This document summarizes the clinical uses of several herbs and herbal medicines for various health conditions including diabetes, cardiac disease, hepatitis, respiratory disease, skin diseases, CNS disorders, musculo-skeletal disorders, renal disorders, and reproductive disorders. For each condition, it lists the scientific name, common names, plant family, parts used, active chemical constituents, and proposed mechanisms of action for several herbs that have been used traditionally or shown promise clinically for treating the condition based on their pharmacological activities and effects.

1. PHARMACOGNOSY 3rd
PROFF
Chapter 14: Clinical uses of herbs and herbal medicines
Diabetes
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Gymnema sylvestre Gurmar, Australian
cowplant, periploca
of the woods
Apocynaceae Leaves Gymnemic acid,
tartaric acid,
gurmarin, calcium
oxalate, glucose,
stogmasterol,
betaine and choline
It may help stimulate insulin
secretion and the regeneration
of pancreas islet cells
Melia azadirachta Chinaberry tree,
pride of india,
bead-tree, cape
lilac
Meliaceae Leaves and
Fruits
Quercetin,
Astragalin,
Pentadecane,
Spathulenol
Primarily an increased insulin-
sensitizing effect resulting in
blood glucose reduction and
improved peripheral glucose
disposal, and also through
reduced gastric emptying and
decreased insulin demand.
Momordica
charantia
Karela, Bitter
gourd, Balsampear,
Bitter melon
Cucurbitaceae Fruits and
leaves
Alkaloids and
glycosides including
Cucurbitane,
Charatin a
triterpenoid,
Momordenol,
Momordicin I,
Sterols
Insulin scretagogue like effects,
stimulation of skeletal muscle
and peripheral cell glucose
utilization, inhibition of
intestinal glucose uptake,
inhibition of adipocyte
differentiation, suppression of
key key gluconeogenic enzymes,
preservation of pancreatic islet
cells and their functions.

2. Syzygium
jumbulana
Jambolana, Black
plum, Jamun, Java
plum, indian
blackberry
Myrtaceae Fruits and
seeds
Glucoside jamboline,
resorcinol,
gallitannins,
glycoside such as
jamboline and
cyanidine, β-
sitosterol.
Jamun reduces free radicals
production, reduces activity of
α-amylase and stimulates the
activation of certain catalase
enzymes thus control diabetes.
Cardiac disease
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Digitalis species Foxglove, ‫رہز‬
‫ّشکلا‬‫ا‬‫ت‬‫نیب‬
Scrophulariaceae Dried leaves Digoxin, digitoxin,
diosgenin,
digipuridase
Consult from glycosides
lectures.
Convallaria
majalis
Lilly of the valley Liliacea Leaf and flower Cardioactive
glycosides such as
convallamarin,
convallarin,
convallatoxin,
convallatoxol,
saponins,
asparagin and
flavonoids
Convallamarin and
convallarin have positive
inotropic and negative
chronotropic action on
the heart and is specific
for congestive heart
failure, potent inhibitor
of Na+/K+ ATPase pump.
Urginea indica Jungli pyaz, indian
squill, Scilla, Sea
Squill, White squill
Liliaceae Plant bulb Cardioacive
glycosides such
bufadienolide
Scilllaren A.
Na+/K+ ATPase pump
inhibitor.
Allium sativum Lehsan, Garlic Liliaceae Bulb, cloves Allicin an alkaloid,
aliin, amino acids:
methionine, lucine,
Works through
various mechanisms to
achieve this

3. cysteine. favorable effect including
reduction of serum lipids
and blood pressure
levels, inhibition of
platelet aggregation, and
increasing fibrinolytic
antioxidant activity.
Punica granatum Anaar/Anaar jins,
Pomegranate
Punicaceae Fruits, Seeds,
juice, flowers
Hydrollyzable
tannins ellagic acid,
punicalagin,
punicic acid
Attenuation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS).
Stimulation of
vasorelaxation via an
endothelium-dependent
mechanism and through
an inhibition of calcium
influx
Hepatitis
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical constituents MOA
Berberis vulgaris Zrishq kroshqae,
rsot, barberry
Berberidaceae Root, root bark,
stem bark
isoquinoline
alkaloid berberine,
berlambine,
hydroxycanthine
Decreases liver
transaminases (ALT
and AST),
cholesterol,
triglyceride and
weight hence
reduces chaces of
Non-Alcohlic Fatty
Liver Disease
NAFLD
Picrorhiza kurroa Kutki,
Picrorhiza, katuka
Scrophulariacea Leaf, bark, root
and rhizome
picroside I, II, d-
mannitol, kutkoside,
Cause increase of
the activities of the

4. kutkiol, kutkisterol and
apocynin
antioxidant
enzymes and
counteraction of
free radicals by the
presence of the
electrophilic
constituents
picroside I,
picroside II and
kutkoside.
Lawsonia inermis Burg-e-Hina,
mignonette tree,
and Egyptian privet
Lythraceae leaves, flower,
seeds, stembark
Lawsone, isoplumbagin,
Lawsoniaside
Extract produces
hepatoprotective
effect by causing
elevation in serum
marker enzymes
(SGOT and SGPT),
serum bilirubin and
reduction in total
serum protein.
Respiratory disease
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Ficus religosa Peepal, sacred fig Moraceae bark, fruits, leaves,
seeds and latex
Lanosterol,
Bergapten,
Bergaptol, β-
sitosterol,
stigmasterol, δ-
cadinene,
Hentricontane
Exact mechanism is
unknown

5. Adhatoda vasica Adusa, Malabar nut Acanthaceae Leaves, roots,
flowers, bark
Vasicine,
vasicinone, vasicol,
vasicinolone
Acts as an
expectorant to
loosen phlegm in
the respiratory
passages
Skin diseases
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Aloe vera Knwar gndal, Aloaceae Leaf extract and gel Glucomannan, auxins,
Gibberellin, Aloin,
Emodin, enzymes and
minerals.
Glucomannan, a mannose-
rich polysaccharide, and
gibberellin, a growth
hormone, interacts with
growth factor receptors on
the fibroblast, thereby
stimulating its activity and
proliferation, which in turn
significantly increases
collagen synthesis after
topical and oral Aloe vera
Angelica
archangelica
Anjleeq, Garden
angelica, wild
celery
Apiaceae Roots and leaves Angelicin a resin,
valeric acid, angelic
acid, limonene,
borneol
Exact mechanism is
unknown.
Mentha piperita Pudina,
Peppermint,
Labiatae Leaves and whole
plant
Menthol, Menthone,
Cineole, azulene,
limonene, tannins
Peppermint oil stimulates
cold receptors on
the skin and dilates blood
vessels, causing a sensation
of coldness and an analgesic
effect. Menthol is a topical

6. vasodilator that enhances
the absorption of other
topical skin medications.
antiseptic and antibacterial
properties
Citrus spp.
Citrus sinensis
Citrus paradisi
Citurs limon
Musammi
Chkotra, grape
fruit
Lemon
Rutaceae Ripe fruit and dried
fruit’s dried skin Valencene, Poncirin,
vitamin C, P
(bioflavonoids)
Grapefruit fights free radical
and gives anti-aging
benefits, orange exfoliates
and detoxify skin, Vitamin P
protects capillary strength
while allowing the body to
absorb and better utilize
vitamin C, Citric acid is an
alpha hydroxy acid, which
offers pore-refining,
tightening, and hydrating
benefits to the skin.
Commiphora
mukul
Guggul, Mukul
myrrh
Burseraceae Gummy resin
obtained from Bark
Myrcene,
polymyrcene,
cadinene, α-
camphorene,
cembrene-A,
limonene
Have anti-oxidant activity
CNS disorders
Scientific
name
Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Strychnos
nux-vomica
Kuchla,
bachelor’s
button,
Loganiaceae Dried ripe
seeds.
Strychnine 1.25%,
brucine 1.5%
acts as
an antagonist of glycine and acetylcholine
receptors. It primarily affects the motor

7. quacker’s
button, crow
fig,vomit nut.
nerve fibers in the spinal cord which
control muscle contraction
Datura
stramonium
Dhatura,
thorn apple,
devil’s apple,
jimson weed
Solanaceae Dried leaves
and
flowering
tops
Hyoscyamine,
hyoscine
(scopolamine),
albumin protein,
acts: i) as a competitive inhibitor at
postganglionic muscarinic receptor sites
of the parasympathetic nervous system,
and ii) on smooth muscles that respond
to acetylcholine but lack cholinergic
innervation.
Cannabis
sativa
Bhang, Moraceae Dried
flowering
tops
15-20% resins,
cannabinol,
tetrahydrocannabinol
THC, cannabidiol,
cannabistavine
two types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1
and CB2), binding of cannabinoids to
cannabinoid receptors decrease adenylyl
cyclase activity, inhibit calciumN
channels, and disinhibit K+
A channels.
Papaver
somniferum
Sfaid
Khaskhash,
afim, post,
raw opium
Papaveraceae Air dried
milky
exudate
obtained
from unripe
capsules.
Morphine, codeine,
narcoine, thebaine,
noscapine,
papaverine
Opium activates specific G-protein
coupled receptors in brain, spinal crod
and peripheral nervous system, generate
an agonist activity which will later open
the potassium channels and prevent the
opening of voltage-gated calcium
channels. This activity causes a reduction
in neuronal excitability and inhibits the
release of pain neurotransmitters.
Atropa
belladonna
Blazar, Mako,
deadly night
shade
Solanaceae Dried leaves
and
flowering
tops
l-hyoscyamine,
atropine,
apoatropine,
asparagine,
phytosterol
Atropine competitively blocks
the effects of acetylcholine at muscarinic
cholinergic receptors on smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, secretory gland cells, and
in peripheral autonomic ganglia and
the central nervous system.

8. Musculo-skeletal disorders
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Nigella sativa Black seed, klwanji,
black cumin
Ranunculaceae Seeds Nigellone (fatty acid),
thymoquinone (TQ),
thymohydroquinone
(THQ), thymol,
carvacrol, α and β-
pinene, d-limonene
Causes calcium
channel blocking,
potassium channel
opening, inhibits
anti-cholinergic and
muscarinic
receptors thus
imparts relaxing
effect to smooth
muscles.
Phycotis ajowan
(Trachyspermum
ammi)
Ajwain, caraway,
bishop’s weed
Apiaceae
(Umbelliferae)
Leaves and seed-
like fruit
Phenol mainly
thymol, carvacrol, p-
cymene, γ-
terpinene, α-, and β-
pinenes and
dipentene
Calcioum channel
blocking effects
resulting in
spasmolytic effects
Trigonella foenum-
graecum
Maithe, Fenugreek, Fabaceae/
Leguminosae
Leaves and seeds Trimethylamine,
trigonelline,
choline(alkaloids),
leucine, isoleuicine,
histidine(AA),
Fenugrin B(saponins),
yamogenin,
diosgenin(steroidal
sapogenins)coumarin,
vitamins, minerals.
Mechanism is
unknown

9. Zingiber officinale Adraq, Sonth,
Ginger
Zingiberaceae Rhizome Gingerol, shogaol,
zingiberine, starch
and trace elements
Inhibits airway
contraction and
associated calcium
signaling, possibly
by blocking plasma
membrane calcium
channels.
Renal disorders
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Cucumis melo Sarda/ kharbuzah
cantaloupe,honey
dew
Cucurbitaceae Seeds and fruits Chromone
derivatives,
arginine, aspartic
and gltamic acid, α-
galactosidases, β-
sitosterol
Exact mechanism
has not been
established but it is
proposed that this
is due to anti-
oxidant and radical
scavenging activity
Berberis vulgaris Zrishq, amber
chichar chahchar,
barberry
Berberidaceae Fruit Berberine,
berbamine,
palmatine,
oxyacanthine, malic
acid, berberubin
Free radical
scavenging activity
and anti-oxidant
effects.
Zea mays Makai, corn, bhutta Poaceae/
Gramineae
Seeds Cytokine Zeatin,
allanoin, vitamin C,E
&K, maizenic acid,
gluten, dextrin,
phosphates of lime
and magnesia
Free radical
scavenging activity
and anti-oxidant
effects.
Tribulus terrestris GHokru khoord, Zygophyllaceae Fruits and roots Prototribestin, Free radical

10. puncture vine,
turkndi, cat’s head
dioscin,
protodioscin
scavenging activity
and anti-oxidant
effects.
Reproductive disorders
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Saraca indica Ashoq, Ashoqa Fabaceae Bark, flowers, seeds Bark contains
Tannins such as
catechin,
epicatechin,
haematoxylin,
flowers rich in
saracasin, saracadin,
seeds contains fatty
acids such as pleic,
linoleic, stearic acid
reported to
stimulate
the uterus,
making the
contraction more
frequent
and prolonged, but
do not produces
tonic contractions
Ruta graveolens Berg-e-sraab, herb
or grace, rue
Rutaceae Whole Plant
extracts
2-nonanone, 2-
undecanone, 2-
decanone,
skimmianine,
R. graveolens
extract may act
directly or indirectly
on the pituitary
gland secretory
function leading to
an
increase in the
main hormones
controlling
spermatogenesis
process, thus
significantly

11. decreased number
of degenerating
Leydig cells that
lead to a decrease
in the
serum androgen
level.
Nigella sativa Black seed, klwanji,
black cumin
Ranunculaceae Seeds Nigellone (fatty
acid),
thymoquinone (TQ),
thymohydroquinone
(THQ), thymol,
carvacrol, α and β-
pinene, d-limonene,
linoleic acid
phytoestrogens
could act through
two possible
mechanisms
namely, estrogen
receptor-
dependent and-
independent
mechanism, most
studies suggest hat
phytoestrogens
bind to estrogen
receptors and show
significant
estrogenic effects in
human and animals.
Glycyrrhiza glabra Malathi, liquorice Leguminosae Dried roots Glycyrrhetic acid,
glycyrrhetinic acid,
glycyrrhizin,
liquirtin, isoliquirtin,
asparagin
Still under debate in
case of
reproductive
disorders
Claviceps purpurea
(rye plant : Secale
cereal)
Ergot, anaaj rog, rye Clavicipitaceae
(rye plant :
Poaceae)
dried sclerotium of
a fungus
Alkaloids
ergonovine &
ergotamine,
Not fully defined in
reproductive
disorders

12. ergometrine (water
soluble alkaloids)
Myristica fragrance Jaifal, nutmeg, nux
moschata
Myristicaceae Kernal of dried ripe
seed
Borneol, stearin,
lignin, alpha pinene,
geraniol, myristicin
Not fully defined in
reproductive
disorders
G.I.T. disorders
Scientific name Synonyms Family Parts used Chemical
constituents
MOA
Foeniculum vulgare Soonf, fennel Umbelliferae Dried ripe fruits Fenchone 22%,
anethole 60%, -
pinene, anisic acid,
phellandrine
Regulation of
intestinal muscle
movement,
treatment of
gastrointestinal
spasmand chronic
colitis, protective
effect on gastric
ulcer, reduce the
mucosal lining of
the stomach.
Ferula foetida Heeng, devil’s dung Apiaceae Oleo-gum resins
obtained from
rhizome and roots
incision
Foetidin,
asafoetidin, ferrulic
acid, umbelliferone,
umbellic acid
Not defined but
anti-oxidant effects
have been reprtoed
in G.I disorders cure
Cuminum cyminum Zeera, cumin fruit Umbelliferae Dried ripe fruits Cuminaldehyde, -
pinene, -pinene,
phellandrene,
hydro-cuminine
Aqueous extract
enhance gastrin
mucin protection
and regeneration.
Aegle marmelos Bael giri, wood Rutaceae Unripe or half-ripe Marmelosin A,B & The unripe fruit

13. apple fruits C, psoralen,
umbelliferone
vitamin C& A,
luvangetin
pulp of A.
marmelos affected
the bacterial
colonization to gut
epithelium and
production and
action of certain
enterotoxins thus
possessing
antidiarrhoel
activity.
Prunus domestica Aloocha, european
plum, common
plum
Rosaceae Dried or undried
ripe fruit
Phenolic acids such
as chlorogenic acid,
anthocyannins,
flavonols,
coumarins
Act as contact
laxative, high
sorbitol contents &
chologenic acid also
contribute to
laxative effects of
prunes
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