isotopes, are fused together to
form heavier element under extreme heat and pressure and release a great amount of energy. Nuclear
fusion is a million times more efficient than coal. According to a professor at Cambridge University,
the energy produced by nuclear fusion with "100kg of deuterium" and "3 tonnes of lithium" would
require "3 million

Harold Urey Essay
Harold Urey – Contributions Harold C. Urey is known extensively in numerous fields, some of
which include chemistry, biology, and astronomy. His accomplishments number in the hundreds, the
most notably of which would certainly be his discovery of deuterium, a heavy hydrogen isotope
with one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Although the theory of isotopes was already in place
by 1913, and numerous other scientists had discovered various isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, and
numerous others, Urey claimed that only discoveries surrounding hydrogen could be more
significant (Rice, 2007). Urey had a systematic chart of countless isotopes, including both known
and predicted isotopes, and used this in his research. This system included two isotopes of hydrogen,
one with double the atomic mass of a standard hydrogen atom, and the other with three times the
mass. Both of these isotopes were undiscovered, having only been predicted. Urey became
interested in the supposed isotopes of hydrogen after finding out about a letter sent from a pair of
physicists to the July 1, 1931 issue of a scientific journal called the Physical Review. This letter
discussed evidence ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Faced by problems in the creation of a diffusion barrier for the uranium hexafluoride, this operation
became impossibly complex and inefficient. Urey's barrier was not chosen for the diffusion plant
built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and he soon after left his work on diffusion. Despite his position as
the head of the project, Urey soon has second thoughts and tried in vain to convince President Harry
S. Truman not to use the atomic weapons on Japan. After the war, Urey appealed more to the
civilian control of nuclear weapons, proposing an international ban on the utilization and stockpiling
of nuclear

A Comparative Essay on the Original Creation of the Earth
Creation is slowly becoming a taboo topic in our current society and the "Big Bang Theory" seems
to be the trending theory of the century. What is the difference though? The Catholic Church, in
1950, proclaimed that the "Big Bang Theory" did not contradict the doctrine of creation; therefore,
the Catholic Church now teaches something called Theistic Evolutionism. (Brom, 2004) Are many
churches teaching a false doctrine regarding the "Big Bang Theory" or is science exempt from
biblical doctrine? This essay will explain what the "Big Bang Theory" teaches, what biblical
creation teaches and how the relationship that the two have. First, let us look at the "Big Bang
Theory."
The Big Bang Theory Many people believe that the "Big Bang Theory" was first introduced when
Darwin introduced his theory of evolution; however, this view is incorrect. The "Big Bang Theory"
is actually less than 100 years old! In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the Universe is
expanding at an accelerated rate and asseverated that the Universe must have been extremely close
together at one time. (NASA, 2014) Edwin Hubble speculated that the universe must have come
from an "infinitesimal volume with extremely high density and temperature." (Takashi, 2000) This
new theory, that the Universe was constantly expanding, caused scientist to speculate why and how
the Universe was expanding. In the 1960's and 1970's, scientist declared that they could confirm
George Gamow's theory that the "big bang

Edward Teller Essay
Home Life: Edward Teller was born to Jewish parents Max and Ilona Teller January 15, 1908 in
Budapest, Hungary. The Tellers were an upper middle class family due to Edward's father being a
lawyer. The tellers also had a daughter Emmi who was twenty months older than Edward. Until
Edward was four he showed few signs of being exceptionally intelligent in fact there was concern
that he may lack even normal intelligence. At four however Edward began to speak in full sentences
and show great promise. By age six he was laying in bed at night and work multiplication problems.
He soon also showed great promise as a pianist, something he would enjoy throughout his lifetime.
By seventeen young Edward had found the young woman whom he ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
He also had difficulty in math but not due to a lack of ability but boredom. This ws illustrated by
Edward suggesting a better solution to a problem that the one provided by the instructor. This lead
the instructor Dr. Karl Oberle to state, "So, you are a genius" "Well, I don't like geniuses." Edward
began his university education close to home, bowing to his mothers insistence, at the University of
Budapest. His father had talked him into studying engineering instead of math as his main subject.
After a dissatisfying period at the university in 1926 Edward enrolled at the Institute of Technology
in Karlsruhe, Germany. In 1928 Edward again switched schools to the University of Munich, where
he would study physics. In 1928 Edward had an accident leaving a moving street car which led to
part of his foot being amputated. This delay in his education would also lead to Edward's final
switch of schools before receiving his Ph.D. Edward transferred to the University of Leipzig. He
received his Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics in 1930. Getting started: Teller's first position was an
assistantship at the University of Gottingen. Edward would leave Gottingen due to the increasing
level of anti–Semitism in Germany. Edward joined a growing exodus of jews leaving for safer
countries like England and the United States. Teller took an assistantship in physics at the University
College in London which fulfilled requirements that allowed him to Win a

The Pros And Cons Of Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is the same process our sun and stars in general use to produce energy. Nuclear fusion
reactors are theoretical concepts trying to achieve controlled nuclear fusion reactions here on earth,
primarily with the goal of generating electricity. Nuclear fusion promises to be a much more
ecofriendly and safer alternative energy source compared to: fossil fuels, natural gases, and
conventional nuclear power.
Nuclear fusion is a reaction that occurs when two nuclei of lighter elements combine together to
form one heavier nuclei in turn releasing vast amounts of energy and neutrons. Different isotopes of
hydrogen will be used to carry out these nuclear fusion reactions being that hydrogen is the lightest
element. There are three main types of fusion that are being theorized as viable options are: proton–
proton chain, deuterium–deuterium reactions, and deuterium–tritium reactions. The most valuable of
these being deuterium–deuterium reactions because deuterium is naturally found in ocean water and
is readily available. This reaction would require temperatures far greater than that required for
deuterium–tritium reactions and with current technology it is seemingly unachievable. For this
reason, deuterium–tritium reactions are most common.
In order for nuclear fusion to take place the nuclei of two hydrogen atoms must fuse together thus
forming helium atoms as well as energy and neutrons. There is an electrostatic force repelling the
protons in hydrogen atoms apart from each

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