Airport design - Railways, airports, docks and harbour engineering (RAHE)

SNS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Kurumbapalayam (Po), Coimbatore – 641 107
An Autonomous Institution
Accredited by NBA – AICTE and Accredited by NAAC – UGC with ‘A’ Grade
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE NAME: CE8702 RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
IV YEAR / VII SEMESTER
Unit 4 – Airport Design
Topic 1 : Runway Design (orientation)

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SNSCE/ Civil Engg /VII sem / Shanmugasundaram N/ Ap/Civil
Syllabus
.
Runway Design: Orientation, Wind Rose Diagram - Problems on basic
and Actual Length, Geometric design– Elements of Taxiway Design –
Airport Zones – Passenger Facilities and Services – Runway and
Taxiway Markings.

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Runway Design
Runway Orientation

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Runway Design
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Runway Orientation

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Runway Design
Runway Orientation
The orientation of a runway depends upon the direction of wind & to
some extent on the area available for development.
Runway are always orientated in the direction of prevailing wind.
Determination of a runway orientation is a critical task in the planning
& design of an airport.
The direction of the runway controls the layout of the other airport
facilities, such as passengers terminals taxiways/apron configurations,
circulation roads & parking facilities.

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Runway Design
Cross wind component
It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of
the centre line of runway throughout the year, On some day of the year or
hour of the day, the wind may blow making certain angle with the centre
line of runway.
If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway will be Vcos α & that
normal to the runway centre line will be Vsin α where V is the wind velocity.
The normal component of the wind is called cross wind components.

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Runway Design
The maximum permissible cross wind component
It depends upon the size of the aircraft and the wind configuration.
FAA - 15 kmph for small aircrafts - 25 kmph for mixed traffic
ICAO – 35 kmph for big aircrafts.
Where,
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization

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Runway Design

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Runway Design
Wind Coverage
Wind coverage or usability factor of airport is the percentage of time in
a year during which the cross wind component remains within the limits as
specified above is wind coverage.
Calm Period
This is the period for which the wind
intensity remains below 6.4 km/hr.
This is common to all direction
& hence can be added to wind
coverage for that direction.
Calm period =100 – Total wind coverage

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Runway Design
Wind Coverage

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Runway Design
Wind Coverage

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Runway Design
Wind Rose
The wind data i.e direction, duration & intensity are graphically
represented by a diagram called wind rose diagram.
Application of Wind Rose diagram is for finding the orientation of the
runway to achieve wind coverage.
The area is divided in to 16 parts using
an angle of 22.50 .
Average wind data of 5 to 10 years is
used for preparing wind rose diagram.

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Runway Design
Wind Rose

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Runway Design
Wind Rose
Type – I: Showing direction & duration of wind.
Type –II: Showing direction, duration & intensity of wind.
Type – I : Showing direction & duration of wind.
The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents
the duration of wind.
From the wind data it is observed that the total % of time in a year
during which the wind blows from north direction is 12.3%.
This value is plotted along the north direction in figure.
Similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions.
All plotted points are then joined by straight lines.
The best direction of runway usually along the direction of the longest
line on wind rose diagram.

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Runway Design
In the figure the best orientation of runway is NS direction.

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Runway Design

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Runway Design

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Runway Design

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Thank You
HAPPY LEARNING

Topic 2 : Runway Design (Wind Rose Diagram and Runway length)

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Runway Design
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Type –II ;Showing direction, duration & intensity of wind.
Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale.
The values entered in each segment represents the % of time in a year
during which the wind having a particular intensity.
Procedure: draw 3 equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper
strip.
Place the transport paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a
way that the central line passes through the centre of the diagram.

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Runway Design
With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper & place it in such a
position that the sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind, within
the two outer parallel lines, oriented is the maximum.
The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the
centre line.
The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the % shown in
segment.
Read the bearing of the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose where the
central line on the paper.
That is the best orientation of runway.

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Runway Design
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Type –II ;Showing direction,
duration & intensity of wind.

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Runway Design

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Runway Design
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Runway Length
The length of runway based on the following assumed conditions
No wind is blowing on the runway
The airport altitude is at sea level
Temperature at the airport is standard (15 ̊C)
Runway is levelled in the longitudinal directions.
Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
No wind blowing enroute to the destination
Enroute temperature is standard.

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Runway Length
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The basic runway length is determined from the performances
characteristic of the aircraft using airport.
1. Normal landing case
2. Normal take-off case
3. Engine failure case (or stopping in emergency)
For jet engine aircrafts all 3 cases are considered
For the piston engine aircraft only 1st and 3rd cases are considered
The case which works out the longest runway length is finally adopted.

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Runway Length
1) Normal landing case
The landing case requires that aircraft should come to stop within 60% of
the landing distance.
The runway of full strength pavement is provided for the entire landing
distance.

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Runway Length
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2) Normal take-off case
The normal take-off case requires a clearway which is an area
beyond the runway and is in alignment with the centre of runway.
The width of clearway should not be less than 150 m and is also kept
free from obstructions.

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Runway Length
Normal Take-off Case

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Runway Length

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Runway Length

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Runway Length
3) Engine failure case
The engine failure case may require either a clearway or a stop way, or both.
Stop way is described as an area beyond the runway and centrally located in
alignment with the centre of runway.
It is used for decelerating during an aborted (terminated) take-off.
The strength of stop way pavement should be just sufficient to carry the
weight of aircraft without causing any structural damage to the designated
engine failure speed, the pilot decelerate the aircraft and makes use of the
stop way.

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Runway Length
3) Engine failure case

12/4/2020 SNSCE/ Civil Engg /VII sem / Shanmugasundaram N/ Ap/Civil
Happy Learning
35

Topic 3 : Corrections and Runway Geometric Design

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Corrections
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1) Correction for elevation:-
As the elevation increases, the air density reduces.
This in turn reduces the lift on the wings of the aircraft and the
aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can rise into the air.
To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway is required.
ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased
at the rate of 7%per 300 m rise in elevation above the mean sea level

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Corrections
2) Correction for temperature:-
Airport reference temperature Where
Ta- Average daily temperature
Tm- Maximum daily temperature
ICAO recommends that the basic runway length after having been
corrected for elevation, should be further increased at the rate 1% for
every 1 ̊c rise of airport reference temperature above the standard
atmospheric temperature at the elevation.

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Corrections
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2) Correction for temperature:-
Airport reference temperature = (Ta + (Tm-Ta / 3))
Where
Ta- Average daily temperature
Tm- Maximum daily temperature.
3) Check for the total correction for the elevation plus temperature
ICAO further recommends that's, if total corrections exceeds 35% of the
basic runway length, these corrections should be further checked up by
conducting specific studies at the site by model tests.

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Corrections
4) Corrections for gradients:-
Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy & as such
longer length of runway is required to attain the desired ground speed.
Max diff in elevation b/n the highest & Lowest point
Lowest length of the runway
ICAO does not recommends any specification for the correction of
gradients.
FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected
for elevation & temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20%
for every 1% of effective gradients

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Runway Geometric Design
ICAO gives various geometric standards for the airport design.
1) Runway length
2) Runway width
3) Width & length of safety area
4) Transverse gradients
5) Longitudinal & effective gradient
6) Sight distance

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1) Runway length
The basic runway length as recommended by ICAO for different types of
airport are there.
To obtain the actual length of runway, corrections for elevation,
temperature & gradient are applied to the basic runway length.
2) Runway width
ICAO recommends the pavement width varying from 45 m - 18 m for
different types of aircraft.
The aircraft traffic is more concentrated in the central 24m width of the
runway pavement.

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3) Width & Length Of Safety Area
Safety area consists of the runway, which is paved area plus the shoulder on
either side of runway plus the area is cleared, graded & drained as shown in
fig.
The shoulder are usually unpaved as they are used during emergency.
ICAO recommends.
Types of airport Width
of safety area
Types of airport Width of
safety area
Non-instrumental
runway
A,B&C
D&E
150 m
78 m
Instrumental runway A,B,C,D&E Mini. 300 m

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Typical C/S of runway for ILS approach is shown below
(Instrumental Landing Systems)

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4) Transverse gradient
Transverse gradient is essential for quick drainage of surface water.
If surface water is allowed to pond on the runway, the aircraft can
meet severe hazards.
ICAO recommends that the transverse gradient of runway pavement
should not exceed 1.5% for A,B, C & D 2 % for D & E types.
ICAO does not recommends that the minimum transverse gradient of
runway pavement but it should not greater then 0.5 %.

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4) Transverse gradient

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5) Longitudinal & Effective Gradients.
The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway
length.
ICAO recommendation as follows
Types of
airport
Longitudinal
gradient
Effective
gradient
A,B & C 1.5 % 1 %
D & E 2 % 2 %

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6) Sight distance (is the length of roadway visible to a driver)

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6) Sight distance (is the length of roadway visible to a driver)
Two runways or a runway & taxiway intersect each other, there are chances
of collision of aircraft, if sufficient sight distance are not available.
ICAO recommends that for A,B & C types of airports, any two points 3 m
above the surface of runway should be mutually visible from a distance
equal to ½ the runway length.
For D & E types of runway there should be unobstructed line of sight from
any point 3 m above runway and to all other point 2.1 m above runway
within a distance of at least ½ the length of runway.

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Thank You
HAPPY LEARNING
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Topic 4 : Taxiway Geometric Design

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Taxi Way

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Taxiway Geometric Design
ICAO gives various geometric standards for the airport design.
1) Taxiway length
2) Taxiway width
3) Width & length of safety area
4) Transverse gradients
5) Longitudinal & effective gradient
6) Sight distance
7) Turning radius

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Taxiway
The main function of the taxiway is the inter connection between runway
and loading apron or service hanger
Following consideration decide the layout of taxiway.
Not interfere with the landing and take-off aircrafts.
At busy airports, taxiway should be located at various points along the
runway so that the landing aircraft leaves the runway as early as possible
and keeps it clear for use by other aircrafts.
 Such taxiway are called exit taxiways
The route for taxiway should be so selected that it provides the shortest
distance from the apron to the runway end.
As for as possible the intersection of taxiway and runway should be
avoided.
Exit taxiways should be designed for high turn-off speed.

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Length of taxiway:
As short as possible.
Increased number of taxiways have to be provided along the runway.
Width of taxiway:
It is observed that the width of a taxiway is much lower than the
runway width, as aircraft is not airborne and speeds are small.
Varies between 22.5 m & 7.5 m
Airport Code Taxiway width (mm)
A 22.5
B 22.5
C 15.0
D 9.9
E 7.5

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Longitudinal gradient:
Level taxiway are operationally more desirable.
If gradient is steep, it affects fuel consumption.
As per ICAO, maximum longitudinal gradient is 1.5% for A&B type of
airports & 3.0% for C,D&E type of airports.
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:
Available sight distance on the pavements is affected by the rate of
change of longitudinal gradient.
As per ICAO, the maximum change in pavement longitudinal gradient is
4% for A&B category of airport & 3.33%for C,D&E category of airports.

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Sight distance:
As speed of aircraft on taxiway is lower than the speed on runway,
the smaller value of sight distance will be sufficient on the taxiway.
ICAO recommended that the surface of taxiway must be visible at
least up to a distance of X- from any point at a height of Y above the
taxiway surface.
AIRPORT CODE Y X
A 1.5 m 150 mm
B 2 m 200 mm
C,D & E 3 m 300 mm

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Transverse gradient:
Adopted same as recommended for runway.
Transverse gradient is essential for quick drainage of surface water.
ICAO recommended that the transverse gradient of runway pavement
should not exceed 1.5% for A,B&C & 2% for D&E types. Shoulder are
usually provided with steeper gradients.
Width of safety area:
Safety area is made up to partially paved shoulders on either side plus
the area which is graded & drained.

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Turning radius:
Change in aircraft path is done by providing a horizontal curve.
The design should be such that the aircraft can negotiate the curve
without significantly reducing the speed.
Circular curve of large radius is provided.
Recommended radios corresponding of taxing speeds of small, subsonic
& supersonic airplanes is 60 m, 135 m & 240 m respectively.
R2= V2/125f,
Where,
R=radius in meter,
V=speed in KMPhr
F=Friction btw tire and pavement

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Turning radius

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Exit Taxiways
Location of exit taxiway
This depends upon several factors
Number of exit taxiways
Exit speed
Types of aircrafts
Weather conditions
Topographical features
Pilot variability

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Exit Taxiways

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Exit Taxiways

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Runway configuration
Its mainly covered by the volume of air traffic and extra to that it
depends on the direction, intensity and duration of the prevailing wind.
1. Single runway
2. Parallel runway
3. Intersection runway
4. Divergent or open V-type runway
Single Runway
Single runway is the most common form. It is enough for light traffic
airports or for occasional usages.
This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.

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Parallel Runway
Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions
by considering cross winds or wind conditions in that particular area.
The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T shape or X shape.
Divergent or open V-type runway

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HAPPY LEARNING
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Topic 5 : Pavement Design and Airport Zoning

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Pavement Design
Pavement Design Principles
The aim of an airport pavements to provide a good surface upon which
the aircraft can operate easily and smoothly.
The pavement structure is called as a structure consisting one or more
layers of processed materials.
Types of pavements
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement

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Pavement Design
Choice of the type of pavement
Fund allotted from the budget
Availability of construction material, labours, tools and plant
Nature of the soli
Climate condition of the area
Magnitude of the wheel loads
Maintenance cost
Nature and density of the anticipated air traffic
Safety of aircraft operation etc.,

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Pavement Design
Design factors
Characteristics of construction material
Sub-grade soil
Wheel load
Design methods of flexible pavement
California bearing ratio (CBR)
Mcleod method
Burmister method
Analytical method
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Design methods of Rigid pavement
FAA Method
Method based on Westengaad’s analysis
PCA method

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Airport Zoning
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Airport Zoning Laws
Zoning law regarding the permissible height of structures and land
use with in the airport boundary are to be implemented when the site
is selected for the airport development
The permissible height of structures depends up on the airport and
the aircraft types which would use the airport.
Some times, zoning law controls the development of industries which
produce smoke nuisances, foul odor etc.,

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Airport Zoning
Airport Zoning Laws
Although zoning laws are implemented, they should be reasonable to the
public other wise they are likely to create resentment from public and
results in mass disobedience.
Whenever it is felt that the zoning laws are provocative, sufficient
compensation should be announced in order to ascertain its effective
implementation.

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Airport Zoning
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Approach Zone
Wide clearance area are required on either side of runway along the
direction of landing and take – off of aircraft.
This is called approach zones and in this area, the aircraft can safely
gain or loose altitude.
The plan of the approach area is as that of the approach surface
( imaginary surface).
The whole of this area has to be kept free of obstructions and zoning
laws are implemented in this area.

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Airport Zoning
Clear Zone
The inner most portion of approach zone which is most critical portion
from obstruction view – point is known as clear zone.
Purchase of land in this zone is recommended for the effective
implementation of zoning laws.
Not necessary to grade the area but all obstruction are removed.

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Airport Zoning
Clear Zone
Highway and Railway Clearances
Roads and railways are not objectionable in clear zones .
They can be allowed only when they clear the clearance standards.
Clearances over the highway and railway located any where in the
approach area.
NO Types of Runway W1 W2 L
1 Instrumental runway 300 m 525 m 750 m
2
Non Instrumental runway
Large airport 150 m 270 m 600 m
Small airport 75 m 135 m 300 m

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Airport Zoning
Turning Zone
If engine fails or any other reasons the pilot select to land during take –
off, the aircraft will have to take a turn and come in line with runway
before landing.
This area of airport used for turning operations of aircraft is called
turning zone.
Turning operations are done at low height, turning zone area are kept
free from obstructions.

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Airport Zoning
Turning Zone
The following discussion pertains to the turning zone of instrumental
runway
 Any object located with in a distance of 4.5 km from the runway reference
point shall be considered as obstruction provided its height is more than
51 m above the ground level or above airport established elevation which
ever is higher.
 Any object located beyond a distance of 4.5 km from the runway reference
point shall be considered as obstruction provided if it is height above 51 m
is increased by more than 30 m for each additional 1.5 km distance from
the airport reference point or if it exceeds 150 m with in a distance of 15
km from the runway reference point

Topic 6 : Passenger facilities, Services and Airport Marking

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Passenger facilities and services
(I) accommodated in airport building
 Economic/Executive lounges to comfortably sit
 Electronic locker
 Parent rooms
 Prayer rooms
 Swimming facilities
 Television
 Departure hall
 Inter terminal transport
 Children play area
 Smoking room
 Arrival hall

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(I) Service required in airport
 Money exchange
 Medical service
 Post and telecommunications
 Left baggage counter
 Pharmacy
 Hair dressing saloons
 Lost and found (Toll free calling centre)
 Shopping malls
 Supermarket

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 Duty free zone
 Flight information
 Bus service stand
 Airport info line booth
 Car rental counters
 Unaccounted baggage counter
 Facilities for differently abled persons –ramps elevators, specially
designed toilets and telephones
 Nursery for feeding and changing of dress for babies

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Airport Marking

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Airport Marking
In order to identify and recognize various airport element by a pilot
certain marking are made on the airport area in a simple manner.
By this arrangement the pilot Should be distinctly identify the landing
area and the wind- Direction.
Types of Airport Marking
1. Runway Marking
2. Taxiway Marking
3. Apron Marking
4. Wind direction indicator
5. landing direction indicator

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Airport Marking
1.Runway Marking
Runway Marking Consist of
1. Runway centreline Marking
2. Runway threshold Marking
3. Runway End-Strip Marking
4. Runway numbering
5. Parallel runway Marking
6. Runway Shoulder Marking
The runway centre-line is represented by a broken Strip running along the
full length of the runway.
The width of the marking is 90cm

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Airport Marking

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Airport Marking
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Runway threshold marking is indicated by a series of parallel lines
commencing from a distance of 6m from the runway-end.
The markings are in the from of strips 3.60m wide and with of the
Spacing of 0.90m.
The marking are placed Symmetrically on either side of the runway
centre-line
Edges of the runway are normally marked. In-case of with width
Exceeding 45m,
The strips is made in the form of along continuous lines of 90cm
width of marked near the edges.

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Runway Marking

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Runway Marking
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Runway marking
4. Runway numbering
End of Each runway is marked with a numbering indicating the
magnetic Azimuth.
That is the East-end of an East-West runway would be marked
27 and the west end 7
If there are two or more number of parallel runways they are
marked as follows at the threshold
(a) Two-Parallel Runways
(b) Three parallel Runways
(c) Four Parallel Runways

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Airport Marking
Considering the Azimuth of three intersecting, the numbering can be done
as Shown as follows

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Airport Marking
The Shoulder on the edges of a runway and taxiway are paved.
 Although they appear Structurally Strong they are not Capable of
withstanding the Aircraft loads.
Runway Shoulder marking is used as a supplement to runway side
Strips.
Shoulder marking are generally needed to guide the pilot to identify the
runway from the Shoulder.
The colour of runway Shoulder marking is yellow and are located
between the runway side Strips and the pavement edges .

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Airport Marking
These marking consist of Strips
1m width and Spaces 30m Apart.
The Strips are marked Slander at
an angle of 45 degree to the centre
and Start at the Runway mid-Point

Topic 7 : Airport Marking (Taxiway) and Lighting

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Airport Marking
(i)Taxiway centre line marking:
(a)Location: It is marked on paved taxiways with code numbers 3 or 4.
If a taxiway is straight, the marking should be located along taxiway
centre line.
If it is curved, the marking should continue from straight portion of the
taxiway at a constant distance from outside edges of the curve.
For taxiways with code Nos. 1 or 2, it is marked from centre line of the
runway to the point on aprons, where aircraft stands. Purpose of
markings is to provide guidance.
(b)Characteristics: Width - 15cm Length -continuous, expect where it is
intersects a taxi-holding position markings. This is shown in Fig

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Airport Marking
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(ii)Taxiway-holding position marking:
(a)Application and Location: A taxi-holding position marking shall
be displayed along taxi-holding position.
(b)Character: Taxi-holding positions having two patterns.
A single taxi-holding position at an intersectional taxiway and
precision approach category I, II or III of runway.
Multi-taxi-holding positions at an intersection, of taxiways.
A single taxi-holding position is marked as indicated in pattern ‘A’
of Fig.
In case of multiple taxi-holding positions, the one closer to the
runway is marked at indicated in pattern A of the Fig.

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Airport Marking
(ii)Taxiway-holding position marking:
Other taxi-holding positions farther away from the runway are
depicted in the pattern ‘B’ of Fig.
(iii)Taxiway intersection marking:
(a)Location and Application: It is marked at intersection of two paved
taxiways.
Markings located across a taxiway at sufficient distance from the near
edge of a an intersecting taxiway.
This is to ensure safe clearance between taxing aircrafts.
It should coincide with a stop bar or clearance bar.
(b)Characteristics: It shall consist of single broken line.

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Airport Marking
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Taxiway marking

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Airport marking
Taxiway Marking

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Airport Marking
Wind –direction indicator
Wind –direction indicator is in the form of a truncated cone made of
fabric.
It Should be of 3.6 m length and 0.9 m diameter at the larger end. It
should be Constructed in Such a way that it gives a clear indicating of the
wind Speed.
The colour combination adopted Should be
such that the indicator is clearly visible
and understanding for the pilot from a height of 300m.
Generally, A Single colour pre White or orange is
Used.

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Airport Marking
Wind –direction indicator

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Airport Marking
Landing direction indicator
It is in the form Tee or Tetrahedron and is Placed at the centre of the
segmented Circle
This Enables the pilot to identify the direction of the Active runway of the
Airport.
This dimension of a typical Landing
direction indicator is shown in the figure.

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Airport lighting Aids (Night Aids)

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Airport Lighting
.
AIRPORT LIGHTING:
To achieve uniformity and to guide pilots for unfamiliar airports,
colours and general arrangement of airport lights are standardized.
Airport lights are kept clean, well-maintained, checked regularly for
faulty bulbs and replacement.
Tough and laborious job, major airport contains 30,000 lights
Provision of emergency power supplies, which can take over in
seconds in case of any power failure.

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Airport Lighting
ELEMENTS OF AIRPORT LIGHTING
Airport beacon
Approach lighting
Apron and hangar lighting
Boundary lighting
Lighting of landing direction indicator
Lighting of wind direction indicator
Runway lighting
Taxiway lighting
Threshold lighting

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Airport Lighting
.
FACTORS AFFECTING AIRPORT LIGHTING
Airport classification
Amount of traffic
Availability of power
Nature of aircraft using the airport
Type of night operation plans
Type of landing surfaces provided
Weather condition, etc.

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Airport Lighting
Airport beacon

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Airport Lighting
Airport beacon

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Airport Lighting
Airport beacon
Beacon- strong beam of light- used to indicate any geographical
location- situated slightly above the horizontal- rotated to produce
flashing light to an observer.
It gives out white and green flashes in the horizontal directions 180◦
apart.
Flashes are visible for the pilot from any direction of approach and it
indicates the approximate situation of an airport equipped for the night
operations.
Rotates at six revolutions per minute- mounted at top of terminal
building or hangar

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Airport Lighting
Airport beacon
Obstruction not cleared yet- then separate tower is provided for
installation of rotating beacon.
Code beacon- indicates light provided sufficiently high to clear all
obstructions.
It consists of two 500 watts bulb
with green colour screen.
Continuously flashes a Morse code
signal designating the airport.

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Airport Lighting
Airport beacon

Happy Learning

Topic 8 : Airport Lighting (Part I)

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Airport Lighting
.
Before runway begins- sequence of high-intensity lighting
arrangement for a length of 900m.
Helps pilots to check if the aircraft is centred correctly of not.
Gives way to touchdown zone lights from threshold of the runway.
Normally mounted on pedestals-varying heights-to accommodate any
irregularities in ground- ensuring the lights themselves are in level.
Arrangements adopted for approach lightings:
1)Calvert system
2)ICAO system

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Airport Lighting
1.Calvert system

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Airport Lighting
.
1.Calvert system

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Airport Lighting
1.Calvert system:
Widely used in Europe and other parts of the world.
Developed by E.S.Calvert in Great Britain.
In this, there are six transverse rows of
lights of variable length placed at a c/c
distance of 150m.
In this, the roll guidance is principally
provided by the transverse rows of lights.

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Airport Lighting
2) ICAO system:
Known as centre-line configuration.
In this, there is only one crossbar 300m from the threshold.
In this, the roll guidance is provided by bars 4.2m in length, placed at
30m c/c on the extended centre-line of the runway and a single crossbar
300m from the threshold.
The 4.2m long bars consists of 5 closely spaced lights to give the effect of
continuous bar of light.

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Airport Lighting
2.ICAO system

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Airport Lighting
2.ICAO system

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Airport Lighting
2.ICAO system

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Airport Lighting
.
APRON AND HANGAR LIGHTING
These areas for are flood lit for the convenience in servicing and
loading
Flood-lighting system: constitutes a projector designed to be
arranged to illuminate a surface.
Mounted such a way that they do not cause glare in the eyes of the
pilots, passengers and service personnel.
Recommendation: flood lights should be placed at a height of not less
than 12m above the pavement.

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Airport Lighting

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Airport Lighting
.
Apron and hangar lighting

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Airport Lighting
Boundary lighting:
Entire boundary of the airfield is provided with lights at a c/c distance of
about 90m with height of about 75cm from the ground.
If fence is provided along the boundary, then these lights should be
placed inside the fence at a distance of about 3m.
For indicating hazardous approach, the boundary lights are provided
with red marker lights.

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Airport Lighting
Boundary lighting

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Airport Lighting
Lighting of landing direction indicator
The landing direction indicator is illuminated with suitable lighting
arrangement so that the airport can be used at night also.

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Airport Lighting

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Airport Lighting

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Airport Lighting
.
Lighting of wind direction indicator:
The wind direction indicator is illuminated by four 200 watts angle
reflectors placed 1.8m above the top of the cone for providing a
continuous lighting at any position of the cone.
This arrangement grants the use of wind direction indicator at night
and during bad weathers.
Runway lighting:
After crossing the threshold, the pilot must complete a touchdown and
roll out on the runway.
The planning of runway lighting is carried out in such a way that the
pilot gets enough information on alignment, lateral displacement, roll
and distance.
The lights are so arranged so that they form a visual pattern which the
pilot can interpret easily.

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Airport Lighting
Lighting of wind direction indicator

Happy Learning
Every person gets negative Things, They Learn From those Negative things and
You become A positive Person”
- Kapil Dev
137

Topic 9 : Airport Lighting (Part II)

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Airport Lighting
.
Runway lighting:
During night landings, flood lights were used in olden days. But now
runway edge lights are adopted.
Narrow gauge pattern- the most precise runway alignment which is
widely used.
It makes use of centre-line and touch down zone lights for operations
in very poor visibility.
Black hole effect: As the pilot crosses the threshold, and continues to
look along the centre-line, the principal source of guidance, namely, the
edge lights has moved far to each side in the peripheral vision.
As a result, the central area appears black and the pilot is virtually
flying blind for the peripheral reference information.

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Airport Lighting
Runway lighting
This can be eliminated by adopting the narrow gauge pattern of the
runway lighting, the central portion gets illuminated and the black hole
effect is partly eliminated.
The narrow gauge pattern forms a channel of light of 18m width up to
1140m from the threshold and beyond this distance, the closely spaced lights
are placed along the centre-line of the runway extending up to the other end
of the runway.
All the lights provided on the runway are white in colour and of flush
type, i.e. they do not protrude more than 1cm above the surface of
pavement.

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Airport Lighting
Runway lighting
The runway edge lights are
of elevated type and they
are white colour except for
the last 400m if an
instrument runway facing
the pilot which are of
yellow colour to indicate a
caution zone.

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Airport Lighting
Runway Lighting

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Airport Lighting
Runway Lighting

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Airport Lighting
Runway Lighting

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Airport Lighting
Runway Lighting

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Airport Lighting
.
Runway lighting

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway lighting

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway lighting

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway lighting:
The pilots have to man over the aircrafts on a system of taxiways to and
from the terminal and hangar areas either after landing or on the way to
take off
The taxiway system is much complicated on large airports and therefore
it is necessary to provide adequate lighting at night and at daytime when
the visibility is very poor.
Design considerations to be applied to the visual aids for the
taxiways:
For normal exits- centreline terminated at the edge of the runway.
At taxiway intersections, the lights continue across the intersection. They
are placed at a distance of 6m to 7.5m along the straight length and 3m to
3.6m along the curves.

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway lighting:
The complete route from the runway to the apron should be easily
identified.
The edge lights should not extend more than 75cm above the pavement
surface.
The exits from the runways should be so lighted that the pilots are able to
locate the exits 360m to 400m ahead of the point of turn.
The intersection of taxiways and runways-taxiway crossings should be
clearly marked.
The lights on the tangent portion are placed not more than 60m apart
and the distance from the edge along the curves and the intersections to
facilitate easy identification.
The spacing varies from 6m for curve of radius 4.5m to 60m for a curve
of 300m.

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway lighting:
There should be adequate guidance along the taxiway.
The taxiway edge lights are blue and the taxiway centre lights are green.
The taxiway should be clearly identified so that they are not confused
with the runways.

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Airport Lighting
Taxiway Lighting

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Airport Lighting
Threshold lighting:
Identification of threshold- a major factor for decision of the pilot to land
or not to land
For this reason, the region near the threshold is given with special
lighting treatment.
At large airports: threshold is identified by a complete line of green lights
extending across the entire width of the runway.
They must be of semi-flash type, i.e. protruding not more than 12cm
above the surface.
At small airports, the threshold is identified by four lights on each side of
the threshold. They can be of elevated type, i.e. protruding more than 12cm
above the surface.
The threshold lights in the direction if landing are green and in the
opposite direction, they are red to indicated the end of the runway.

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Airport Lighting
.
Threshold lighting

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Airport Lighting
Threshold lighting

Happy Learning
Push Your Self Because No One Else Is Going
To Do IT For You”
- Success
156

Airport design - Railways, airports, docks and harbour engineering (RAHE)

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