Useful for diploma students. Prepared as required by 1991 curriculum in India.

1. Vitamins
S. S. Pande
G. P. RatnagiriG. P. Ratnagiri
(Useful for Diploma in Pharmacy Students)

2. Vitamins
• “small organic molecules present in diet which are
required in small amounts.”
• Most of the vitamins are not synthesized in the body and
hence they must be supplied in the diet.
Fat Soluble Vitamins
• They are vitamins A, D, E and K. They have some
common properties.common properties.
• They are:
1. Fat soluble.
2. Require bile salts for absorption.
3. Stored in liver.
4. Stable to normal cooking conditions.
5. Excreted in feces.

3. Water soluble vitamins
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Vitamin B3 or Vitamin P or Vitamin PP (niacin)
Vitamin B5 (panthotenic acid)
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine and pyridoxamine)
Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H (biotin)Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H (biotin)
Vitamin B9 or Vitamin M and Vitamin B-c (folic acid)
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
They are
1. Soluable in Water.
2. Except Vitamin B12 others are not stored.
3. Unstable to normal cooking conditions.
4. Excreted in urine

4. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

5. 6. Deficiency of water soluble vitamins produce
beriberi, pellagra, microcytic anaemia,
megaloblastic anaemia and scurvy.
7. Some vitamin analogs are used as drugs. For
example folic acid analogs are used as
anticancer agents and as antibiotics.
8. Consumption of vitamin C in significant8. Consumption of vitamin C in significant
amounts reduces severity of cold. They slow
down ageing process also.
9. Vit B12, Folic acid and Vit B6 are beneficial to
coronary artery disease patients. They lower
plasma homocysteine levels.

6. Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
• Also called as “Anti Bri-beri substance” and “aneurine”
• Chemistry : It is a heat labile sulfur containing vitamin. It
contains pyrimidine ring and thiazole ring, which are joined
by methylene bridge. It is highly alkaline sensitive
• Sources. Outer coatings of food grains like rice, wheat
and yeast. Whole cereals, pulses, oilseeds and nuts.
N
N
C
H2
N+
S
CH2
H2C OH
CH3
NH2.HCl
H3C
Methylene bridge
thiazole ring
Pyrimidine ring
Structure of Thiamine
Absorption and Transport
It is absorbed in small intestine by active
transport mechanism and simple diffusion.
Then it reaches liver through circulation

7. • Function
1. Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP or TDP) is the
active form of thiamin.
2. TPP is the prosthetic group of enzymes like
pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-keto glutarate
dehydrogenase.
3. TPP also involved in HMp shunt.
4. Vit. B1 is important for growth and essential
for maintaining nerves.for maintaining nerves.
• Deficiency
• Beriberi: Early signs of beri beri are insomnia,
headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, muscle
weakness, numbness and pricking sensation in
lower limbs and fatigue.

8. • If not treated it leads to
• Wet beri beri: In which cardiovascular system is
affected and it is characterized by edema.
Edema appears in lower limbs, trunk, face. Blood
pressure becomes abnormal. Heart becomes
weak and death occurs due to heart failure.
• Dry beri beri: In which central nervous system• Dry beri beri: In which central nervous system
is affected. Inaddition to early signs severe
muscle wasting occurs. As a result individual is
unable to walk and becomes bed ridden. Death
may occur if not treated.
• Beri Beri can be treated by giving thiamin
intramuscularly.

9. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
• Riboflavin is absorbed in the
proximal intestine.
• Riboflavin is stored mainly in
the liver, kidney and heart in
the form of FAD (70- 90%) orthe form of FAD (70- 90%) or
FMN.
• Sources: foods of animal
origin (liver, pork and beef,
milk, dairy products, fish
eggs) cocoa, nuts, yeast, of
smaller quantities in cereals

10. Functions
• Active forms of riboflavin are FMN and FAD. They act as
prosthetic groups of several enzymes. FMN is flavin
mononucleotide and FAD is flavin adenine dinucleotide.
• coenzymes in hydrogen transfer – formation of reducing forms -
FMNH2 a FADH2
• Take part in oxidation of amino acids
• Regulatory functions of some hormones for carbohydrate
metabolismmetabolism
Riboflavin Deficiency
In humans riboflavin deficiency causes oral, facial, occular
lesions.
(a) Angular Stomatitis. Lesions of mouth particularly at corners of
Mouth. (b) Cheliosis. Red swollen and cracked lips.
(c) Vascularization of cornea and conjuctiva and blood shot eyes.
(d) Glossitis. Inflammated magenta coloured tongue.

12. Niacin/ Nicotinic acid/ Vit. B3
• Chemistry : The word niacin refers to two pyridine
derivatives. They are nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide.
• Sources: Whole grains, peanuts, legumes, yeast,
liver, fish and meat are good sources.
Absorption and transportAbsorption and transport
• Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are
absorbed in small intestine and
reach various tissues through
circulation where they are converted
to NAD and NADP

13. Physiological role
• It is essential to the good health of skin, digestive
system and nervous system
• It is involved in chemical reactions that provide cells
with the energy they need for normal metabolism.
• Nicotinic acid used to lower cholesterol levels.
• Nicotinamide is component of two coenzymes NAD
and NADP. NAD is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
• Nicotinamide is component of two coenzymes NAD
and NADP. NAD is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
and NADP is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate. Both are essential in Glucose, fatty acid
and cholesterol metabolism.
Niacin deficiency :causes pellagra in which skin,
gastrointestinal tract and nervous system are
affected. Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and Dementia are
characteristic symptoms of pellagra

14. PANTOTHENIC ACID / Vit B5
Pantothenic acid is composed of β-alanine joined to 2,4-
dihydroxy-3,3-dimethylbutyric acid via an amide linkage
Sources: yeast, liver, kidney, eggs, honey, milk, beef,
potatos.
Deficiency : Fatigue, weakness, inadequate growth,
failure to gain weight, hair loss.

16. Vitamin B6 - pyridoxine
Chemistry: Three compounds derived from
pyridine show vitamin B6 activity. They are
pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
Pyridoxine is stable to heat and sensitive
to light and alkali
Sources : Whole grains, legumes, liver and yeast are
good sources. Leafy vegetables, milk, meat and eggs are
fair sources

17. Functions
• Pyridoxal phosphate is active form, Pyridoxal
phosphate act as prosthetic group or co-enzyme of
enzymes which are involved in transamination,
decarboxylation, transsulfuration, desulfuration and
nonoxidative deamination reactions.
• Pyriodoxal phosphate is coenzyme for enzymes
that are involved in the synthesis of heme,
serotonin, catecholamines and coenzyme Aserotonin, catecholamines and coenzyme A
synthesis.
• Niacin is essential for growth in children.
Deficiency : It is rare in human adults. In children vitamin
B6 deficiency causes epileptic form convulsions
(seizures) due to decreased formation of
neurotransmitters like GABA, serotonin and
catecholamines.

18. Biotin/ Vit H/ Vitamin B7
Sources: Liver, mea,t kidney, yeast,
egg yolk, mushrooms, milk and diary
products.
Biotin is synthesized by bacteria,
yeast,
and fungi. It is also produced in smalland fungi. It is also produced in small
amounts in the human large intestine.
Deficiency manifestations: Dermatitis,
Hair Loss, Neuromuscular dysfunction
Signs & Symptoms: -scaly skin, rash
around eyes, nose, mouth, and ears,
depression, lethargy, loss of appetite, high
cholesterol

19. Functions
• Aids in maintaining blood sugar.
• Metabolizes lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.
• Maintains hair, nails, skin, and sweat glands.
• Prevents baldness and graying hair.
• Biotin is the coenzyme for 4 carboxylases
• Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase-catalyzes the• Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase-catalyzes the
• carboxylation of Acetyl CoA to Malonyl CoA Pyruvate
carboxylase-catalyzes the carboxylation of pyruvate
to form oxaloacetate.
• Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase-involved in the
metabolism of Lleucine
• Propionyl-CoA carboxylase-involved in the
metabolism of L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-threonine and
L-methionine

20. Vitamin B9 – folic acid
• Consist of pteroic acid - pteridine +
paraaminobenzoic acid (PABA) + glutamic
acid
Richest source is green leafy
vegetables.vegetables.
sources of animal origin-milk and
milk products, Yeast.
Dietary deficiency is the most common
cause of folic acid. Hemolytic anemia,
Megaloblastic anemia, Defective red
cell production, birth defects

21. Functions
• Folic acid is not biologically active
• The active coenzyme forms of folic acid are-
Tetrahydrofolic acid, N5 methyl tetrahydrofolic acid
and many others.
• The coenzymes of folic acid are actively involved
in the one carbon metabolism.
• The coenzymes of folic acid are actively involved
in the one carbon metabolism.
• Involved in biosynthesis of Purines, nucleic acids,
histidines.
• Folic acid along with bit B12 required for formation
of R.B.C.
• Folic acid is required for conversion of
homocysteine to methionine

22. Vitamin B12 - cyanocobalamin
Chemically most complex vitamin
Sources: fish and shellfish, meat
(especially liver), poultry, eggs, milk,
and milk products
Deficiency: Megaloblastic
anaemia, inflammation of
tongue and mouth, sever
diseases of nervous system,
acidosis in children.

23. functions
• It is needed for development of RBC along
with folic acid
• Act as coenzyme in dehyratase reactions
• Required for isomerization of glutamic acid to
α-methyl aspartateα-methyl aspartate
• Involved in biosynthesis of proteins.
• Involved in conversion of ribonucleotide into
deoxy ribonucleotide.
• Acts as coenzyme in conversion of methyl
malonyl CoA to succinyl CoA.

24. Vitamin C
• Almost all animals and plants synthesize their own vitamin C,
not man.
• Vitamin C is a weak acid, called ascorbic acid or its salts
“ascorbates”
• Mostly found in Citrus fruits and juices such as limes, lemons,
oranges, peaches, strawberries, bananas, and grapefruits. Also
in cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans
Deficiency: Scurvy is a disease resulting from aDeficiency: Scurvy is a disease resulting from a
deficiency of vitamin C. Without this
vitamin, collagen made by the body is too unstable
to perform its function and several
other enzymes in the body do not operate
correctly. Scurvy is characterized by spots on
and bleeding under the skin, spongy gums,
impaired hair growth, and poor wound healing.
The skin lesions are most abundant on the thighs
and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale,
feels depressed, and is partially immobilized.

25. Functions.
• Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which
is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.
• treat common cold
• Hydroxylation of steroids in adrenal cortex
• Required for Metabolism of tyrosin, phenylalanine and
tryptophan.tryptophan.
• Req for conversion of folic acid into folinic acid.
• Req for formation of noradrenaline
• Req for absorption of iron.
• Req for Carnitine Synthesis
• It Promotes Calcium Incorporation into Bone Tissue

26. Further reading
Daily requirment for vitamins.
Lipoic acid
Inositol

29. Lipid-soluble vitamins
Vitamin A (antixerophthalmic factor)

30. H3C CH3
CH3
CH2OH
CH3 CH3
H3C CH3
CH3
CHO
CH3 CH3
Retinol
Retinal or Retinaldehyde
H3C CH3
CH3
1
4
14
H3C CH3
CH3
COOH
CH3 CH3
all-trans-Retinoic acid
H3C 3
CH3
H3C
COOH
9-cis-retinoic acid
9

31. Functions
• Vision: Vitamin A is a component of the
visual pigment rhodopsin. Retinal is bound to
the protein opsin.
• Growth: Vitamin A deficiency causes loss of
appetite. Slow bone growth.appetite. Slow bone growth.
• Reproduction: Retinol and retinal are
essential for normal reproduction
• Maintenance of epithelial cells: Essential
for normal differentiation of epithelial tissues
and mucus secretion

32. Role of Vitamin A Role in Vision ((Wald’s Visual Cycle)
• Retina consists of: Rod and cone cells (photosensitive
cells).
• Rod cells process black & white image
• Cone cells process color image
• Normal vision depends on the retina and on adequate
vitamin A.
• In the retina, vitamin A in the form of retinal binds to a• In the retina, vitamin A in the form of retinal binds to a
protein called opsin to make rhodopsin in rod cells.
• Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive pigments.
• Bright light depletes rhodopsin
• Sudden shift from bright light to darkness causes
difficulty in vision
• Rhodopsin is synthesized in a few minutes and vision is
improved in the dark

33. •When stimulated by light,
rhodopsin
generates‘trans-retinal’
and opsin.
•The opsin molecule
changes shape, which
sends a signal to the
brain via optic nerve andbrain via optic nerve and
an image is formed.
•Most trans-retinal in this
process is quickly
converted to cis-retinal, to
begin another cycle.

34. Vitamin A deficiency leads to the onset of many diseases
1. Vit A helps to maintain integrity of epithelial tissues s/a
epithelial layers of skin, mucosa.
2. Vitamin A is an important factor in tooth formation. In its
deficiency, there is a defective formation of enamel so
that the dentin is exposed.
3. Vitamin A is growth promoting factor in children.
Vitamin A deficiency leads to the onset of many diseases
like nyctalopia or night blindness (inability to see in night),
xerophthalmia (scaly condition of the delicate membrane
covering the eyes), keratomalacia (softening of the cornea),
phrynoderma or “toad skin” (hard and horny skin) and stunted
growth.

35. Vitamin D / antirachitic factor
vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) are more important
The provitamin D3 can be
synthesized within the human
body so that it may,in fact, not
be required in the diet.
In the far northern
areas, however, the amount ofareas, however, the amount of
light is not adequate for
conversion and as such fish
liver oils serve as excellent
source of vitamin D in these
areas.

36. Functions:
• Vitamin D plays an important role in calcification of bones and teeth. It
encourages the absorption, into the blood, of calcium salts and
phosphates.
• Stimulate transcription of mRNA for calcium transport
• It increases the citrate level of blood, bone and kidney
• It stimulates the activity of phytase
Deficiency. The most characteristic symptom of vitamin D deficiency is theDeficiency. The most characteristic symptom of vitamin D deficiency is the
childhood disease known as rickets. Deficiency of it in human adults leads to
osteomalacia, a condition that might also be termed “adult rickets”
Rickets is primarily a disease of growing bones. In it, the deposition of
inorganic materials on the matrix of bones (i.e., calcification) fails to occur,
although matrix formation continues. Rickets is unusual below the age of 3
months. It may occur in older children with malabsorption. Manifestations of
rickets is thickening of the outer table of the skull. The softness of the skull may
result in flattening and, at times, permanent asymmetry of the head. The sides of
the thorax become flattened, The pelvic entrance is narrowed, Bending of the
softened shafts of the femur, tibia and fibula results in bowlegs, Relaxation of
ligaments produce deformities, The muscles are poorly developed and lack tone

37. In osteomalacia , the action of bones is essentially like that in rickets.
However, the bones become softer than the rachitic bones and the C/P
ratio does not remain constant. The loss of calcium is greater than that of
phosphorus and there is a relative gain in magnesium content. The
disease is prevalent in India, China and Arab, particularly among women
because of the custom that keeps them indoor and also prevents them
from exposure to sun. The serum calcium is reduced, sometimes to such
an extent that tetany develops. Osteomalacia is condition in which thean extent that tetany develops. Osteomalacia is condition in which the
bones are likely to fracture than in a healthy person

38. VITAMIN E / antisterility factor
Vitamin E was isolate as ɑ-tocopherol.
Sources: The tocopherols are of widespread occurrence in many plant oils
such as wheat germ, rice, corn, cottonseed, soybean and peanut but not olive
oil. The are also present in small amounts in meat, milk, eggs, leafy plant and
some fruits.
Chemistry: The tocopherols
are derivatives of 6-are derivatives of 6-
hydroxychroman bearing an
isoprenoid side chain at
carbon 2.
• Hemolytic anemia or macrocytic anemia seen in premature infants
• In adults, increased susceptibility of erythrocytes for hemolysis
• Muscle weakness and proteinuria
• Muscular dystrophy
• Hepatic necrosis
Deficiency

39. Functions:
1. Tocopherols act as antioxidants, i.e., they can prevent the
oxidation of various other easily oxidized substances such as
fats and vitamin A. It is for this reason that they are
commercially added to foods to retard their spoilage.
2. It has been observed that tocopherol-deficient muscles (esp.,
cardiac and skeletal) show a high oxygen uptake.
Administration of tocopherol brings down the oxygen
consumption to normal.
3. Addition of vitamin E prevents deterioration of fatty acids and
Vitamin A by acting as antioxidant for peroxidation.Vitamin A by acting as antioxidant for peroxidation.
4. Tocopherols protect mitochondrial system from inactivation by
fat peroxides.
5. It protects the RBC from hemolysis by oxidizing agents
6. It is associated with reproductive function and prevents
sterility
7. It is required for proper storage of creatine in skeletal muscle.
8. Vitamin E is recommended for the prevention of chronic
diseases such as cancer and heart disease

40. Chemically, the two forms of vitamin K are derivatives of quinones and differ
from each other in the composition of their side chain present at carbon 3 of the
naphthoquinone ring. The various analogues of naphthoquinone, however, have
also been shown to possess vitamin K activity for animals eg. Menadione.

41. Functions:
1. vitamin K plays role in the synthesis of prothrombin
which is a precursor of thrombin. Thus it plays crucial
role in bood clotting
Sources of vitamin K: green leafy vegetables such as spinach,
cabbage, cauliflower. Milk is a poor source. other sources are meat,
intestinal bacterial flora
role in bood clotting
2. Vitamin K act as a coenzyme for the carboxylation of
glutamic acid.
3. Vitamin K is required for ETC and oxidative
phosphorylation.
4. Synthesis of various clotting factores is regulated by Vit
K.
5. Vitamin K used in dicumarol poisoning.

42. Deficiency
Prolongation of bleeding and prothrombin time
Liver function is lowered, prolongation of PT occurs due to
deficient synthesis of coagulation factors
Hemorrhagic disease of newborn
Hypervitaminosis: Administration of large doses of vitamin K
produces hemolytic anemia and jaundice, kernicterus andproduces hemolytic anemia and jaundice, kernicterus and
brain damage

47. References :
Fundamentals of Biochemistry-J. L. Jain, Sanjay Jain, Nitin Jain
Harper’s Biochemistry 25th Edition.
Fundamentals of Biochemistry-A.C. Deb
and of course Google