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Minerals Definition, Types, and Identification Forensic Applications Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Transparent emerald, the green variety of beryl, on calcite matrix Niocalite (blue) in sovite (calcite + apatite). Oka carbonatite complex. Crossed-polars. Width = 5.4 mm
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Building blocks of rocks, soil ,dirt, and mud Building blocks of rocks, soil ,dirt, and mud • • Minerals are everywhere Minerals are everywhere • • Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals Fluorite Gneiss
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Mineral Definition Mineral Definition 1. 1. Naturally Occurring Naturally Occurring 2. 2. Inorganic Inorganic 3. 3. Crystalline Crystalline – – has a definite internal structure, has a definite internal structure, i.e., atoms in the mineral are arranged in a i.e., atoms in the mineral are arranged in a regular way regular way 4. 4. Chemical composition fixed or varies within Chemical composition fixed or varies within certain limits certain limits
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Naturally Occurring Naturally Occurring - - minerals must be formed minerals must be formed naturally naturally - - glass, concrete, synthetic diamonds, glass, concrete, synthetic diamonds, rubies and emeralds don rubies and emeralds don’ ’t count t count • • Inorganic Inorganic - - minerals are not formed by anything minerals are not formed by anything that was ever alive. Therefore, materials such that was ever alive. Therefore, materials such as: Ivory, Amber, Coal, Pearls as: Ivory, Amber, Coal, Pearls are not minerals! are not minerals!
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Crystalline Crystalline - - the atoms in minerals have an the atoms in minerals have an orderly atomic arrangement giving them a orderly atomic arrangement giving them a definite structure that controls their properties. definite structure that controls their properties. Graphite Diamond
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Chemistry Chemistry - - Chemical composition is fixed or Chemical composition is fixed or varies within certain limits. Crystalline varies within certain limits. Crystalline compounds with the same structure but compounds with the same structure but different chemistry form different minerals. different chemistry form different minerals. Cubic array of atoms NaCl = Halite KCl = Sylvite
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Ions are arranged in crystal structures according to their relative sizes. This is referred to as closest packing. We usually look at this from the perspective of the cation and calculate the radius ratio = size cation/size anion. The radius ratio determines the number of anions that can be packed around a particular cation. Structure of Minerals
Crystal Lattice: the three dimensional molecular structure of a mineral. (Shape of the “unit cell.”) • Various ions make up the mineral. • Geometry + chemistry! Structure of Minerals Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Structure of minerals Structure of minerals Polymorphs Polymorphs • • Minerals with the same composition but different crystalline Minerals with the same composition but different crystalline structures structures • • Examples include diamond and graphite Examples include diamond and graphite • • Phase change Phase change – – one polymorph changing into another one polymorph changing into another Diamond Graphite Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Crystal Form Crystal Form • • External expression of a mineral External expression of a mineral’ ’s internal s internal structure structure • • Often interrupted due to competition for space and Often interrupted due to competition for space and rapid loss of heat rapid loss of heat Crystals are the smallest Crystals are the smallest “ “bits bits” ” of minerals of minerals and reflect the geometry of the mineral and reflect the geometry of the mineral molecules molecules Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Color Color • • Generally unreliable for mineral identification Generally unreliable for mineral identification • • Often highly variable due to slight changes in Often highly variable due to slight changes in mineral chemistry mineral chemistry • • Exotic colorations of certain minerals produce Exotic colorations of certain minerals produce gemstones gemstones • • Some minerals are used as pigments Some minerals are used as pigments Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Quartz (SiO2) Quartz (SiO2) exhibits a variety exhibits a variety of colors of colors
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Streak Streak Color of a mineral in its powdered form Color of a mineral in its powdered form Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Streak is Streak is obtained on an obtained on an unglazed unglazed porcelain plate porcelain plate
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Luster Luster • • Appearance of a mineral in reflected light Appearance of a mineral in reflected light • • Two basic categories Two basic categories • • Metallic Metallic • • Nonmetallic Nonmetallic • • Other descriptive terms include vitreous, Other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy silky, or earthy Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Galena ( Galena (PbS PbS) displays ) displays metallic luster metallic luster
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Hardness Hardness • • The hardness of a The hardness of a mineral is its mineral is its resistance to resistance to scratching. scratching. • • The standard The standard scale for scale for measuring measuring hardness is hardness is Moh Moh’ ’s s Hardness scale. Hardness scale. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Cleavage Cleavage • • Tendency to break along planes of weak Tendency to break along planes of weak bonding bonding • • Produces flat, shiny surfaces Produces flat, shiny surfaces • • Described by resulting geometric shapes Described by resulting geometric shapes • • Number of planes Number of planes • • Angles between adjacent planes Angles between adjacent planes Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Fluorite, halite, and Fluorite, halite, and calcite all exhibit calcite all exhibit perfect cleavage perfect cleavage
Cleavage Cleavage Due to planes of weakness caused by alignment Due to planes of weakness caused by alignment of the common crystal faces of the common crystal faces Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Fracture Fracture • • Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken Specific Gravity Specific Gravity • • Weight of a mineral / weight of an equal volume Weight of a mineral / weight of an equal volume of water of water • • Average value = 2.7 Average value = 2.7 Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Other properties Other properties Magnetism Magnetism Reaction to Reaction to hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid Malleability Malleability Double refraction Double refraction Taste Taste Smell Smell Elasticity Elasticity
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-1. Mineral classes Class Chemical characteristics Examples Borates Various elements in combination with boron Borax [Na2B4O7@10H2O] Carbonates Metals in combination with carbonate (CO 2& 3 ) Calcite [CaCO3] Cerrusite [PbCO3] Halides Alkali metals or alkaline earths in combination with halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) Halite [NaCl] Fluorite [CaF2] Hydroxides Metals in combination with hydroxyls (OH- ) Brucite [Mg(OH)2] Native elements Pure compound of a metallic or nonmetallic element Gold [Au] Graphite [C] Oxides Metals in combination with oxygen Hematite [Fe3O4] Phosphates, arsenates, vanadates, chromates, tungstates & molybdates Various elements in combination with the ZO4 radical where Z = P, As, V, Cr, W, Mo Apatite [Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH) Carnotite [K2(UO2(VO4)2@3H Scheelite [CaWO4] Silicates Metals in combination with silica tetrahedra (SiO 4& 4 ) forming three dimensional networks, sheets, chains and isolated tetrahedra Quartz [SiO2] Forsterite [MgSiO4] Orthoclase [KAlSi3O8] Sulfates Alkaline earths or metals in combination with sulfate ( SO 2& 4 ) Barite [BaSO4] Epsomite [MgSO4@7H2O] Sulfides One or more metals in combination with reduced sulfur or chemically similar elements (As, Se, Te) Pyrite [FeS2] Galena [PbS] Skutterudite [CoAs3] Metals in combination with carbonate (CO 2& 3 ) Alkali metals or alkaline earths in Metals in combination with silica tetrahedra (SiO 4& 4 ) forming three dimensional networks, sheets, chains and isolated Alkaline earths or metals in combination with sulfate ( SO 2& 4 ) One or more metals in combination with
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The most common minerals in the Earth’s crust are silicate minerals. The basic building block for the silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-4. Properties of the silicate crystal classes Class Tetrahedral arrangement # shared corners Che mical unit Si:O Example Nesosilicate Independent tetrahedra 0 SiO 4& 4 1:4 Olivine Sorosilicate Two tetrahedra sharing a corner 1 Si2O 6& 7 1:3.5 Melilite Cyclosilicate Three or more tetrahedra sharing two corners, forming a ring 2 SiO 3& 3 1:3 Beryl Inosilicate Single chain of tetrahedra sharing two corners 2 SiO 3& 3 1:3 Augite Double chain of tetrahedra alternately sharing two or three corners 2.5 Si4O 6& 11 1:2.75 Hornblende Phyllosilicate Sheet of tetrahedra sharing three corners 3 Si2O 2& 5 1:2.5 Kaolinite Tektosilicate Framework of tetrahedra sharing all four corners 4 SiO2 1:2 K-feldspar unit SiO 4& 4 Si2O 6& 7 SiO 3& 3 SiO 3& 3 Si4O 6& 11 Si2O 2& 5 SiO2
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Clay Minerals Quartz (SiO2) and the clay minerals are the most common components of soil. Montmorillonite showing a rose like texture, Miocene arkose, Madrid Basin, Spain.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of the octahedral and tetrahedral layer. Mg2+ in the octahedral layer = brucite. Al3+ in the octahedral layer = gibbsite. Al3+ can substitute for Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer. Clay minerals are built by combining tetrahedral and octahedral layers.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-5. Summary of the principal characteristics of the layered clay mineral groups Kaolinites Illites Smectites Vermiculites Structure Tetrahedral: Octahedral 1:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 Octahedral layer Di-octahedral Mostly di- octahedral Di- or tri- octahedral Mostly tri- octahedral Interlayer cations Nil K Ca, Na Mg Interlayer water Only in halloysite Some in hydromuscovite Ca, two layers Na, one to many layers Ca, two layers K, one layer to nil Basal spacing 7.1 D 10 D Variable most ~15 D Variable 14.4 D when fully hydrated Ethylene glycol Only taken up by halloysite No effect Two glycol layers, 17 D One glycol layer, 14 D Cation exchange capacity (CEC) in meq/100 g clay Nil 3 - 15 Low 10 - 40 High 80 - 150 High 100 - 150 Formula Al2Si2O5(OH)2, little variation K0.5-0.75Al2(Si,Al)2 O10(OH)2 M+ 0.7(Y3+ ,Y2+ )4-6 (Si,Al)8O20(OH)4@n H2O M2+ 0.66(Y2+ , Y3+ )6 (Si,Al)8O20(OH)4@8 H2O Dilute acids Scarcely soluble Readily attacked Attacked Readily attacked Heating 200 o C Except halloysite, unchanged No marked change Collapse to approximately 10 D Exfoliation, shrinkage of layer spacing Examples Kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, halloysite Illite, hydrous micas, phengite, brammallite, glauconite, celadonite Montmorillonite, beidellite, nontronite, hectorite, saponite, sauconite Vermiculite
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of kaolinite. Each structural unit consists of a gibbsite layer and a tetrahedral layer. Note that only two out of three octahedral sites in the octahedral layer are occupied. Structure of kaolinite a 1:1 layer clay T O T
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-6. Substitutions for smectite group clay minerals Mineral Tetrahedral cations Octahedral cations Exchangeable cations Di-octahedral Montmorillonite Si8 Al3.3Mg0.7 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Beidellite Si7.3Al0.7 Al4 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Nontronite Si7.3Al0.7 Fe 3% 4 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Tri-octahedral Saponite Si7.2Al0.8 Mg6 (0.5Ca,Na)0.8 Hectorite Si8 Mg5.3Li0.7 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Sauconite Si6.7Al1.3 Zn4-6(Mg,Al,Fe3+ )2-0 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Al4 Fe 3% 4
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of montmorillonite, a 2:1 clay. The octahedral layer is a gibbsite layer. Substitution of Mg2+ for Al3+ in the octahderal layer is charge balanced by the addition of Na+ or Ca2+ cations (exchangeable cations) in the interlayer position. Structure of montmorillonite a 2:1 layer clay T IL T O T
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Tools for Identification and Characterization of Minerals Stereomicroscope PLM XRD SEM EMP
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Beach sand Stream sand Carbonate sand Stereomicroscopy Mineralogy and texture
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Use various optical properties to characterize materials Index of refraction Higher relief means higher refractive index relative to the mounting media or index oil. The Becke line method is used to determine if material has a higher or lower refractive index then the mounting media or index oil.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Pleochroism – color changes as stage is rotated – polarized light Crocidolite Birefringence – color changes under crossed-polars due to retardation Biotite Plane polarized light Crossed-polars
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Morphology and “habit” Calcite - rhombohedral Biotite flake Crocidolite fiber Fiber characteristics Dynel Dog’s hair Human hair (mongoloid)
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Diagram illustrating Bragg’s law. 2 = angle of incidence and diffraction when Bragg’s law conditions are met. d = inter-planar spacing. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffractometer A powerful way to identify crystalline materials. The physical basis is Bragg’s Law (a Nobel prize for simple trigonometry). The angles required for diffraction and the intensity of the diffracted wavelengths can be used to identify the material.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Configuration for a typical X- ray powder diffractometer.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Mineral X-ray diffraction patterns
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with EDAX Can be used to characterize materials at the micron level. Back scatter electron image The material illustrated here is tinitite, the glass formed from the desert sand at Alamogordo when the first atomic bomb was detonated. The shades are related to the atomic number of the elements. Areas with lower atomic number elements are darker. Using EDAX, quantitative elemental abundances can be determined.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The Electron Microprobe (EMP) This instrument is not commonly used in forensic investigations, but it can be used to determine the abundance of a variety of elements on areas as small as one micron in diameter. There may be specific cases where such data would be useful. Rare-earth carbonate minerals in carbonatite. Analyses were done on 1 micron diameter spots.
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences First Forensic Geology Case First Forensic Geology Case In October of 1904 the In October of 1904 the strangled body of Eva strangled body of Eva Disch Disch was found near was found near Frankfurt, Germany Frankfurt, Germany When When Georg Georg Popp was Popp was called in he examined a called in he examined a filthy handkerchief found filthy handkerchief found at the scene that at the scene that contained bits of contained bits of hornblende, snuff and, hornblende, snuff and, coal coal
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences First Forensic Geology Case First Forensic Geology Case A suspect, Karl A suspect, Karl Laubach Laubach, , used snuff, worked at the used snuff, worked at the coal coal- -burning local gas burning local gas works and at a quarry works and at a quarry that had hornblende that had hornblende bearing rocks bearing rocks The suspect also had The suspect also had mica in the cuffs of his mica in the cuffs of his trousers that matched trousers that matched mica at the murder scene mica at the murder scene
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Junger Junger Case Case Location: Front Royal, Va Location: Front Royal, Va. . Crime Crime: Homicide : Homicide Evidence Evidence: Soil on the : Soil on the Suspect Suspect’ ’s vehicle s vehicle compared with soil from compared with soil from the crime scene at a river the crime scene at a river crossing. Samples contained crossing. Samples contained Malachite and Azurite from an Malachite and Azurite from an abandoned copper mine just abandoned copper mine just up stream. The soft copper up stream. The soft copper minerals were not found a minerals were not found a short distance downstream. short distance downstream. (thanks to Ray (thanks to Ray Murary Murary) )
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The Reeves Murder Case The Reeves Murder Case In September of 1958 a In September of 1958 a woman woman’ ’s body was found s body was found at the edge of the at the edge of the Anacostia Anacostia River in River in Washington, D.C. A Washington, D.C. A peculiar black sand was peculiar black sand was found on the victim, in a found on the victim, in a suspects car, and at the suspects car, and at the murder scene. Geologic murder scene. Geologic investigation showed that investigation showed that the sand was blast the sand was blast furnace slag that had furnace slag that had been spread on a small been spread on a small section of highway to test section of highway to test it for use in the control of it for use in the control of snow and ice. snow and ice. (Block, 1979 p.149 (Block, 1979 p.149- -152) 152)
Sand from a Construction Site Sand from a Construction Site In another example, in southern Ontario a man was In another example, in southern Ontario a man was arrested and charged with the beating death of the arrested and charged with the beating death of the young girl. The scene of the crime was a young girl. The scene of the crime was a construction site adjacent to a newly poured construction site adjacent to a newly poured concrete wall. The soil was sand that had been concrete wall. The soil was sand that had been transported to the scene for construction purposes. transported to the scene for construction purposes. As such, the sand had received additional mixing As such, the sand had received additional mixing during the moving and construction process and during the moving and construction process and was quite distinctive. The glove of the suspect was quite distinctive. The glove of the suspect contained sand that was similar to that found at the contained sand that was similar to that found at the scene and significantly different in composition and scene and significantly different in composition and particle size from the area of the suspect particle size from the area of the suspect’ ’s home. s home. This was important because the suspect claimed the This was important because the suspect claimed the soil on the gloves came from his garden. soil on the gloves came from his garden. (Murray and (Murray and Tedrow Tedrow, 1992 , p. 16) , 1992 , p. 16)
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Commercial Foundry Sand Commercial Foundry Sand Sands of heavy minerals, Sands of heavy minerals, olivine, zircon, etc. are used olivine, zircon, etc. are used in foundry work in foundry work In a breaking and entering In a breaking and entering case at a foundry in Toronto, case at a foundry in Toronto, Canada a suspect Canada a suspect’ ’s shoes s shoes had grains of olivine sand had grains of olivine sand Because olivine sand is not Because olivine sand is not found in place in that part of found in place in that part of Canada the sand on the Canada the sand on the shoes indicated that the shoes indicated that the suspect had been at the suspect had been at the foundry. foundry. (Murray and (Murray and Tedrow Tedrow, 1992 , p. 79) , 1992 , p. 79)
Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Acknowledgements Case studies and some of the graphics used in this talk were graciously provided by Jack Crelling, Southern Illinois University Other tables and graphics are from: Eby, G.N. (2004) Principles of Environmental Geochemistry. Thomson.

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minerals (1).pdf

  • 1. Minerals Definition, Types, and Identification Forensic Applications Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Transparent emerald, the green variety of beryl, on calcite matrix Niocalite (blue) in sovite (calcite + apatite). Oka carbonatite complex. Crossed-polars. Width = 5.4 mm
  • 2. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Building blocks of rocks, soil ,dirt, and mud Building blocks of rocks, soil ,dirt, and mud • • Minerals are everywhere Minerals are everywhere • • Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals Fluorite Gneiss
  • 3. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Mineral Definition Mineral Definition 1. 1. Naturally Occurring Naturally Occurring 2. 2. Inorganic Inorganic 3. 3. Crystalline Crystalline – – has a definite internal structure, has a definite internal structure, i.e., atoms in the mineral are arranged in a i.e., atoms in the mineral are arranged in a regular way regular way 4. 4. Chemical composition fixed or varies within Chemical composition fixed or varies within certain limits certain limits
  • 4. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Naturally Occurring Naturally Occurring - - minerals must be formed minerals must be formed naturally naturally - - glass, concrete, synthetic diamonds, glass, concrete, synthetic diamonds, rubies and emeralds don rubies and emeralds don’ ’t count t count • • Inorganic Inorganic - - minerals are not formed by anything minerals are not formed by anything that was ever alive. Therefore, materials such that was ever alive. Therefore, materials such as: Ivory, Amber, Coal, Pearls as: Ivory, Amber, Coal, Pearls are not minerals! are not minerals!
  • 5. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Crystalline Crystalline - - the atoms in minerals have an the atoms in minerals have an orderly atomic arrangement giving them a orderly atomic arrangement giving them a definite structure that controls their properties. definite structure that controls their properties. Graphite Diamond
  • 6. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Minerals Minerals • • Chemistry Chemistry - - Chemical composition is fixed or Chemical composition is fixed or varies within certain limits. Crystalline varies within certain limits. Crystalline compounds with the same structure but compounds with the same structure but different chemistry form different minerals. different chemistry form different minerals. Cubic array of atoms NaCl = Halite KCl = Sylvite
  • 7. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Ions are arranged in crystal structures according to their relative sizes. This is referred to as closest packing. We usually look at this from the perspective of the cation and calculate the radius ratio = size cation/size anion. The radius ratio determines the number of anions that can be packed around a particular cation. Structure of Minerals
  • 8. Crystal Lattice: the three dimensional molecular structure of a mineral. (Shape of the “unit cell.”) • Various ions make up the mineral. • Geometry + chemistry! Structure of Minerals Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
  • 9. Structure of minerals Structure of minerals Polymorphs Polymorphs • • Minerals with the same composition but different crystalline Minerals with the same composition but different crystalline structures structures • • Examples include diamond and graphite Examples include diamond and graphite • • Phase change Phase change – – one polymorph changing into another one polymorph changing into another Diamond Graphite Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
  • 10. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Crystal Form Crystal Form • • External expression of a mineral External expression of a mineral’ ’s internal s internal structure structure • • Often interrupted due to competition for space and Often interrupted due to competition for space and rapid loss of heat rapid loss of heat Crystals are the smallest Crystals are the smallest “ “bits bits” ” of minerals of minerals and reflect the geometry of the mineral and reflect the geometry of the mineral molecules molecules Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
  • 11. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Color Color • • Generally unreliable for mineral identification Generally unreliable for mineral identification • • Often highly variable due to slight changes in Often highly variable due to slight changes in mineral chemistry mineral chemistry • • Exotic colorations of certain minerals produce Exotic colorations of certain minerals produce gemstones gemstones • • Some minerals are used as pigments Some minerals are used as pigments Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Quartz (SiO2) Quartz (SiO2) exhibits a variety exhibits a variety of colors of colors
  • 12. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Streak Streak Color of a mineral in its powdered form Color of a mineral in its powdered form Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Streak is Streak is obtained on an obtained on an unglazed unglazed porcelain plate porcelain plate
  • 13. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Luster Luster • • Appearance of a mineral in reflected light Appearance of a mineral in reflected light • • Two basic categories Two basic categories • • Metallic Metallic • • Nonmetallic Nonmetallic • • Other descriptive terms include vitreous, Other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy silky, or earthy Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Galena ( Galena (PbS PbS) displays ) displays metallic luster metallic luster
  • 14. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Hardness Hardness • • The hardness of a The hardness of a mineral is its mineral is its resistance to resistance to scratching. scratching. • • The standard The standard scale for scale for measuring measuring hardness is hardness is Moh Moh’ ’s s Hardness scale. Hardness scale. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
  • 15. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Cleavage Cleavage • • Tendency to break along planes of weak Tendency to break along planes of weak bonding bonding • • Produces flat, shiny surfaces Produces flat, shiny surfaces • • Described by resulting geometric shapes Described by resulting geometric shapes • • Number of planes Number of planes • • Angles between adjacent planes Angles between adjacent planes Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Fluorite, halite, and Fluorite, halite, and calcite all exhibit calcite all exhibit perfect cleavage perfect cleavage
  • 16. Cleavage Cleavage Due to planes of weakness caused by alignment Due to planes of weakness caused by alignment of the common crystal faces of the common crystal faces Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences
  • 18. Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals Fracture Fracture • • Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken Specific Gravity Specific Gravity • • Weight of a mineral / weight of an equal volume Weight of a mineral / weight of an equal volume of water of water • • Average value = 2.7 Average value = 2.7 Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Other properties Other properties Magnetism Magnetism Reaction to Reaction to hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid Malleability Malleability Double refraction Double refraction Taste Taste Smell Smell Elasticity Elasticity
  • 19. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-1. Mineral classes Class Chemical characteristics Examples Borates Various elements in combination with boron Borax [Na2B4O7@10H2O] Carbonates Metals in combination with carbonate (CO 2& 3 ) Calcite [CaCO3] Cerrusite [PbCO3] Halides Alkali metals or alkaline earths in combination with halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) Halite [NaCl] Fluorite [CaF2] Hydroxides Metals in combination with hydroxyls (OH- ) Brucite [Mg(OH)2] Native elements Pure compound of a metallic or nonmetallic element Gold [Au] Graphite [C] Oxides Metals in combination with oxygen Hematite [Fe3O4] Phosphates, arsenates, vanadates, chromates, tungstates & molybdates Various elements in combination with the ZO4 radical where Z = P, As, V, Cr, W, Mo Apatite [Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH) Carnotite [K2(UO2(VO4)2@3H Scheelite [CaWO4] Silicates Metals in combination with silica tetrahedra (SiO 4& 4 ) forming three dimensional networks, sheets, chains and isolated tetrahedra Quartz [SiO2] Forsterite [MgSiO4] Orthoclase [KAlSi3O8] Sulfates Alkaline earths or metals in combination with sulfate ( SO 2& 4 ) Barite [BaSO4] Epsomite [MgSO4@7H2O] Sulfides One or more metals in combination with reduced sulfur or chemically similar elements (As, Se, Te) Pyrite [FeS2] Galena [PbS] Skutterudite [CoAs3] Metals in combination with carbonate (CO 2& 3 ) Alkali metals or alkaline earths in Metals in combination with silica tetrahedra (SiO 4& 4 ) forming three dimensional networks, sheets, chains and isolated Alkaline earths or metals in combination with sulfate ( SO 2& 4 ) One or more metals in combination with
  • 20. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The most common minerals in the Earth’s crust are silicate minerals. The basic building block for the silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron.
  • 21. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-4. Properties of the silicate crystal classes Class Tetrahedral arrangement # shared corners Che mical unit Si:O Example Nesosilicate Independent tetrahedra 0 SiO 4& 4 1:4 Olivine Sorosilicate Two tetrahedra sharing a corner 1 Si2O 6& 7 1:3.5 Melilite Cyclosilicate Three or more tetrahedra sharing two corners, forming a ring 2 SiO 3& 3 1:3 Beryl Inosilicate Single chain of tetrahedra sharing two corners 2 SiO 3& 3 1:3 Augite Double chain of tetrahedra alternately sharing two or three corners 2.5 Si4O 6& 11 1:2.75 Hornblende Phyllosilicate Sheet of tetrahedra sharing three corners 3 Si2O 2& 5 1:2.5 Kaolinite Tektosilicate Framework of tetrahedra sharing all four corners 4 SiO2 1:2 K-feldspar unit SiO 4& 4 Si2O 6& 7 SiO 3& 3 SiO 3& 3 Si4O 6& 11 Si2O 2& 5 SiO2
  • 22. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Clay Minerals Quartz (SiO2) and the clay minerals are the most common components of soil. Montmorillonite showing a rose like texture, Miocene arkose, Madrid Basin, Spain.
  • 23. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of the octahedral and tetrahedral layer. Mg2+ in the octahedral layer = brucite. Al3+ in the octahedral layer = gibbsite. Al3+ can substitute for Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer. Clay minerals are built by combining tetrahedral and octahedral layers.
  • 24. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-5. Summary of the principal characteristics of the layered clay mineral groups Kaolinites Illites Smectites Vermiculites Structure Tetrahedral: Octahedral 1:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 Octahedral layer Di-octahedral Mostly di- octahedral Di- or tri- octahedral Mostly tri- octahedral Interlayer cations Nil K Ca, Na Mg Interlayer water Only in halloysite Some in hydromuscovite Ca, two layers Na, one to many layers Ca, two layers K, one layer to nil Basal spacing 7.1 D 10 D Variable most ~15 D Variable 14.4 D when fully hydrated Ethylene glycol Only taken up by halloysite No effect Two glycol layers, 17 D One glycol layer, 14 D Cation exchange capacity (CEC) in meq/100 g clay Nil 3 - 15 Low 10 - 40 High 80 - 150 High 100 - 150 Formula Al2Si2O5(OH)2, little variation K0.5-0.75Al2(Si,Al)2 O10(OH)2 M+ 0.7(Y3+ ,Y2+ )4-6 (Si,Al)8O20(OH)4@n H2O M2+ 0.66(Y2+ , Y3+ )6 (Si,Al)8O20(OH)4@8 H2O Dilute acids Scarcely soluble Readily attacked Attacked Readily attacked Heating 200 o C Except halloysite, unchanged No marked change Collapse to approximately 10 D Exfoliation, shrinkage of layer spacing Examples Kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, halloysite Illite, hydrous micas, phengite, brammallite, glauconite, celadonite Montmorillonite, beidellite, nontronite, hectorite, saponite, sauconite Vermiculite
  • 25. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of kaolinite. Each structural unit consists of a gibbsite layer and a tetrahedral layer. Note that only two out of three octahedral sites in the octahedral layer are occupied. Structure of kaolinite a 1:1 layer clay T O T
  • 26. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Table 7-6. Substitutions for smectite group clay minerals Mineral Tetrahedral cations Octahedral cations Exchangeable cations Di-octahedral Montmorillonite Si8 Al3.3Mg0.7 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Beidellite Si7.3Al0.7 Al4 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Nontronite Si7.3Al0.7 Fe 3% 4 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Tri-octahedral Saponite Si7.2Al0.8 Mg6 (0.5Ca,Na)0.8 Hectorite Si8 Mg5.3Li0.7 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Sauconite Si6.7Al1.3 Zn4-6(Mg,Al,Fe3+ )2-0 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7 Al4 Fe 3% 4
  • 27. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Structure of montmorillonite, a 2:1 clay. The octahedral layer is a gibbsite layer. Substitution of Mg2+ for Al3+ in the octahderal layer is charge balanced by the addition of Na+ or Ca2+ cations (exchangeable cations) in the interlayer position. Structure of montmorillonite a 2:1 layer clay T IL T O T
  • 28. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Tools for Identification and Characterization of Minerals Stereomicroscope PLM XRD SEM EMP
  • 30. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Use various optical properties to characterize materials Index of refraction Higher relief means higher refractive index relative to the mounting media or index oil. The Becke line method is used to determine if material has a higher or lower refractive index then the mounting media or index oil.
  • 31. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Pleochroism – color changes as stage is rotated – polarized light Crocidolite Birefringence – color changes under crossed-polars due to retardation Biotite Plane polarized light Crossed-polars
  • 32. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Polarizing Light Microscopy (PLM) – a forensic workhorse Morphology and “habit” Calcite - rhombohedral Biotite flake Crocidolite fiber Fiber characteristics Dynel Dog’s hair Human hair (mongoloid)
  • 33. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Diagram illustrating Bragg’s law. 2 = angle of incidence and diffraction when Bragg’s law conditions are met. d = inter-planar spacing. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffractometer A powerful way to identify crystalline materials. The physical basis is Bragg’s Law (a Nobel prize for simple trigonometry). The angles required for diffraction and the intensity of the diffracted wavelengths can be used to identify the material.
  • 36. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with EDAX Can be used to characterize materials at the micron level. Back scatter electron image The material illustrated here is tinitite, the glass formed from the desert sand at Alamogordo when the first atomic bomb was detonated. The shades are related to the atomic number of the elements. Areas with lower atomic number elements are darker. Using EDAX, quantitative elemental abundances can be determined.
  • 37. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The Electron Microprobe (EMP) This instrument is not commonly used in forensic investigations, but it can be used to determine the abundance of a variety of elements on areas as small as one micron in diameter. There may be specific cases where such data would be useful. Rare-earth carbonate minerals in carbonatite. Analyses were done on 1 micron diameter spots.
  • 38. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences First Forensic Geology Case First Forensic Geology Case In October of 1904 the In October of 1904 the strangled body of Eva strangled body of Eva Disch Disch was found near was found near Frankfurt, Germany Frankfurt, Germany When When Georg Georg Popp was Popp was called in he examined a called in he examined a filthy handkerchief found filthy handkerchief found at the scene that at the scene that contained bits of contained bits of hornblende, snuff and, hornblende, snuff and, coal coal
  • 39. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences First Forensic Geology Case First Forensic Geology Case A suspect, Karl A suspect, Karl Laubach Laubach, , used snuff, worked at the used snuff, worked at the coal coal- -burning local gas burning local gas works and at a quarry works and at a quarry that had hornblende that had hornblende bearing rocks bearing rocks The suspect also had The suspect also had mica in the cuffs of his mica in the cuffs of his trousers that matched trousers that matched mica at the murder scene mica at the murder scene
  • 40. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Junger Junger Case Case Location: Front Royal, Va Location: Front Royal, Va. . Crime Crime: Homicide : Homicide Evidence Evidence: Soil on the : Soil on the Suspect Suspect’ ’s vehicle s vehicle compared with soil from compared with soil from the crime scene at a river the crime scene at a river crossing. Samples contained crossing. Samples contained Malachite and Azurite from an Malachite and Azurite from an abandoned copper mine just abandoned copper mine just up stream. The soft copper up stream. The soft copper minerals were not found a minerals were not found a short distance downstream. short distance downstream. (thanks to Ray (thanks to Ray Murary Murary) )
  • 41. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences The Reeves Murder Case The Reeves Murder Case In September of 1958 a In September of 1958 a woman woman’ ’s body was found s body was found at the edge of the at the edge of the Anacostia Anacostia River in River in Washington, D.C. A Washington, D.C. A peculiar black sand was peculiar black sand was found on the victim, in a found on the victim, in a suspects car, and at the suspects car, and at the murder scene. Geologic murder scene. Geologic investigation showed that investigation showed that the sand was blast the sand was blast furnace slag that had furnace slag that had been spread on a small been spread on a small section of highway to test section of highway to test it for use in the control of it for use in the control of snow and ice. snow and ice. (Block, 1979 p.149 (Block, 1979 p.149- -152) 152)
  • 42. Sand from a Construction Site Sand from a Construction Site In another example, in southern Ontario a man was In another example, in southern Ontario a man was arrested and charged with the beating death of the arrested and charged with the beating death of the young girl. The scene of the crime was a young girl. The scene of the crime was a construction site adjacent to a newly poured construction site adjacent to a newly poured concrete wall. The soil was sand that had been concrete wall. The soil was sand that had been transported to the scene for construction purposes. transported to the scene for construction purposes. As such, the sand had received additional mixing As such, the sand had received additional mixing during the moving and construction process and during the moving and construction process and was quite distinctive. The glove of the suspect was quite distinctive. The glove of the suspect contained sand that was similar to that found at the contained sand that was similar to that found at the scene and significantly different in composition and scene and significantly different in composition and particle size from the area of the suspect particle size from the area of the suspect’ ’s home. s home. This was important because the suspect claimed the This was important because the suspect claimed the soil on the gloves came from his garden. soil on the gloves came from his garden. (Murray and (Murray and Tedrow Tedrow, 1992 , p. 16) , 1992 , p. 16)
  • 43. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Commercial Foundry Sand Commercial Foundry Sand Sands of heavy minerals, Sands of heavy minerals, olivine, zircon, etc. are used olivine, zircon, etc. are used in foundry work in foundry work In a breaking and entering In a breaking and entering case at a foundry in Toronto, case at a foundry in Toronto, Canada a suspect Canada a suspect’ ’s shoes s shoes had grains of olivine sand had grains of olivine sand Because olivine sand is not Because olivine sand is not found in place in that part of found in place in that part of Canada the sand on the Canada the sand on the shoes indicated that the shoes indicated that the suspect had been at the suspect had been at the foundry. foundry. (Murray and (Murray and Tedrow Tedrow, 1992 , p. 79) , 1992 , p. 79)
  • 44. Department Environmental, Earth, & Atmospheric Sciences Acknowledgements Case studies and some of the graphics used in this talk were graciously provided by Jack Crelling, Southern Illinois University Other tables and graphics are from: Eby, G.N. (2004) Principles of Environmental Geochemistry. Thomson.