Part ii system implementation chapter 4 defining performance

Part II: System Implementation
Chapter 4: Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement
Approach
Chapter 5: Measuring Results and Behaviors
Chapter 6: Performance Analytics
Chapter 7: Rolling Out the Performance Management System
Copyright © 2019 Chicago Business Press
4-1

Chapter 4
Defining Performance
and
Choosing a Measurement Approach
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2
Overview
Determinants of Performance
Performance Dimensions
Approaches to Measuring Performance
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Company Spotlight
Sprint uses five core dimensions to define what successful
performance looks like
Both task and contextual performance are measured
Includes:
Employees write behavioral examples of how they have
performed on each dimension
Employees are evaluated not only on results, but also on how
they are achieved through working with others

4

Performance is:
Behaviors and actions
What employees do
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Performance is:
Results and Products
The outcome of employee behaviors
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Behaviors Labeled as Performance Are…
Evaluative
Negative
Neutral
Positive
Multidimensional
Many different kinds of behaviors
Advance or hinder organizational goals
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Behaviors Are NOT Always…
Observable
Measurable

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Results or Products May Be Used…
To infer behavior
As proxy for behavioral measure
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Performance =
Abilities and other traits
X
Knowledge and skills
X
Context
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Abilities and Other Traits
Cognitive Abilities
Personality
Stable Motivational Dispositions
Physical Characteristics and Abilities
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Knowledge and Skills
Job-Related Knowledge
Skills, Attitudes and Malleable Motivational States
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Information about
Facts
Labels
Principles
Goals
Understanding of task requirements
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Procedural Knowledge
Knowing
What to do
How to do it
Skills
Cognitive
Physical
Perceptual
Motor
Interpersonal
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Context
HR Policies and Procedures (e.g., compensation system)
Managerial and Peer Leadership
Organizational and National Culture
Issues about time and timing of performance
Resources and opportunities given to employees
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Abilities and Other Traits, and Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and Skills are more malleable (i.e., easier to
change)
Individual differences that are easier to change through
interventions are called “states”
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Motivation
Choices
Expenditure of effort (”state” motivation)
Level of effort (“state” motivation)
Persistence of effort (stable trait)
Deliberate practice leads to excellence
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Deliberate Practice
Approach performance with goal of getting better and better
Focus on performance
What is happening?
Why?
Seek feedback from expert sources
Build mental models of job, situation, and organization
Repeat first four steps on an ongoing basis
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Deliberate Practice
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-sjUoGO250
What are some of the tips to perform deliberate practice well?
What are some of the benefits of deliberate practice?
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Context
HR policies and procedures
Managerial and peer leadership
Organizational and national culture
Time and timing of performance
Resources given to employees
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Implications for Addressing Performance Problems
Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of
performance problems
Performance management systems must…

Measure performance
AND
Provide information on source(s) of problems
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Performance Dimensions:
Types of Multidimensional Behaviors
Task performance
Contextual performance
Prosocial behaviors
Organizational citizenship
Counterproductive performance
Adaptive Performance
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Task Performance
Activities that
Transform raw materials
Help with the transformation process
Replenishing
Distributing
Supporting
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25
Contextual Performance
Behaviors that
Contribute to the organization’s effectiveness
AND
Provide a good environment in which task performance can
occur
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26
Differences Between
Task and Contextual Performance
Task Performance
Varies across jobs
Likely to be role prescribed
Influenced by
Abilities
Skills
Contextual Performance
Fairly similar across jobs
Not likely to be role prescribed
Influenced by
Personality
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Why Include Task and Contextual
Performance Dimensions in PM System?
Global competition
Customer service
Teamwork
Employee perceptions of PM
Supervisor views
Cultural differences
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Voice Behavior
Behavior that emphasizes expression of constructive challenge
with the goal to improve rather than merely criticize
Challenges the status quo in a positive way
Makes innovative suggestions for change
Recommends modifications to standard procedures

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Counterproductive Performance
Behaviors and results that are voluntary
and violate organizational norms
Threaten well-being of the organization, its members, or both
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Examples of counterproductive performance
Exaggerating hours worked
Gossiping about coworkers and one’s supervisor
Cyberloafing
Intentionally working slowly and carelessly
Staying out of sight to avoid work
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Adaptive Performance
Related to an individual’s adaptability to changes
Be it in the organization and it’s goals,
in the requirements of the job,
or the overall work context
Becoming increasingly important due to rapid changes
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Examples of adaptive performance
Handling emergencies
Solving problems creatively
Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations
Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability

Demonstrating cultural adaptability
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Behavior Approach
Emphasizes how employees do the job
Results Approach
Emphasizes what employees produce
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Behavior Approach
Appropriate if…
Link between behaviors and results is not obvious
Outcomes occur in the distant future
Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control
Not appropriate if…
Above conditions are not present
4-35

Company Spotlight
Dollar General uses a behavioral approach to measure
performance
Identified behaviors that serve as indicators of underlying
competencies
Behaviors are reviewed and utilized to encourage certain
outcomes and provide
feedback and rewards to staff members
36

Results Approach
Advantages:
Less time
Lower cost

Data appear objective
Most appropriate when:
Workers skilled in necessary behaviors
Behaviors and results obviously related
Consistent improvement in results over time
Many ways to do the job right
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Company Spotlight
Basecamp divides its employees workload into six-week work
cycles containing 1-2 “big batch projects” and 4-8 “small batch
projects”
Uses a results-approach to performance planning
Company focuses exclusively on getting the project done wi thin
6 weeks and does not measure efficiency or compare actual to
estimated costs
Team decides how to get the project done
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Measuring Performance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jz8xBkQCpuE&amp=&t=48
s
What kind of approach to measuring performance is used at
Pfizer?
How is the focus on measuring performance based on patient
figures different than sales figures? What are some of the
benefits of this approach?
Is this an appropriate approach to measuring performance for
Pfizer? Why or why not?
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Performance Dimensions
4-40

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of
the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
1-41

41
Chapter 10: Fluency Instruction
Teaching Reading Sourcebook 2nd edition
*
Fluency InstructionTo develop fluency instruction one must
focus on the three elements of fluent reading: accuracy, rate,
and prosody.Instructional methods can be grouped into three
categories, which in actual practice overlap.A fourth category
focuses on the integration of the following:Independent silent
readingAssisted readingRepeated oral reading

Instructional methods focused on connected text can be grouped
into three main categories: independent silent reading, assisted
reading, and repeated oral reading.
In actual practice, these categories often overlap. A fourth
category focuses on integrated fluency instruction.
Assisted ReadingStudents need to hear proficient fluency
models to learn how a reader’s voice can help make sense of
text.Methods of assisted reading includeTeacher-assisted
readingPeer-assisted readingAudio-assisted readingAll forms
emphasize extensive practice to improve students’ fluency.
*Teacher-assisted reading: expressive reading modeled through
reading aloud.Peer-assisted reading: paired reading with
feedback from more fluent reader.Audio-assisted reading:
expressive reading modeled by computer, CD or audio tape.
Repeated Oral ReadingPractice is the key to fluency.Repeated
readings involve rereading a text to build both automaticity and
fluency. (i.e. choral reading, Readers Theatre, etc.)Repeated
oral reading is flexible and can be adapted in many ways such
asthe number of readings;the instructional groupings;the
purpose for reading.
*Number of readings: Students either read and reread a text
until a level of fluency is met or they read text a set number of

times (three to four benefit most).Instructional groupings:
Include individually with adult, pairs, small groups, or a whole
class.Purpose for reading: Students devote each reading to a
different purpose ( 1st read: identify character motivation, 2nd
read identify setting, etc.).
Methods of Repeated Oral ReadingTimed repeated oral
readingSelf-timed repeated oral readingPartner readingPhrase-
cued readingReaders TheatreRadio readingChoral readingDuet
readingEcho readingReading with Recordings
*
See Research-Based Methods of Repeated Oral Reading chart on
page 365 for descriptions of each.
Choosing the Right TextTexts students read to develop fluency
should be chosen carefully. Criteria includeText length: 50-200
words with shorter passages for beginning and struggling
readers and longer passages for better readers;Text content:
choosing the right passage can be the key to motivation; the
more that words overlap between texts with common themes,
the more transfer there is of fluent reading; Level of text
difficulty: an essential requireme nt for repeated oral reading is
that the text be at the correct level of difficulty for each
student.
*
Passages should vary in genre with short stories, magazine and
newspaper articles, poetry etc.

How to Determine the Level of Text DifficultyAdminis ter a one
minute timed reading assessment of a 100-120 word passage to
calculate the CWPM.Calculate the percent of words read
correctly or percent of accuracy. (If a student read 112 words
correctly out of a 120 word passage: 112 divided by 120 = .93
or 93% accuracy.)Compare the student’s accuracy level with the
levels of text difficulty95-100% Independent level90-94%
Instructional levelLess than 90% Frustration level
*
When to TeachNot every student needs instruction for fluency
building. Assessment determines if and what kind of fluency
instruction is needed (e.g. accuracy, rate, prosody).In grades K-
2, students need daily opportunities to hear text read aloud in a
fluent, prosodic manner.In grade 1, students need daily
opportunities for guided repeated oral readings; in grades 2-5,
practice reading aloud with corrective feedback.Although most
oral reading fluency rates do not significantly increase beyond
grade 6, all students need ample amounts of reading practice in
a wide range of texts.
*

Chapter 9: Fluency Assessment
Teaching Reading Sourcebook 2nd edition
*
Fluency Assessment
Consists of collecting information about students’ oral reading
accuracy, rate, and prosody;Provides an overall estimate of a
student’s reading proficiency;Is a strong predictor of success in
reading comprehension;Is a key to preventing reading
difficulties; Provides information to guide instruction and
improve student outcomes.
*
Assessment of Oral Reading FluencyThe combination of oral
reading rate and
accuracy is the oral reading fluency (ORF).The assessment tool
that is used most for measuring ORF is Curriculum-Based
Measurement (CBM).ORF CBM provides a reliable and valid
way toidentify students who are at risk for reading
failure;identify which students are not making adequate
progress given the instruction they receive;identify students’
instructional level;identify which students need additional
diagnostic re-evaluation.

*
CBM is an assessment that includes a set of standard directions,
a timing device, a set of passages, scoring rules, standards for
judging performance, and record forms or charts.
Administering an Oral Reading Fluency CBM AssessmentThe
student reads for one minute from an unpracticed, grade-level
passage.The teacher follows along with a copy of the passage
and marks any student errors.The ORF is determined by
subtracting the number of errors from the total number of words
read. This is expressed as words correct per minute (WCPM).To
monitor progress, the scores can be recorded on a graph.The
graph’s visual form is helpful in interpreting the scores and in
helping students see their growth.
*
Oral Reading Fluency Performance ExpectationsOne way to set
standards for fluency performance
is to compare students’ ORF scores to the National
norm.National norms provide WCPM scores for students in
grades 1-8 during three different assessment time periods a
year. (fall, winter, spring)The norms are listed as percentile
scores. (90,75, 50, 25, and 10)These norms can help indicate
whether a student’s fluency growth meets grade-level
expectations or is increasing at a normal rate.

*
See the Oral Reading Fluency Norms chart for grades 1-8
(Hasbrouck and Tindal 2006) on page 331.
Diagnosis of Dysfluent ReadingTeachers must gather more in-
depth
information to determine the area of weakness that is causing
the fluency problem.Common causes of dysfluency include
deficits in phonemic awareness, decoding, vocabulary, language
syntax, and content knowledge.A “speed-accuracy” trade off
occurs when studentsslow down because they are too concerned
with accuracy;make many mistakes in an attempt to read text
too quickly.
*
Assessment of Prosodic ReadingUnlike rate and accuracy,
prosody is more difficult to measure reliably, but it is often
important to assess.To measure prosodic reading, the teacher
listens to a student orally read an independent-level passage and
then compares the characteristics of the student’s prosodic
reading to a rating scale or rubric.Prosodic reading rubrics ma y
include stress, phrasing, intonation, expression, pauses,
attention to punctuation, etc.
*
See the Prosody Assessment Rating Scale on page 334.

When to AssessExcept for first grade, students should be
screened at the beginning of the year and monitored three times
a year. (fall, winter, and spring)Monitoring for those not
making adequate progress should be at least one or two times a
month.Less is known about the usefulness of ORF screening and
monitoring of adolescent students. The average levels of oral
reading fluency stabilize at around 150 WC for students at the
end of 6th-8th grades, when reading grade level texts.
*
ORF and Upper Grade StudentsSome researchers believe that
Maze CBM may be a better predictor of upper-grade students’
future reading performance than ORF CBM.In Maze CBM, a
student reads a passage silently rather than aloud; at about
every seventh word the student must choose the word that
makes the most sense in the sentence from a group of three
possible words. This cloze type assessment appears to be
slightly more valid than ORF for its relationship to
comprehension.
*
In grades 4 and up, comprehension begins to depend more on
content knowledge, vocabulary, and knowledge of expository
text structures.

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