Engineering Geology Unit 2.pdf

ADITYA
Mineralogy and Petrology
(UNIT-II)
P Shiva Kumar
Sr. Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

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Unit-2 Outcomes
At the end of the Course, Student will be able to:
CO 1 : Illustrate the Physical properties of minerals.
CO 2 : Illustrate the Physical properties of rocks.
CO 3 : Understand the importance of origin of rocks
and theirs megascopic identification.
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Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE

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Contents
• Mineralogy
• Definitions of mineral and rock,
• Different methods of study of minerals and rocks.
• The Megascopic identification of physical properties of
minerals and rocks.
• Common rock forming minerals are Feldspar, Quartz
Group, Olivine, Augite, Hornblende, Mica Group,
Asbestos, Talc, Chlorite, Kyanite, Garnet, Calcite and other
ore forming minerals are Pyrite, Hematite, Magnetite,
Chlorite, Galena, Pyrolusite, Graphite, Chromite, Magnetite
And Bauxite.
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Contents
• Petrology
• Classification, structures, textures and forms of Igneous
rocks, Sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks.
• The megascopic study of granite varieties, (pink, grey, green
Etc.,). Pegmatite, Dolerite, Basalt etc., Shale, Sand Stone,
Lime Stone, Laterite, Quartzite, Gneiss, Schist, Marble,
Khondalite and Slate.
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Engineering Geology
Module 1 : Mineralogy and physical properties of
minerals
Module 1 : Mineralogy and physical properties of
minerals

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Introduction to Mineralogy
P. Shiva Kumar

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, Student will be able to:
LO 1 : Understand the occurrence of minerals and
various types of minerals.
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Mineralogy
It deals with origin, formation,
occurrences, distribution,
types, physical appearances
and chemical compositions of
minerals all over the earth.

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What is a Mineral?
A minerals is a naturally
occurring, homogeneous solid
with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered
atomic structure, inorganic and
mainly it is crystalline.

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• A Mineral that does not have any crystallinity is referred to be
Mineraloid. Examples like crude oil, graphite, coal- these minerals raise
the economy of the nation hence they are considered to be minerals.
• Crystal is defined as natural solid body bounded by smooth surface,
arranged in an orderly ( geometric ) pattern which is an outward
expression of regular and internal atomic structure.
• Faces of a crystals are bounded by flat surfaces.
• Edge is a line of intersection formed by any two adjacent faces.
• Solid angle is a point of intersection of three or more adjacent faces.

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Megascopic identification of physical properties of minerals.
Field identification physical properties of a specimen of a mineral are:-
1. Crystal system
2. From
3. Colour
4. Streak
5. Lustre
6. Fracture
7. Cleavage
8. Hardness
9. Specific gravity
10. Degree of transparency

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Crystal System:-
each of seven
categories of
crystals (cubic,
tetragonal,
orthorhombic,
trigonal,
hexagonal,
monoclinic, and
triclinic) classified
according to the
possible relations
of the crystal axes.

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Forms of minerals :- represents common mode of occurrence of a
mineral in nature. It is also called as habit or structure of a mineral.

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Colour of a mineral
Here a single mineral quartz occurs in variety of colours

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Colour of a mineral is also classified as:-
1. Idio-chromatic – Uniformly occurring colour through out the
body of the mineral.
2. Allo – chromatic – Non uniformly occurring colour of the
mineral which is pale to dark of same colour or one or more
colours in a single mineral.
3. Pseudo-chromatic – False colour representation of a mineral
through out it surface.

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Streak:- The colour of mineral powder is called streak. It is tested on
streak plate which is made of ceramic material and has a in glazed surface
with hardness ranging from 6.5 to 7.3 based on manufacturing processes.

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Lustre or luster is the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock,
or mineral.

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Vitreous and sub vitreous

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Silky Lustre Adamantine Lustre

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Fracture, in mineralogy, appearance of a surface broken in directions other
than along cleavage planes.

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Cleavage,
in mineralogy, is the tendency of
crystalline materials to split along
definite crystallographic structural
planes.

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Hardness (H) is the
resistance of a
mineral to
scratching. It is a
property by which
minerals may be
described relative
to a standard scale
of 10 minerals
known as the Mohs
scale of hardness

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A mineral's specific gravity is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal
volume of water.

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Degree of transparency
The amount of light able to be passed through a mineral determines its
transparency. Light is able to pass through transparent minerals; translucent
minerals partially let light pass through; and opaque minerals do not let any
light through.

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Other properties of the minerals that can be recognized or found in a geology lab are by using
chemicals, microscope, x rays, geo-resisters etc.,. are
1. Chemical composition - felsic minerals and mafic minerals.
2. Tenacity – is how well a mineral resists breakage is known as tenacity. Tenacity is described
using these terms:
• Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular fragments (quartz).
• Malleable - Mineral can be modified in shape without breaking and can be flattened to a
thin sheet (copper, gold).
• Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (talc).
• Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't regain its shape once released (selenite, gypsum).
• Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its original shape when released (muscovite and biotite
mica).
3. Formations:- Refers to which environment condition the minerals were formed.
4. Occurrences :- Refers to minerals occurring variety of rocks in various quantities, such as small
occurrences are called veins and larges occurrences are called lodes in igneous and
metamorphic rocks & in sedimentary rocks as beds called strata, also as placer deposits in
alluvial fans or river brought alluvium.
5. Distribution.
6. Diagnostic properties.

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Silicates (si) are one of the
important classes of minerals
by the chemical composition
and class formed with
bonding of oxygen (o4) as
tetrahedrons which is the
fundamental unit of silicates.
Most of the rock forming
minerals are classified with
reference to their occurrence
in rocks are :
1. Silicates
2. Oxides
3. Carbonates

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Summary
After completion of module 1 the student is now able to
understand minerals and their identification.
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Engineering Geology
Module 2 : Petrology, rock cycle and structure &
textures of igneous rocks.
Module 2 : Petrology, rock cycle and structure &
textures of igneous rocks.

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Introduction to Petrology, rock cycle and
structure & textures of igneous rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar

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Learning Outcomes
LO 1 : Understand the origin of rocks and structures
& textures of igneous rocks.
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Petrology Introduction
Some Definitions
Petra Greek for “rock”
Logos Greek for “disclosure or explanation”
Petrology The branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence,
distribution, structures, history of rocks and identifying the textural
and mineral compositions of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.

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1. Igneous rocks: rocks that solidifies from molten or partially molten
material (i.e. magma).
2. Sedimentary rocks: rocks that results from consolidation of loose
sediment or chemicals precipitating from solution at or near the
earth’s surface; or organic rock consisting of the secretions or remains
of plants and animals.
3. Metamorphic rocks: rocks derived from preexisting rocks by
mineralogical, chemical or structural changes (especially in the solid-
state).
There are three types of rocks

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structures & textures of igneous rocks.
• An igneous rock is any crystalline or glassy rock that forms from cooling
of a magma. Ignum = fire.
• A magma consists mostly of liquid rock matter, but may contain crystals
of various minerals, and may contain a gas phase that may be dissolved
in the liquid or may be present as a separate gas phase.
• Magma can cool to form an igneous rock either on the surface of the
Earth in which case it produces a volcanic or extrusive igneous rock, or
beneath the surface of the Earth, in which case it produces a plutonic or
intrusive igneous rock.

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Types of Magma and their temperatures
Determined by chemical composition of the magma.
• Basaltic magma - SiO2 45-55%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na with
temp ranging from 1000 to 1200 degree centigrade.
• Andesitic magma - SiO2 55-65%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
with temp ranging from 800 to 1000 degree centigrade.
• Rhyolitic magma - SiO2 65-75%,low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na with
temp ranging from 650 to 800 degree centigrade.

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Igneous rocks are classified into
1. Extrusive or volcanic rocks occur on the surface of the earth (Extrusive
igneous rock is made from lava released by volcanoes).
2. Intrusive or plutonic rocks occur in the subsurface of the earth.
3. Hypabyssal or intermediate rocks occur at shallow depth of less than 1 km
from the surface of the earth.

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Classification of igneous rocks based on their mineral compositon

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Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind fractional
crystallisation in a magma. While cooling, the magma evolves in
composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt.
1: olivine crystallizes;
2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize;
3: pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize;
4: plagioclase crystallizes. At the bottom of the magma reservoir,
a cumulate rock forms.

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Structures of extrusive igneous rocks:
1. Volcanic lava flows as flow structure
2. Lava caves and tunnels
3. Sheet structures
4. Columnar structures
5. Vesicular and amygdaloidal
6. Pillow structures.

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Volcanic lava flows as flow structure

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lava cave is any cave formed in volcanic rock, though it typically means caves formed by volcanic
processes.

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Sheet structures Pillow structures

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Columnar structures

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Vesicular and amygdaloidal

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Intrusive igneous rock structures
1. Dikes
2. Sills
3. Laccoliths
4. Lopoliths
5. Batholiths
6. Bysmaliths
7. Phacoliths
8. Stock: a stock is an igneous intrusion that has a surface exposure of less than 100 square
kilometers (40 sq. mi), differing from batholiths only in being smaller.
9. Boss: a knoblike mass of rock, especially an outcrop of igneous or metamorphic rock.

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Bhuvanagiri Fort on a single solid Rock Hill - Bysmalith

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Bysmaliths
Phacoliths

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Textures of Igneous Rocks
There are six main types of textures; phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy,
pyroclastic and pegmatitic
Other textures of rocks include: Aphanitic cryptocrystalline,
Seriate, Graphic, interlocking, Equigranular and inequigranular.
All of the above textures of igneous rocks are classified based on degree of
crystallinity in to 4 textural classes:
• Textures based on crystallinity.
• Textures based on granularity.
• Textures based on shape of crystals.
• Textures based on mutual relations of constituent minerals of rocks.

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Textures based on crystallinity.
• Holocrystalline : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed into complete crystals,
i.e., having no glassy part.
• Hemi crystalline : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed into partially crystals
and partially glassy part.
• Holohyaline/ Glossy/ Amourphous : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed
completely into glassy.

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Textures based on granularity
Aphanitic – The surface of
the rock formed with no
visible mineral crystal and
the minerals crystals are only
visible in petrological
microscope. Mineral crystals
that are visible only under
microscope, then such
microscopic texture is called
as aphanitic cryptocrystalline.
Example: basalt, Obsidian,
Onyx etc.,.

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Phaneritic – The surface of
the rock formed with variety
of visible mineral crystals
and can be judged as
phaneritic coarse, phaneritic
medium, phaneritic fine.
Example: varieties of
granites, dolerites etc.,.

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Textures based on a) shape of Crystals.
b) Growth of the Crystals

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Textures based on mutual relations of constituent minerals of rocks.

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Graphic Textures Pegmatitic Textures

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Porphyritic Textures

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Glassy Texture Vesicular Textures

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Pyroclastic Texture Intergranular Texture

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After completion of module 2 the student is now able to understand
origin of rocks and structures & textures of igneous rocks.
Summary

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Engineering Geology
Module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.
Module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.

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Introduction to structure & textures of
Sedimentary rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar

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Learning Outcomes
LO 1 : Understand the structures & textures of
sedimentary rocks.
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Definition & formation
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of sediments by various geological agents in the form of
layers with varying thickness.
• The thickness of the sediment is based on the amount of sediment load carried by the geological agents.
• The sediments are accumulation of minerals, plant and animal debris, rock fragments, sediments with
varying sizes etc.
• All the layers in the sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and followed by compaction and
cementation of the sediments as they are loaded on one on another.
• Such type of loading of depositional layer on one on another is known as “order of superposition”.

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The total surface of the
sedimentary rocks on
the surface of the earth
crust cover over 75 %,
while igneous and
metamorphic rocks
occur much deeper
from earth interior.

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Conglomerate
Breccia
Sandstone
Shale
Clastic sedimentary rocks

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Non clastic sedimentary rocks or Chemically formed rocks
• These rocks are formed when water leaches the weathered material and transports the chemically
dissolved solution to low lying areas and forms a chemical deposition in the lakes and ponds.
• These rocks are formed after the evaporation of water hence referred as evaporates, formed in lakes
referred as lacustrine deposits, as concretions, secretions, collides, siliceous, carbonates, bog iron ores.
Concretions: A concretion is a hard, compact mass
of matter formed by the precipitation of mineral
cement within the spaces between particles, and is
found in sedimentary rock or soil. Concretions are
often ovoid or spherical in shape, although
irregular shapes also occur.

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Secretions are deposits formed in the rock cavities, that allow the growth of mineral crystals in them.
Agates have also been found in sedimentary rocks, normally in limestone or dolomite; these sedimentary
rocks acquire cavities often from decomposed branches or other buried organic material. If silica-rich
fluids are able to penetrate into these cavities agates can be formed.

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Collides are accumulation of clay particles as a sediment. Mud rocks is the name of sedimentary rock
formed as clay deposit. Concretionary, pisolithic, oolitic, stalactite, nodular etc., come under the
colloidal depositions.

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Siliceous deposits are formed when a silica solution in hot springs get accumulated at orifice as silica
sinters, which is continues processes of evaporation and cooling of water. Flint and Chert are two
minerals that are formed in sinters and used by early man has hunting tools and in massive form as
construction materials too. Limestone and calcareous sandstones have cryptocrystalline forms of
silica as siliceous deposits.

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Carbonates: Dissolution is the main process of formation of carbonate deposits in various formations
like evaporates, lacustrine, stalactites, dolomitization, fossiliferous formations and as intertrappeans.
Cretaceous–Tertiary
Extinction Boundary
(KTB)

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Fossiliferous Formations

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Common structures of
sedimentary rocks
Stratification is the
common structure in all
the sedimentary rocks, the
layering that occurs in
most sedimentary
rocks and in those igneous
rocks formed at the Earth's
surface, as from lava flows
and volcanic fragmental
deposits. The layers range
from several millimeters to
many meters in thickness
and vary greatly in shape.

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• Stratum means bed and strata means series of beds.
• Other common structures of sedimentary rocks are formed in and on the surface of rock layers.
• Graded Bedding The velocity of the transporting agent decrease the larger or more dense particles
are deposited first, followed by similar particles. The bedding showing a decrease in grain size
from the bottom of the bed to the top of the bed.

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Cross Bedding Consists of set of beds that are inclined relative to one another. The beds are
inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition. Cross
bedding is very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, river deposits.

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Ripple marks Caused by waves or winds moves up the sediment into long ridges. →Ripple marks are
shallow water deposition →Asymmetrical ripple marks can give an indication of current direction
→Symmetrical ripple marks form when the waves moves back and forth.

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Mud Cracks on the sediment are developed due to the shrinkage of the sediment as it dries and contracts.
Crack formation also occurs in clayey soils as a result of a reduction in water content.

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Cast and Molds a depression formed on the bottom of a body of water may become a mold, later get
deposited into the depression and will acquire the shape of that depression called cast. The body of
sediment that gets the shape of the mold is cast.

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1.Rain prints or rain drop points: Pits created by falling rain.
2.Tracks and Trails: These features are formed when organisms move across the sediment as they
walk, crawl or drag their body parts through the sediment.

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Sedimentary rocks are completely based on size of the individual clast or grain, shape of
grain and grain arrangement.
Grain size is identified from Wentworth classification
Grain arrangement is either loosely packed or densely packed and it is based on grain shape.
Poorly rounded has less sorting with varying sizes of pore spaces, while well rounded clasts
have well sorting with similar sized pore spaces.

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Udden- Wentworth grain size scale

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After completion of module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.
Summary

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Engineering Geology
Module 4 : Structure & Textures of Metamorphic
Rocks.
Module 4 : Structure & Textures of Metamorphic
Rocks.

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Introduction to structure & textures of
Metamorphic rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar

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Learning Outcomes
LO 1 : Understand the structures & textures of
Metamorphic rocks.
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Definition and formation of Metamorphic rocks
Meta means change and morph means form
Which means change in the form of a rock occurring at mineral level, at chemical composition of
mineral with aid of pressure, temperature and hot volatile magmatic fluids, from the initial process of
diagenesis to final process of metamorphism to form a new rock.
• Recrystallization in the solid state
• Caused by changes in T, P or fluids
• New environment = new minerals
• Growing minerals create a new texture
Features of metamorphism:
• It is formed as solid state and before melting.
• Metasomatism is a extensive chemical changes occurring during transformation of rock at different
metamorphic phases.

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Metamorphism is characterized as recrystallization and reorientation of mineral at crystal level.
There are three agents of metamorphism:-
1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Volatile fluids ( chemical active fluids)
Types of metamorphism
1. Thermal metamorphism: temp is predominant
2. Contact metamorphism: the magmatic fluid is in contact with surrounding rock under
metamorphism. There also occurs considerable induce of flux of magma called injection
metamorphism.
3. Dynamic metamorphism: pressure is predominant. There takes place crushing of minerals in rocks
and leads to cataclysm ( formation of rocks with coarser to larger size minerals in a rock).
4. Geothermal metamorphism: temp from interior part of the earth
5. Metasomatic metamorphism: caused by interaction of magmatic fluids with surrounding rocks.
6. Dynamo-thermal metamorphism: in which both temp and pressure are predominant.
7. Plutonic metamorphism: a kind of Dynamo thermal metamorphism occurring at great depths by
increase in pressure increases temperature which cause metamorphic changes in the rock.

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Textures of Metamorphic rocks
The textures of metamorphic rocks are classified into foliated and lineated or non foliated mineral
arrangements.
Foliation: it is an arrangement of minerals which are having form like platy, lamellar, flaky or layered,
themselves elongate perpendicularly to the direction of pressure in the metamorphic process.
Lineation or non foliation: it is an arrangement of minerals which are having form like prismatic, barrel,
tetragonal, hexagonal, columnar, rod shaped, themselves elongate perpendicularly to the direction of
pressure in the metamorphic process.

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• The texture of metamorphism are referred has Crystallobalstic texture, which means the newly
textures that are formed at the time of metamorphism
• Textures of metamorphism are termed with a prefix “Blasto” and suffix “Blastic”.
• Metamorphic rocks carry the parent rocks textures which are well preserved referred to
palimpsest textures.
• The rocks that developed completely formed crystal then that texture is known as Idoblastic
texture and if the texture if partial or incomplete it is referred has Xenoblastic textures.
• Examples like porpyroblastic, phaneroblastic, blastoaphanetic,

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Structures of Metamorphic rocks
• The structure of metamorphic rocks are based on the textures formed in same metamorphic rocks.
• As the mineral arrangement which is texture will decide what type of structure it is.
• Based on this mineral arrangement there are three types of metamorphic rock structures, they are:
Gneissose, Schistose and Granulose.
• Gneiss: The non foliated minerals occurring in a rock as equidimensional along with foliated kind of
minerals and aggregation of all the minerals together takes place in the rock to direction of metamorphic
forces (pressure distribution).

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Schistose: The texture of the rock
occurring with arrangement of
either platy or prismatic or both
platy and prismatic with segregation
of same kind of minerals as lens or
thinner and thicker beds has a
banded formations.
Porphyroclastic, as the
feldspar minerals occur
as mineral lenses.

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Granulose: The arrangement of particularly equidimensional minerals which neither segregate nor form a
banded like formation. But have either very little amount of smaller or larger granules of minerals
occurring in the rock.
Pink Marble Quartzite

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Cataclastic Structures: A high-pressure metamorphism resulting from the crushing and shearing of rock
during tectonic movement, mostly along faults. Cataclastic metamorphism is generally localized along
fault planes (areas of detachment where rocks slide past one another).

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Megascopic identification of physical properties of rocks
The study of a rock specimen in the field work is classified into
Petrography Petro genesis
1. Colour: 6. Origin:
2. Texture 7. Occurrence:
a) Grain Size: 8. Inference:
b) Grain Shape: 9. Distribution:
c) Grain Arrangement or Fabric 10. Uses:
3. Structure:
4. Mineral composition:
5. Cementing material:

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After completion of module 4 : the student is now able to illustrate
Structure & Textures of Metamorphic Rocks.
Summary

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Summary
From this unit – 2 students are now able illustrate and
understand the occurrence of minerals, rocks and
their identification.
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