Advanced level behavior notes 2021

KINGDOM SOLUTIONS TO LOCKDOWN SETBACKS: 0701211966/0779957281 ADVANCED BEHAVIOR NOTES 2021
1 | A D V A N C E D L E V E L B E H A V I O R N O T E S 2 0 2 1 @ k i n g s o y e 8 8 @ y a h o o . c o m
BEHAVIOR
THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR (ETHOLOGY)
The study of behavior is called Ethology.
Behaviormay be defined as theoutwardly expressed courseof action produced in organisms in response
to stimuli from a given situation.
Behavior means all the varied activities of an animal, its movements, reactions, changes in posture, and so
forth.
The action modifies, in some way, the relationship between the organism and its environment, and its
adaptive significance is the perpetuation of the species.
All living organisms exhibit a variety of forms of behavioural activity determined by the extent to which
they can respond to stimuli. This varies from the relatively simple action of the growth of a plant stem
towards the light source to the complex sexual behavior patterns of territory defence, courtship, and
mating seen in birds and mammals.
Plant behavior is restricted to the movement produced by growth or turgor changes and is stereotyped and
predictable. The two main activities associated with plant behavior are tropisms and taxes.
Animal behavior is far more complex and diverse than plant behavior and therefore it is extremely difficult
to investigate and account for with any degree of scientific validity.
APPROACHES TO BEHAVIOURAL STUDIES
The three main approaches to behavioural studies are the vitalistic, mechanistic, and ethological
approaches.
a) Vitalistic approach
This seeks to account for behavioral activities in terms of what animals are seen to do and attempts to
relate this to changes in the environment. It involves the total rejection of any study of the animal outside
its national environment.
The technique has its foundations in natural history and has provided a wealth of valuable data, but it is
essentially non-scientific since all the observations relate to past events which cannot be tested
experimentally.
b) Mechanistic approach
This is an experimental approach and it involves the study of particular aspects of behavior under
controlled, conditions in a laboratory. It may be criticized on the grounds of the artificiality of the
experimental situation, the nature of the behavior activities, and how the results are interpreted.
This technique is, however, used extensively in psychology and was pioneered by Pavlov.
c) Ethological approach
This is the contemporary approach to behavioral investigations and attempts to explain responses
observed in the field in terms of the stimuli eliciting the behavior.
It involves both the techniques outlined above and was pioneered by Lorenz, von Frisch, and
Tinbergen.
Ethologists have so far tried to answer questions about animal behavior from four major areas:

1. The evolutionary history: - involves understanding how the various forms of behavior evolved i.e.
(Innate/instinctive/genetic or learned) and how the behavior is, compared with similar behavior in
related species
2. Development: - refers to how the animal`s behavior changes with age the early experiences
necessary for the behavior to be expressed- e.g. How courtship behavior develops during the
individuals’ life
3. Causation: refers to the stimuli that elicit the response and how they are modified by recent learning
4. Function: refers to how the behavior impacts the animal’s chances of survival and reproduction/
survival value of the behavior exhibited by the animal.
NB. In all behavioral studies, great care has to be taken in interpreting the results of observation to
eliminate subjectivity (bias)
E.g.
1. Care must be taken to avoid putting oneself in the place of animal (anthropocentrism), or
2. Interpreting what has observed interns of human experience (anthropomorphism) or
3. Interpreting the cause of the observation in terms of its outcome (teleology).
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
1. Species-characteristic behavior (innate/ instinct behavior)
This is the type of behavior that is shown by all members of a species.
This includes the stereotype behavior patterns distinctive of particular species for example courtship and
copulation of many animals. Some other examples of behavior which are specific characteristics include;
Altruism, reproductive behavior, migration, territorial behavior Biorhythms,
Aggression, Displacement, Motivation, social hierarchies, etc.
2. Individual characteristic behavior (learned behavior)
This is the type of behavior that varies from one individual to another
This includes the behavior learned by an individual during their lifetime; for example, the „tricks‟
performed by individual dogs.
Note:
 This does not mean however that all learned behavior is an individual characteristic or that all so-
called instinctive behavior is species characteristic.
 An act of behavior however simple or complex must be seen as the result of an interaction between
an individual`s genetic constitution and its environment.
 Certain fundamental processes enter into an animal’s behavior. These include;
1. Reflex action;
2. Orientation and
3. Learning.

In describing an animal’s behavior, one must try to be as objective and as accurate as possible. Difficulties
may be encountered at once because patterns are often either slow or else fast or repetitive. One must
therefore resort to various recording techniques e.g;
a) Video recordings
b) Kymographs; To make graphic records of the muscular responses of simple animals like worms
and sea anemones.
c) Slow-motion films; To record activities of fast-moving animals like birds
d) Time-lapse photography; For slow-moving animals like sea anemones.
e) Multiple-flash photography; For rapid movement such as jumping in salticid spiders.
To gain a full picture of an animal’s behavior, it is often necessary to record its activities which are
frequently repetitive over a long period. One can use gadgets ranging from simple to complex electronic
devices. Where feasible, direct observation works best.
In studying behavior, one should try to keep the animal in a natural condition as possible. The trouble is
that its normal environment may be inaccessible and its behavior obscured.
TYPES OF STIMULI
(a) Internalstimuli; within the body of an organism.
Examples:
1) Hunger signals a need for more energy and causes an animal to search for food
2) Thirst signals a loss of internal fluid and causes an animal to look for water
3) Painwarns an animal that some part of its body may be subject to injury causing it to take some
action to avoid injury
(b) Externalstimuli; outside the body of an organism
Examples:
1) The sound of a predator can cause an animal to hide or run away to avoid being caught
2) The sight of a potential mate can trigger courtship behaviors
3) Changes in day length can trigger reproductive behaviors or migration
Motivation
Motivation is the internal state of an organism that must precede a specific act of behavior, or which is
responsible for temporary reversible changes in the responsiveness of an animal to external stimulation.
Hence, the extent of any behavioral response is modified by modification. Therefore, the same stimulus
does not always evoke the same response in the same organism.
Examples of motivation
 Presenting food to a starving animal produces different responses from those shown by a well-fed
animal. If the act of feeding would place the hungry animal in danger of being attacked by a
predator, the feeding response is curbed or stopped until the danger passes.
 Many female animals are only receptive to mating attempts by males at certain times of the year
coinciding with estrus

Significance of motivation
1) Balances the organisms’ immediate needs with the ultimate purpose of ensuring survival e.g not
eating if it increases the chances of being preyed upon
2) Ensures the perpetuation of the species e.g most breeding organisms may forego feeding to ensure
successful hatching of young ones to perpetuate the gene pool.
3) In reproductive behavior, it ensures that mating coincides with the optimum time for fertilization
and production of offspring to occur at the most favorable time of the year for their survival.
Control of motivation
Motivationresults from theanimal`sinternalphysiologicalstate,particularly hormonallevelsinthe body,
which in turn is determined by motivational stimuli such as photoperiod and temperature.
Communication within the species for example the timing of oestrus.
The timing of oestrus in females may be accompanied by swelling or change of color of the genital area
which is displayed to the male
Sign stimuli
A sign stimulus is a signal which brings about a change in the behavior of an organism. Depending on their
origin and function, sign stimuli are classified into motivational stimuli, releasing stimuli, and
terminating stimuli.
Motivational stimulus; is an external or internal stimulus that provides the drive or goal, preparing
the organism for activity which may be triggered off by the second type of sign stimulus.
Examples of motivational stimulus;
External motivation stimulus; increasing daylight (photoperiod) induces territorial and courtship
behavior in birds.
Internal motivational stimulus: depleted food reserves in the body during hibernation result in
awakening and food-seeking.
Releasing stimulus (releaser); is either a simple stimulus or a sequence of stimuli produced by a
member of the species which positively evokes a behavioral response in an organism. E g beak movement
in many bird species stimulates the mother to regurgitate food.
Terminating stimulus; is an internal or external stimulus that completes/ terminates a behavioral
response. Example; external; visual stimuli of a completed nest terminate nest building in birds. Internal;
satisfaction accompanying ejaculation in the male terminates copulation; satiety of a full stomach
terminates feeding.
RELEASERS OF INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Releasers / sign stimuli / key stimuli: - Signals that trigger instinctive acts.
Once the body is prepared for certain types of instinctive behavior, an external stimulus may be needed to
initiate the response. However, the stimulus need not necessarily be appropriate to be effective.
Examples:
1. Exposing thered breast ofa malerobinreleases territorial behaviorinanothermalerobin,but even
a simple clump of red feathers instead of a stuffed robin will elicit a similar response.

2. During the breeding season, the female three-spined stickleback is normally guided by the red-
bellied maleto thenest thathehasprepared, afterwhich heprods the baseof hertail to causeher to release
the eggs. But even in the absence of the male, the female will follow any small red object to the nest, and
any object that touches near the base of her tail causes her to release eggs.
Advantages of releasers
1) Control feeding, where it initiates a food search and terminates feeding upon satisfaction.
2) Control predator-prey relationships, where it causes the search for prey by the predator while prey
escapes predator.
3) Ensures reproduction occurs among organisms of the same species, where it initiates the courtship
and then copulation and terminates them as well among the organisms of the same species.
4) Important in the creation and defense of territories against members of the same species without
them being involved in physical fights.
5) Enables the young ones to distinguish between their parents and the predators, which prevents the
young ones from being predated upon.
6) They are important signs to guide organisms during migration;
7) They change aggressive behaviors into sexual behaviors like in spiders; e.g the black widow spider.
FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES THAT ENTER INTO AMINALS BEHAVIOUR
1) Reflex action
2) Orientation
3) Learning
INNATE BEHAVIOR
Natural, inborn behavior that is genetically programmed hence inherited.
Innate behavior is a collection of in-born responses pre-determined by the inheritance of specific nerves
or cytoplasmic pathways in multicellular and unicellular organisms. Innate behavior is categorized into;
orientations, simple reflexes, and instincts.
Note:
Since innate behavior is encoded in DNA, it is subject to genetic change through mutation,recombination,
and natural selection.
Just like physical traits, innate behaviors are phylogenetic adaptations that have an evolutionary history.
Advantages of innate behavior
a) Innate responses are generally rapid – organisms can react quickly to their environments
(predators etc.) e.g the earthworm quickly / rapidly withdraws into its burrow, away from the
danger.
b) Innate behavior suits species that have short lifespans – they don’t have time to learn behaviors
c) Suits species with no parental care/solitary lifestyles as they can’t learn behaviors from other
members of the species.

PROPERTIES OF INSTINCTS
1. Organisms are born with a capacity to behave that way
2. They are inflexible i.e a given stimulus will always give rise to that response without any
alternative for example.
3. They are automatic i.e they occur without significant control of the organization.
4. They do not require prior experience.
5. They are excited by simple stimuli
6. They are often quick and are sound amongst organisms of that species
TYPES OF INSTINCT/INNATE BEHAVIOURS
There are two types; i.e
a. Simple innate/instinct behaviour
b. Complex innate/instinct behavior
a) SIMPLE INNATE/INSTINCT BEHAVIOURS
These include;
 Reflex actions
 Kinesis
 Nastic responses
 Taxes (taxis)
 Tropism
1. REFLEX ACTION
A reflex action is a simple act of behaviour in which some kind of stimulus evokes a specific short-lived
response. Or. Rapid, automatic response to a stimulus that is not under the voluntary control of the brain
Examples of reflex action
1) The escape responses. (Cranial reflex)
2) Blinking of the eye (cranial reflex)
3) Knee jerk (spinal reflex)
The escape responses
These responses bring about the rapid withdrawal of the animal from a harmful or mediated reflex are in
which stimuli are received by receptors, impulses are transmitted through the nervous system and a
contraction occurs in the appropriate muscles.
To appreciate the role of such an escape response in the general behavior of an animal, let us consider the
earthworm.
Its behavior can be explained in terms of, receptors, nerves, and effectors.
Escape response in earthworm.
If you touch an earthworm, it quickly disappears into its burrow. Even slight vibration of the ground is
enough to cause this to happen.

The posterior end of the worm normally remains in the opening of the burrow. On stimulating/ion, the
powerful longitudinal muscle in the body wall contracts rapidly and at the same time, the bristle-like
chaetae is protracted from muscular sacs in the body wall.
Contraction of the longitudinal muscle causes the whole body to shorten.
Protraction of the chaetae gives the posterior end a firm grip on the wall of the burrow in which the worm
retracts.
This grip is enhanced by dorso-ventral flattening of the extreme posterior tip of the body which has the
effect of pushing the sharp chaetae in the sides of the burrow.
Whentheanterior end of the worm istouched,the tips of thechaetae allpoint towardsthe head.This gives
the worm a better grip and prevents it from being pulled out of its burrow.
If the posterior end is stimulated, the chaetae rotate so that they point backward. This gives the head a
better grip if the worm is burrowing.
N.B These movements are brought about by the contraction of an elaborate set of muscles attached to the
inner end of the chaetae.
Moreover, in this case, as in many other simple reflexes, it is possible to explain the response in terms of
its underlying neural mechanism.
It is mediated by a system of giant axons in the nerve cord which transmits impulses at high speeds from
one end of the body to the other. There are three (3) such axons, a median one interconnected at intervals
by “bridges”.

2. ORIENTATION
Orientation response is the type of response in which an organism takes up a particular position about a
stimulus. Orientation has much in common with reflex action and there is no sharp distinction between
the two. Many orientation responses are reflexes; however, the response is generally more complex. This
type of behavior is important in the natural environment for it enables organisms to move towards
desirable stimuli and away from harmful ones. For example; in this way;
1) Green flagellates are guided towards light
2) Animals more towards food
3) Parasites are guided towards their hosts.
4) Spermatozoa are guided towards the female’s eggs
Orientations are classified into taxes and kineses
1. Kinesis: non -directional orientation behavior where the rate of movement is directly
proportional to the intensity of a stimulus. Kineses are divided into two: orthokineses and
klinokineses
 Orthokineses involve changes in the speed of movement
 Klinokinesis is involved in the changes in the rate of turning
Example:
a) Woodlice move around rapidly and randomly when exposed to light until they find better
conditions then they stop moving or move slowly. In a choice chamber a woodlouse tends to
move faster and turn less in dry areas and orient itself towards the damp areas when the
container is divided into dry and damp
b) Movement of tentacles of hydra in search of food.
2. Taxis (tactic/tactic responses): A movement of the entire organism or cell in response to an
external unidirectional stimulus where the direction of movement is related to the direction of the

stimulus. Tactic movements towards a stimulus are described as positive and those away from the
stimulus are described as negative or at a particular angle to the stimulus.
Stimulus Taxis Examples
Light Phototaxis Positive; the unicellular Euglenophyta, euglena swims towards the
light, chloroplasts move towards the light, fruit flies fly towards light.
Negative; earthworms, blowfly larvae, woodlice, and cockroaches
move from light
Chemical Chemotaxis Positive: sperm of liverworts, mosses, and ferns swim towards
substances released by the ovum; motile bacteria move towards various
food substances
Negative; mosquitoes avoid insect repellants.
Air/oxygen Aerotaxis
(special type
of chemotaxis
Positive; motile aerobic bacteria move towards oxygen (Engelman
experiments)
Gravity Geotaxis Positive; planula larvae of some cnidarians swim towards the sea bed
Negative; ephyra larvae of some cnidarians swim away from the sea bed
Magnetic
field
Magnetotaxis Certain motile bacteria respond to magnetic fields
Resistance Rheotaxis Positive: Planarians move against the water current, moths and
butterflies fly into the wind
3. NASTIC RESPONSES
These apply to plants and involves responses whose magnitude is determined by the intensity of the
stimulus and not the direction of the stimulus.
They are non-locomotory e.g the bending of the leaflets upon a touch of sensitive parts of the Mimosa
pudica, opening, and closing of the stomata, opening and closing of the floral parts of the morning glory.
3. TROPISM
These are plant growth responses that are oriented to the direction of the stimulus.
They are also named based on the stimulus nature for example;
Phototropism involves responses towards or away from light by shoot or root of the plant respectively.

Differences between tropisms and kineses
b) COMPLEX INNATE OR INSTINCT BEHAVIOUR
These include;
1. Migration
2. Territoriality
3. Reproductive behavior
4. Aggression/ Agonistic behavior
5. Social hierarchies
6. Altruism
7. Biological rhythms
1. MIGRATION
Is the movement of the whole or part of the population from one region to another and their return to
the original habitat some other time.
Migrations range from short distances to long distances across continents and oceans.
Examples of migratory organisms include;
 Salmon fish- which breed in Western Europe’s fresh water and return to their habitats in oceans
for a normal life. The young ones upon hatching and attaining some maturity, migrate
downstream to locate their parents
 Many birds like the white shark migrate from the northern pole of Europe to the southern pole of
South America to escape the winter season.
 Some species of Gallinaceous and raptorial birds migrate from valley to mountain peaks.
 Deer and Caribou, African ungulates - mammals engaged in overland migrations.
Initiators of migration include;
1. Seasonal changes can take the form; change in day length; decreased temperature; food scarcity,
etc
2. The need for breeding and spawning
3. Inborn character
4. Need for better supplies of food
5. To avoid unfavorable environmental conditions
Kinesis Tropisms
• occurs in animals • occur in plants
• the whole organism moves in response to
stimulus
• only growing parts of the organism are moved

6. Physical features e.g mountains, waterfalls, sun, etc
The way organisms find their way migrating is uncertain but suggestions show that
organisms do so by;
 Following prominent natural features e.g mountains, water bodies, forests, etc
 Orienting themselves about the direction of the sun.
 Also, they have an inborn ability to sense direction e.g in homing pigeons.
CUES THAT ANIMALS USE TO NAVIGATE
Endogenous - hormonal
Exogenous - external cues from the environment
Examples:
 Sun compass - the movement of the sun; angle of sun; polarized light (pattern of light based on
sun’s position and reflection on water)
 Geomagnetic compass - sensitivity to magnetic North and the earth’s magnetic field
 Star compass or position of the moon
 Other visual cues - patterns of waves; cloud patterns; landmarks, Smell, Sound, Electric
Advantages of migration Disadvantages of migration
1) Return to specialist sites for breeding
that does not need an all-year-round
food supply, and often no (or few)
predators.
2) Move to where food/prey is available
when not breeding, particularly with
young (i.e. maximize feeding
opportunity).
3) The remaining stationery can increase
predator risk.
4) Constant temperature conditions:
escape bad weather and lower
temperatures (and greater risk of
death), especially to give birth.
5) Able to have specialist breeding sites
(e.g no predators) and another site for
feeding.
6) Flexible strategy - some members of the
species can migrate and others not
depending on where they live.
1) A large amount of energy is required to
travel long distances.
2) Problems and risks of navigation.
3) Risk of forgetting sites or not being able to
find them again.
4) Leave home territory empty allowing for
invaders, and then fights on returning.
5) Risk at temporary stopovers from lack of
local knowledge about predators.
6) Vulnerable to weather changes or poor
conditions in one year.
7) Many decisions are required including
optimal fuel load and optimal time of
departure.
8) Other risks like the change from salt to
freshwater or vice versa for some fish.
9) Evolutionary maladaptive behavior in
some cases; e.g green turtles feed on the
eastern coast of South America but breed
on Ascension Island (South Atlantic).

7) Stationary animals risk exhausting food
supply using it all year round,
particularly if competition from other
species.
8) Opportunity for different members of
the species to meet, and greater
breeding variety
9) Ideal when specialist food is required
because the earth’s resources are not
evenly distributed.
10) Birds migrating at night are usually
safe from predators as few day-time
birds of prey adapt to night-time
hunting.
10) Risks of night-time migration if
animals are normally active in daytime
(e.g. bat predation of birds).
2. Territorial Behaviour / Territoriality
Territorial behavior is an instinctive behavior in which an organism or group of organisms acquire,
demarcates, and defends an area against organisms of the same or different species.
A territory: a physical space an animal defends against other members of its species. The size of territories
occupied by any particular species varies from season to season according to the availability of
environmental resources. Birds of prey and large carnivores have territories several square miles in the
area toprovide alltheir food requirements.Herring gulls andpenguinshaveterritories of only a few square
meters since they move out of their territories to feed and use them for breeding purposes only
During the breeding season, the area is large and greatly and fiercely defended, especially by males against
other males.
There are a variety of behavioral activities associated with territory formation and they involve threat
displays between owners of adjacent territories. These threat displays involve certain stimuli which act as
releasers. E.g. An adult male robin would attack another adult male displaying a red breast and a bunch of
red feathers, but not a young male robin who did not have a red breast. The level of aggression shown by
anorganism increasestowardsthecentre ofthe territory. Theaggressivenessof malesis determined partly
by the level of testosterone in the body and this can affect territory size. E.g the territory size of a red 11
grouse can be increased by injecting the bird with testosterone. Territories are acquired through threats,
gestures, and postures in place of actual fighting. Having obtained a territory, many species especially
carnivores proceed to mark out the boundary by leaving a scent trail. This may be done by urinating or
rubbing parts of the body against objects called scent posts along the boundary of the territory.
The main reasons for territoriality
a) Control food supply
b) Retreat; shelter; nest,

c) Access to females; space for sexual display; courtship
Animals that have territories mark and defend their space by singing e.g birds, urinating e.g. mammals,
constantly standing guard e.g. carpenter bees, releasing pheromones e.g. some insects; signals may be
visual, vocal or chemicals e.g Fiddler crabs wave their claws; male Robbins take up a threat posture; bull
alligators roar; frogs croak to keep away enemies
The significance of territorial behavior
1. Ensures that mating pairs of organisms and their off springs are well spaced to obtain an adequate
share of available resources e.g food, water, shelter, breeding, and nesting space, thus reducing
intra-specific competition.
2. Leaves animals free from disturbance during pair formation, courtship, mating, and parental care,
thus increasing rates of reproduction and survival of offspring.
3. Ensures protection of vulnerable members of the species such as the weaker sex, or mates, the
young, sick, and elderly from enemies’ e.g predators and competitors, ensuring increased chances
of survival.
4. A territoriality is a form of natural selection ensuring that only well-adapted individuals secure a
territory, breed, and pass on their successful genes and characteristics to subsequent generations;
which causes evolution, speciation, and continued adaptation of species to environmental changes.
5. Provides a means of regulating population size since only the fit members secure territories and
reproduce; this protects the population from the negative effects of the population explosion and
overcrowding.
6. Adequatespacing ofthe organismsreducestherisk of infectionandspreading ofepidemic diseases;
thus, reducing the death rate.
7. Territories are obtained and defended usually through ritualized threats, gestures, and postures;
this prevents actual fighting which would kill members of the species.
8. Territorial behavior involves the defense of territories through agonistic and aggressive behavior
triggered by specific releasing stimuli. This heightens the level of alertness and awareness of
individuals, leading to better protection of the territory, food, mates, young, and avoiding
predation.
9. Defense of territory against organisms of other species exerts a selection pressure for resource
partitioning or competitive exclusion; alternatively reducing interspecific competition
Disadvantages of territoriality
1. Cost of defending territory including the risk of physical contact, and displays of strength.
2. Need to be vigilant against intruders.
3. Territories held by groups exhibiting dominance hierarchies involve the exploitation of individuals
of lower ranks by the high-ranking members.
4. Defending territory is time that could be feeding or mating.
5. Vocal or visual communication of territory ownership makes the individual vulnerable to
predation.

6. Difficult for smaller animals to hold territory; i.e. more likely to be attacked than larger animals
7. Difficult to move if resources are exhausted.
8. Importance of territory size. If too large, then hard to maintain control. If too small, not enough
resources for the effort of defending.
9. Higher risk of predation if territory within predator’s territory.
10.Easy for predators to find due to the congregation of members within the territory.
11. The ever-present threat of take-over as a surplus of animals without territory.
12.Extra vigilance is required at certain times of the year (e.g. breeding season).
13.Limits the number of individuals per unit area, thereby limiting population size.
Evolutionary significance of territorial behavior in animals
(i) Minimizing aggressive behavior amongst species
(ii) Reduction of competition for mates and other resources
(iii) Protection and defense of the young until they mature
(iv) Reinforcement of other forms of behavior such as courtship
(v) Specialization of roles in the territory improves the efficiency of the species.
(vi) Selection of the fit individuals for mating ensures that only good genes are passed to the next
generation
3. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR
This is a complex form of inborn behavior in organisms that involves both pre-copulating
behaviors in which there are courtship and post-copulating behaviors which include
parental care.
a) COURTSHIP AND MATING
Courtship is a complex behavior pattern between males and females designed to stimulate organisms to
sexual activity and is associated with pair formation in those species where both sexes are involved in
the rearing of offspring. Or;
Courtship behavior is a complex, elaborate, ritualized species-specific behavior designed to stimulate
organisms to sexual activity; involving bonding pair formation, mating, brooding, and parental care.
E.g as in thrushes, or in gregarious mixed-sex groups such as baboons.
In birds, mammals, and some fish courtship and mating are associated with or often follow the
establishment of a territory by the male.
N.B There are many elaborate associated with courtship and mating.
Courtshipbehavioris controlled primarily by motivationalandreleasing stimuliandleads to mating which
is the culmination of courtship.

During mating, the behavioral activity is initiated by releasing stimuli and ended by terminating stimuli
associated with the release of gametes by the male.
The motivational stimuli for courtship in most species are external, such as photoperiod, and lead to rising
levels of reproductive hormones and the maturation of the gonads. In most species this produces striking
changes in the secondary sexual characteristics and other behavioral activities including coloration
changes, as in the development of a red belly in male sticklebacks increase in the size of parts of the body
as in the plumage of birds; postural displays and use of chemical sex attractants, as in butterflies and
moths.
Of the variety of signals used in the courtship to attract members of the opposite sex, sight, sound, and
smell play important roles. some species of spiders employ a mechanical means of attracting the opposite
sex; male spiders approach the web of a female sitting at the centre of the web and pluck a thread of the
wed at a species-specific frequency. The plucking „serenades‟ (a serenade or serenata (Italian) is a
piece of music sung or played in the open air, typically by a man at night under the window of his lover)
the female reduces her natural aggressive manner so enabling the male to approach and mate her.
Unfortunately, if the male „Woos‟ (to seek the affection of someone especially a woman) with the intent to marry
or begin a romantic relationship) a female of the wrong species or „plays the wrong tune‟ he is attacked and killed!
The secretion and release by organisms of small amounts of chemical substances, leading to specific physiological
or behavioral responses in other members of the same species, is used in courtship and mating and, these substances
are called pheromones and are usually highly volatile compounds of low relative molecular mass.
Courtship behavior is controlled by motivational and releasing stimuli and leads to mating which is
the culmination of courtship. During mating, behavior activities are initiated by releasing stimuli and end
by terminating stimuli associated with the release of gametes by the mates.
Examples:
1) Singing in male birds
2) Peacocks display flamboyant plumage colors and prominent tail feathers
3) Preening (sit with their bodies touching one another to show that they are not intending to harm
their partner)
4) Dancing in birds
5) Building nests in birds
SIGNIFICANCE OF COURTSHIP
1. Courtshiproutines aregenetically determined andhighly species-specific ensuring thatmating and
breeding only takes place betweenmembersofthe samespecies; thus,actas a form of reproductive
isolation preventing interbreeding and promoting speciation.
2. Courtship behavior is triggered by secondary sex characteristics, enabling distinction between
males and females and between immature and mature individuals. This ensures that time and
energy are not wasted on the fruitless courting of members of the same sex or sexually immature
individuals of the opposite sex.

3. Courtship behavior is a form of natural selection since the compatibility of mates is based on
physicalappearance,body size,natureandterritory size, and physicalstrength; allofwhichensures
that the fittest individuals reproduce and pass on their successful genes and characteristics, while
unfit individuals fail to reproduces
4. Brings the sexes together for the formation of mating pairs
5. Courtship, sounds, coloration, elaborate movements pheromones, and body and light displays,
serve to attract potential partners who may be at a distance.
6. Ensures that the male and female gonad development and reproductive behaviors (courtship,
mating, and parental care) are synchronized for successful mating and fertilization.
7. Courtship behavior also synchronizes mating and breeding with the favorable season of the year;
to ensure that parents and the young have access to sufficient food.
8. Courtship rituals reduce aggression and conflict between males and females to allow mating and
breeding.
9. Tighten the bond between mating pairs for successful mating brooding and gestation, parturition,
and parental care and protection of mates and offspring.
10. Stimulates organisms to sexual activity to promote fertilization and reproduction and ensure
increased population size.
The evolutionary significance of territorial behavior in animals
(i) This involves rituals and actions performed by individuals ending in mating.
(ii) It reinforces altruism which is a basis of kin selection
(iii) Spacing out the mating pairs so that resources are partitioned for them.
(iv) Enhances bond pairing hence a basis for social behavior
(v) Synchronization of mating with the availability of gametes.
(vi) Reduction of individual aggression amongst members of a species
PHEROMONES
A pheromoneis a chemical substance (scent) secreted by one organism that stimulates a physiological or behavioral
response in another individual of usually of the same species.
Pheromones are usually highly volatile compounds of a low relative molecular mass detected by smell and taste,
acting as sign stimuli.
USE OF PHEROMONES
1. Attracting members of the opposite sex for courtship and mating
2. Used to signal sexual readiness and receptiveness to members of the opposite sex, such as females
signaling to males that they are in estrus and conceive.
3. In species that live in herds or flocks, pheromones may be used by a male to induce sexual readiness
in a mate with whom he leaves all the time for example odorous substances in the urine of male rats
and sheep initiate oestrus in the female.

4. In pigs, boars, urine, sweat, and breath contain pheromones that cause the sow to adopt a mating
posture (remaining still, ears erect, back straight), if her estrus cycle is at its peak; thus, pheromones
initiate sexual intercourse and mating.
5. Can be used to communicate food source by leaving scent trails as by worker ants on food-seeking
expeditions
6. The absence of the queens’ pheromones, when the queens die or leave the hive, stimulates workers to
hastily build a chamber in which a new queen can develop.
7. Commercially used in the preparation of perfumes, for examples civetone from civet cats and musione
from musk deers
8. Artificially used to lure pest to traps where they are killed during biological pest control e.g gyplure
attract male gypsy moths to traps where they are captured and killed.
9. In antibiosis, pheromones can be used by animals to repel potential enemies, such as during territorial
behavior.
10.The queen bee uses pheromones to cause infertility in worker bees by preventing the maturation of
their ovaries.
11. The queen bee uses pheromones to prevent workers from building more queen cells/chambers.
12.Pheromones applied on scent posts create scent trails that mark, demarcate and defend territories.
13.Alarm pheromones usually produced by injured organisms alert other members to the presence and
locationofdangerousobjects andorganismsandrepel offother membersofthespecies from imminent
danger.
14.Pheromones produced by dead ants stimulate living ants to remove the dead out of the colony.
15.Pheromones can be used to direct organisms during the migration or long-distance travel as
navigational stimuli.
b) PARENTAL CARE
Refers to all activities the parental organism does to ensure the survival and development of the young.
The activities are developed in higher animals like birds and mammals.
In birds, it involves activities like feeding, warming, protection, watering, nesting.
Inmammals,itevengoes furtherto training the young onhow torecognizepredators how tofind food and
how to detect danger, etc.
In humans, the young are trained to speak in addition to other customs worth adopting. The care of the
young is usually stimulated by the young themselves since they look very fragile and lovely.
IMPORTANCE OF PARENTAL CARE
 It increases chances of survival for the young thereby having an evolutionary advantage
 It strengthens the bond between parents and the young ones.
 It enables learning to take place.

N.B primitive organisms produce more young ones and often less parental care.
4. AGGRESSION (AGONISTIC BEHAVIOUR)
Aggression is a group of behavioral activities including threat postures, rituals, and
occasionally physical attacks on other organisms, other than those associated with
predation.
They are usually directed towards members of the same sex and species and have various functions.
The term “aggression” is emotive and suggests the existence of unnecessary violence within animal
groups; the alternative term “agonistic” is preferable.
Agonistic behavior has the adaptive significance of reducing intraspecific conflict and avoiding over-
fighting which is not in the best interest of the species.
Most species channel their “aggression” in ritual contests of strength and threat postures which are
universally recognized in the members of the species. E.g horned animals such as deer, moose, ibex, and
chamois may resort to butting contests for which “ground rules” exist. Only the horns are allowed to
clash and they are not used on the exposed and vulnerable flank. Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens,
resort to threat postures involving increasing their apparent size (B.S page 618fig 17.65).
The threats issued by two organisms in an agonistic conflict situation are settled invariably by on the
organisms, generally, the weaker, backing down and withdrawing from the situation by exhibiting a
posture of submission or appeasement. In dogs and wolves, an appeasement posture may take the form
of the animal lying down on its back or baring (exposing) its threat to the victor (winner).
During actual physical contact, animals often refrain from using their most effective weapons on another
member of the same species. For E.g giraffes will fight each other using the short horns on their heads,
but in defense against other animals, they use their very powerful feet.
Significance of agonistic behavior
(1) Used to displace other animals from an area usually territory or source of food.
(2) Used to defend a mate or offspring from enemies e.g. competitors and predators.
(3) Used for the establishment of social rank in a dominant hierarchy
(4) Reduces intraspecific competition through the establishment of social hierarchy.
(5) Avoids actual fights hence increasing the chances of survival.
(6) Used to obtain and defend territories.
(7) Agonistic behavior is a form of natural selection ensuring that only those that are strong and the fittest
males are more likely to survive, breed, and pass on their favorable traits.

(8) A form of natural selection ensures that exceptionally physically aggressive males that engage in actual
fights suffer harm and are selected against; compared to moderately agonistic males which solve the
conflict by threat displays and ritualized fights.
(9) Reducesinjury during intraspecific fightsas organismsrefrainfrom using theirmosteffectiveweapons
on members of the same species and limiting physical contact to well-protected vulnerable parts e.g
horned animals engage in horn butting contests with only hones allowed to clash and not used on
exposed parts e.g the flank.
The evolutionary significance of agonistic behavior
(i) Members of a species can protect territories
(ii) Resolution of intraspecific conflicts.
(iii) Keeping off predators and competitors
(iv) Establishment of a higher rank in a pecking order
(v) Basis of selection of mates for courtship and mating
(vi) Elimination of the unfit individuals from the population.
5. SOCIAL HIERARCHIES
Many species of insects and most vertebrates show a variety of group behavioral activities associated with
numbers of individuals living together temporarily or permanently. This is known as social behavior
and the coherence and cooperation achieved has the adaptive significance of increasing the efficiency
and effectiveness of the species over that of other species.
Ina social groupof this kind, a system of communicationisessential, andthe efficiency ofthe organization
is further increased by individuals carrying out particular roles within society.
Oneaspectof socialbehaviorarising outofthese points is theexistence of social hierarchies or pecking
orders
Pecking order is a dominant hierarchy. That is to say, those animals within the group are arranged
according to status. E.g in a group of hens sharing a hen-house a linear order is found in which hen A will
peck any other hen in the group, hen B will peck any other hens other than A, and so on. Position in the
hierarchy is usually decided by some agonistic form of behavior other than fighting. Similar patterns of
dominance have been observed in other species of birds and mice, rats, cows, and baboons. The
institutional organization of all human societies is based on a pattern of dominance hierarchy.
Pecking orders exist only where animals can recognize each other as individuals and possess some ability
to learn. The positive of an animal within a pecking order usually depends on size, strength, fitness, and
aggression and, within birds hierarchies, remain fairly stable during the lifetime of the individuals. Lower
order male members can be raised the hierarchy by injection of testosterone which increases their levels
of aggressiveness. The experimental removal of lower-order mice from a hierarchy and subsequent

provision ofunlimitedfood for them increasestheirmass,improvestheir vigor,andcanraisetheir position
in the hierarchy when reintroduced to the group.
Similarly placing lower-order mice into other groups where they are dominant appears to give them a
degree of “self-confidence” which stays with them whenreintroduced to their original groups and results
in their ranking increasing.
Characteristic of a dominance hierarchy
1. The highest-ranking individuals are dominant over lower-ranking individuals.
2. The highest-ranked organism in a dominance hierarchy is called the alpha organism.
3. The order is linear as there are no members of equal rank
4. Each member of the social group has a social rank.
5. Social ranks are established by a form of agonistic behavior
6. Once established, a dominance hierarchy is comparatively stable.
7. In a dominance hierarchy, the rank is maintained by some form of aggression through threat
postures and highly ritualized fights.
NB: Dominancehierarchiesareonly established in organismsthatcanrecognizeeach otheras individuals
and possess the ability to learn.
Social ranks depend on size, strength, fitness, aggression, and in some organisms by birth
Increased levels of testosterone which increases levels of aggressiveness can raise an organism's rank in
the hierarchy.
ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL HIERARCHIES OR PECKING ORDERS
1. Social rank determines the right to valuable resources e.g food and mates
2. Decreases the amount of individual aggression associated with feeding, mate selection, and
breeding site selection.
3. Avoids injury tothe strongeranimalswhich mightoccurifactualfightingwasnecessary toestablish
the hierarchy.
4. Ensures that resources are shared out such that it’s the fittest and strongest individuals with the
best chance to survive and pass on their successful genes; thus increasing genetic vigor, causing
natural selection, evolution, and speciation.
Evolutionary significance of social hierarchies
1) Division of labor, improving species efficiency
2) Reduction of individual aggression among members of a species.
3) Sharing out resources such that the fittest survive
6. ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR/ ALTRUISM
Altruism is a form of social behavior whereby an organism puts itself at risk or potential disadvantage for
the good of other members of the same species. Altruism is a kin-selected behavior as it is based on how
closely related organisms are to each other.
Examples

(1) Parental care for the young
(2)Worker bees spend their lives looking after their brothers and sisters
(3)Mutual grooming and food sharing in apes
(4)In humans, deliberate acts of self-sacrifice for family, God, and country
(5)Work bees that sting enemies of a hive have their guts ripped out
Evolutionary significance of altruistic behavior.
(i) The adaptive significance of altruism is to increase the frequency of alleles, common to both the
donor and recipient of the altruistic behavior.
(ii) Confers a genetic advantage to kin by promoting survival and reproduction within the species.
(iii) Enables selection for alleles responsible for altruistic behavior to be perpetuated within the
benefiting group
Note
Groupselectionis behaviorthatfavorsthesurvivalofthespecies ofa subdivision ofa species atthe expense
of the individual.
Example: soldiers dying for their country
Kin selection is behavior that favors the survival of one`s relatives (kin) at the expense of the individual
e.g work bees looking after their brothers and sisters.
Explanation of the significance of altruism by honey bee workers
Observation; sterile female workers do not produce offspring but spend their lives looking after their
brothers and sisters.
Explanation; the chromosome composition of the queen, drones, and the workers shows that sisters
(the queen and workers) are more closely related to each otherthan humans are to their offsprings (sons
and daughters). This is because the fertile queen is diploid, the sterile workers are diploid and the male
drone is haploid. Hence by helping their sister (the queen) to reproduce, workers are aiding in the
production of queens, workers, and drones with a genetic composition closer to their own than if they
had offsprings of their own. Thus, altruistic behavior confers a genetic advantage on closely related
organisms.
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
Refers to activities of organisms that occur at regular time intervals controlled by either
internal clock (biological clock) or pacemaker (endogenousrhythms) orcontrolledby external
factors (exogenous rhythms)
However, most biological rhythms or biorhythms are a blend of endogenous and exogenous rhythms.
A well-knownexample of these biological rhythms includes; courtship displays and nesting behavior of
birds and migration of certain bird species. The time interval between activities can vary from minutes to
years depending on the nature of the activity and the species.
In many cases, the major external factor regulating the rhythmic activity is photoperiod, the relative
lengths of day and night. This is the only factor that can provide a reliable indicator of the time of year and
is used to “set the clock”

The exact nature of the clock is unknown but the clockwork mechanism is undoubtedly physiological and
may involve both the nervous and endocrine systems.
Photoperiod is important in activities such as preparation for hibernation in mammals, migration in birds,
and diapause in insects.
Diapauses. Dynamic process in insects that involves a suspension of development and can occur at the
embryonic, larval, pupal, or adult stage. It is facultative because it occurs only when induced by
environmental conditions.
Lunar rhythms, too, can influence the activity of certain species, such as the palolo worm of Samoa. This
polychaete worm swarms and mates through the whole south pacific on one day of the year, the first day
of the last lunar quarter of the year, on average the 2nd of November. The influence of lunar rhythms on
fidate variationsis in changing thefeeding behaviorofthelarvaeofClunio(Cluniomaritimus) whichfeeds
on the red algae growing at the extreme lower tidal limit.
N.B the major regulatory external factors include
 Photoperiods
 Luner rhythmical variations.
 An alternating pattern of rising and falling sea levels concerning land
SIGNIFICANCE OF BIORHYTHMS
(1) They are the basis of orientation e.g during migration, the sun and stars are used as the campus
to a great extent and they can enhance the survival of the organism.
(2)They help in food location, e.g animals such as honey bees, ants, and sandhoppers use the sun
as a compass in locating and their homes.
NB; the regularly occurring biological rhythm, showing periodicity of about 24hours is known as
Circadian rhythms or diurnal rhythms. (circa about dies day)
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
When animals come together to form a cohesive social group individuals often assume specialized roles,
which increases the overall efficiency of the group. These roles include members specialized or designated
for food-finding, reproduction, rearing, and defense. Cooperation between members of a society sharing
division of labor depends upon stereotyped patterns of behavior and methods of communication. These
patterns of behavior and methods of communication vary between species and are vastly different for
primate and insect societies. Primate societies are flexible, in that roles are interchangeable between
members of the group, whereas in insect societies differences in body structure and the reproductive
potential affect their role within the society, a feature called polymorphism.
In the social organization of bees, information within the colony is transmitted either by chemical odors
and pheromones during the many licking and grooming activities called trophallaxes, or by particular
forms of visual orientation displays known as dances.
Karl VonFrisch, a GermanZoologistandNobelprize winner,investigatedthenatureof these dances using
marked worker bees „forage‟ for sources of nectar and hives.

Worker bees „forage‟ for sources of nectar and communicate the distance and direction of the source to
other workers by the nature of a dance generally
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS IN INSECT SOCIETIES
Trueinsect societies are foundin twoorders; isopteran- termites andHymenoptera- bees,wasps,andants.
Characteristics of social organization in insects
(i) Co-operative care for their young
(ii) Overlapping of generations
(iii) Division of labor by caste system
(iv) Communication among members of the society
(v) All members in the colony are closely related
(vi) Members are divided into different groups called castes, each with a specific task. This is a caste
system.
Factors that determine an individual caste
(i) The sex of the individual
(ii) The chromosome number of the individual, whether the individual is haploid or diploid
(iii) The type of food the individual feeds on
(iv) The temperature of the nest or hive
(v) The pheromones produced by the queen
(vi) The age of the individual
(vii)The needs of the colony or the queen.
THE CASTE SYSTEM OF HONEY BEES
1) Unfertilized eggs are haploid and develop into males called drones.
2) Fertilized eggs are diploid and develop into females
3) Female larvae fed on royal jelly becomes a queen which is fertile
4) Female larvae fed on honey and nectar and pollen become sterile workers.
5) In the honey bee colony, there is one fertile female queen, several thousand sterile female workers,
and a few hundred fertile male drones
COMMUNICATION IN HONEY BEES
Activities of workers are controlled by communications between the individual worker bees and with the
queen. The queen communicates with workers using pheromones. Workers communicate tactically (by
touch), and chemicals using odors and pheromones transmitted during the many licking and grooming
activities called trophallaxis and by particular forms of visual orientation displays and dances
HONEYBEE DANCE LANGUAGE

1. Honey bee dancing is performed by a worker bee that has returned to the honeycomb with pollen or
nectar, informing other workers about both the distance and direction where the food is.
2. Round dance: Communicatesonly distancefrom thefoodsource(less than50 metersfrom thehive).
It involves running around in narrow circles, suddenly reversing direction to her original course. The
foraging worker bee moves around a tight circle while changing the path to the left and the right. The
round dance indicates a food source close to the hive but does not indicate the direction of the food
source. The rest of the workers interpret the dance and respond by flying away in different directions
in search of the food
3. Sickle dance: Communicates only distance from the food source (between 50 and 150 meters from
the hive). This dance is crescent-shaped and represents a transitional dance between the round dance
and waggle dance.
4. Waggle dance (wag-tail dance): Communicates both distance and direction. Is performed by bees
foraging at food sources that are more than 150 meters from the hive.
5. The waggle dance involves the worker bee walking in a figure of eight while waggling her
abdomen/vibrating the abdomen side-by-side.
6. During the waggle dance, the foraging worker initially regurgitates the nectar gives a buzzing noise as
it waggles its abdomen from side to side and completes the figure of eight with a straight run in the
middle of the figure called a waggle run.
ROUND DANCE
This is a dance performed by worker bees if the distance of food is less than about 90m from the hives and
the dance does not indicate direction.
THE WAGGLE DANCE
The waggle dance is performed if the source is greater than 90m, and includes information about the
distance of the source from the hive and its direction relative to the hive and the position of the sun.

The dance involves the worker bee walking in a figure-of-eight and waggling her abdomen during which,
the speed of the dance is inversely related to the distance of the food from the hive fast dance for near food
and slow dance for- for food the angle made between the two loops of the figure of eight and the vertical
equals the angle subtended at the hive by the sun, and the food source and the intensity of the waggles are
related to the amount of food at the source.
How waggle dance is performed
 A bee that performs a waggle dance runs straight ahead for a short distance, returns in a semicircle to
the starting point, runs again through the straight course, then makes a semicircle in the opposite
direction to complete a full figure-eight circuit.
 While running the straight-line course of the dance, the bee’s body, especially the abdomen, wags
vigorously from side to side.
 The duration of the waggle phase is proportional to the distance from the food source (1 second = 1
Km). The orientation of the dancing bee during the straight portion of her waggle dance indicates the
location of the food source relative to the sun.
 The angle that the bee adopts, relative to vertical, represents the angle to the flowers relative to the
direction of the sun outside the hive.
 Information from a waggle dance
 Performed to communicate a food source more than 90m away from the hive.
 The interval between the dances/ duration of the dance, the number of waggles, the sounds produced,
and the length of the waggle run all communicate the distance of the food source. E.g speed of the
dance is inversely proportional to the distance from the food source, therefore the more rapidly a bee
performs, the shorter the distance from the food source.
 The angle between one waggle run and straight run between two loops of the figure of eight and the
vertical equals to the angle subtended at the hive by the sun and food source. This indicates the
direction of the food source.

 If the run is up the hive, the food is towards the sun; if the runis down the hive, the food source is away
from the sun.
 The bees compensate for the movement of the sun using an innate biological clock and the bees orient
on a cloudy day by substituting polarized light from the sun for the position of the sun.
 The intensity of the waggles is related to the amount of food at the source.
 The scent of the flowers on the body and fur of the forager and the smell of the nectar regurgitated by
the forager is an indicator of the nature of the nectar the food source.
 Fellow workers learn the dance by touching and following the dancer using all tactile, sound, and
chemical signals.
SICKLE DANCE
Advantages of social behavior
1) Better protection againstpredators, such asby improved detection of the presence of predators and
improved escape mechanisms.
2) Better use of and defense of limited resources.
3) Increased feeding efficiency e.g a pride has a higher chance of catching prey compared to a solitary
lion
4) Increased reproductive efficiency e,g when worker bees assist the queen in raising other bees in the
hive.
5) Increased survival of offsprings through communal feeding and protection of the young.
6) Saving ofenergy by endothermicanimalsasa resultofbeing close together,such asduring hurdling
in arctic penguins.
7) Saving energy by moving fish and birds which can take advantage of vortices (whirling movements
of the water or air).
8) Increased adaptive significance of efficiencies and effectiveness of a species over other species.
9) Specialization by individuals increases the species survival and individual efficiency.
Disadvantages of social behavior
(i) Increased intraspecific competition for water, food, space, mates, and other resources.
(ii) Increased susceptibility to diseases and spread of parasites within individuals.
(iii) Increased spread of epidemics since members are very close.
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
Learning
Learning is an adaptive change in individual behavior asa result of previous experience.

The degree of permanence of newly acquired learned behavior patterns depends upon memory storing the
information gained from the experience.
Memory.
Is the ability to store and recall the effects of experience.
Without memory, learning is not possible.
In humans, acquiring or learning “facts) for example for examinations may be short-lived whereas the
ability to carry out coordinated motor activities such as toilet training, riding a bicycle, or swimming, lasts
throughout life.
Learning is generally thought of in terms of vertebrates and mammals in particular but has been
demonstrated in all groups of animals except protozoans, cnidarians, and echinoderms where the neural
organization is absent or poorly developed.
The major types of learned behaviors include;
1) Insight learning
2) Latent learning (Exploratory learning)
3) Associative learning
 Classical conditioning (conditioned reflex)
 Operant conditioning (trial and error learning)
4) Imprinting
5) Habituation
Advantages of learned behavior
1. Flexible
2. Benefits animals with longer life spans and so there is time to learn
3. Benefits animals with an element of parental care of the young; which involves learning from the
parent
4. Benefits animals that live with other members of the species for at least a time e.g. in herds & packs
Note: The responses of learned behavior are adapted to the environment
TYPES OF LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
1. HABITUATION
Isa form of learning where the organism getsaccustomed to repeated stimuli that are not
associated with reward
Continuous repetition of a stimulus not associated with reward or punishment (reinforcement)
extinguished any response to the stimulus.
Habituation is the learning process in which an animal when exposed to a stimulus repeatedly for some
time, its response diminishes until it disappears.
Habituation is therefore the loss of response but not as a result of fatigue or synaptic accommodation
because its response is long-lasting. Habituation is the simplest form of learning.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HABITUATION
1) Prevents overworking of receptors.
2) Ensures the response is done when it is most appropriate thus saving time and energy

3) Saves organisms from responding to trivial stimuli.
4) Enhances chances of survival
5) It is important in the development of behavior in young animals in helping to understand neutral
elements in the environment such as movement due to wind, cloud shadows, wave action, etc.
Explain the significance of habituation (UNED 2017 P2)
It helps to avoid wasting of energy; that should be used in feeding; reproduction/mating; the advantage of habituation is that
while the first stimuli may signify danger and so must be responded to as a precaution; repeated stimulus that carries no
consequence is safe to ignore; 05mks
2. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Is the type of learning where a stimulus is associated with another which would not necessarily evoke a
response. Examples include;
 Classical conditioning (conditional reflex)
 Operant conditioning (trial and error learning)
a) Classical conditioning (conditioned reflex)
This is the type of learning where animals learn to associate unconditioned stimuli with conditional
stimuli so either produces a response. E.g based on the research of Pavlov on dogs,
It involves the development of a conditioned salivary reflex in which animals learn to produce a
conditioned response (salivation), not only to the natural unconditioned stimulus (the sight of food) but
also to a newly acquired conditioned stimulus (ticking of a metronome or ringing of a bell) which was
presented to the dog along with the unconditioned stimulus.
Birds avoid eating black and orange cinnabar moth larvae because of bad taste and avoid all similarly
colored larvae even though they may be nutritious.
Honey bees also learn to associate floral colors and fragrances with the presence of nectar.
Pavlov on the control of salivation in dogs
He noted that when presented with the sight and smell of food, the dogs began to salivate in preparation
for eating.
Pavlov began to ring a bell each time the dog was shown their food.
After a while he found dogs salivated when the bell was rung, regardless of whether the food was present.
Characteristics
1) It is in association with a stimulus
2) Enhanced by a stimulus
3) It decays with time after removal of stimulus
4) Removal of the cerebral cortex affects the response
5) Response/learning enhanced by reputation.
b) Operant conditioning (trial and error learning)
Based on the research of Skinner on pigeons.

Refers to the use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to change behavior or to control
the occurrence of certain behavior. E.g reinforcement or punishment or;
A form of adaptive learning in which an animal learns to carry out a particular action to receive a
reward or avoid an unpleasant experience.
In this type of learning, trial motor activities give rise to responses that are reinforced either by rewarding
(positive) or punishment (negative).
The association of the outcome of a response in terms of reward or punishment increases or decreases
respectively future responses.
Characteristics
(i) Associated with stimulus
(ii) Involuntary
(iii) Response improves with stimulus
(iv) Removal of the cerebral cortex does not affect response
Examples of operant conditioning include;
1. In the Skinners box, rats learned to press a lever to obtain food.
2. Cockroaches learning to run through a simple maze to find food.
3. A bird may associate turning over the leaves of a plant with finding insects.
4. A young child can be conditioned to display good manners by use of relevant rewards or
punishments
5. Skinner’s work on pigeons/rats
6. Trained rats and pigeons to press a lever to obtain food.
7. Certain motor-output responses generated e.g. running around, resting, pressing leaver.
8. After training the subject will show the conditioned response (e.g. pressing the leaver) if the
response unconditioned stimulus (a food reward) association has been memorized.
Note that;
The ability of the animal to learn is reflected by the following:
(i) The speed at which the animal stops mistakes/ errors
(ii) The length of time the animal can remember without repeated trials
(iii) The complexity of the situation to which the animal can respond
UNEB 2017 P2
What is the significance of associative learning to animals? (05 marks)
Approach
Associative learning; Animals associate experience with reward/punishment; organisms/predators
learn quickly to associate certain kinds of prey with unpleasant taste/smell; consequently, they are
conditioned to avoid them; this is essential for the survival of the predator as the prey may be poisonous;
05mks
3. IMPRINTING
This is the type of learning where young animals become associated with and identifies or identify
themselves or themselves with, another organism, usually a parent or some large object.

Because imprinting is a simple and specialized form of learning that occurs during receptive periods in
an animal‟s life, the learned behavior becomes relatively fixed and resistant to change.
Lorenzo found that goslings and ducklings deprived of their parents would follow him and use him as a
substitute parent.
“Pet lambs”, bottle-fed, show similar behavior and this may have a profound and not always desirable
effect later in life when an animal finds difficulty in forming normal relationships with others of the
species
Example:
(1) Goslings, ducklings, and chicks become attached to the organism they interact with during the
sensitive period. ( Konrad`-Lorenzo experiments)
(2)Newly hatched salmon fish learn the complex odor mixture associated with rivers and streams
where are hatched. This enables them to swim and find their home after a migratory swim to the
sea and back.
(3)In adult animals, a mother goat is sensitive to the smell of its kid after birth (about one hour). If
separated from its kid for the first one hour, it will deny it to suckle.
SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPRINTING
1) It enables offspring to acquire skills possessed by the parents, e.g learning to fly in birds, and
features of the environment e.g the “smell” of the stream in which migratory salmon were hatched
and to which they return to spawn these skills can be used for future benefit.
2) It improves the chances of survival of the organism(s) which become(s) imprinted to the parent.
3) Later in life, imprinting influences the behavior of the organism e.g in humans since children are
known to be imprinted to their parents.
4) It determines the future behavioral pattern of the young ones.
5) It creates a strong bond between the offsprings and parents hence protection and parental care.
4. LATENT LEARNING(EXPLORATORY LEARNING)
Is the type of learning where an organism stores information as it explores the environment and uses
the information stored later in life.
Example:
 Mice explore the environment and in so doing, it locates particular holes which act as channels to
escape later in life when faced with predator threat.
 Rabbits/rats/mice explore their burrows, which may save them in case of an emergency.
 A sand wasp remembers the pattern of surrounding landmarks to help her find the nest when she
returns.
 Worker ants can remember a series of landmarks along a trail and follow them (in reverse order)
back home to the nest site.
 A hen uses previous experience to regroup eggs in the nest using wings
Significance of latent learning
Enables organisms to become familiar with the environment/territory for a quick escape from
predators/danger/threat

A graph showing results from an experiment on latent
learning in rats
Describe the changes in the number
of errors over time
Explain the changes in (a) above.
Of what significance is this form of
learning to the organism that
exhibits it?
5. INSIGHT LEARNING.
Probably the “highest” form of learning.
Is a form of learning where the organism immediately understands the challenge at hand and solves it
effectively without any trials.
It is the highest and most difficult form of learning to interpret. To a very small extent, responses from
this type of learning depend on previously learned materials. However, the responses bare immediately
and entirely new. It involves putting familiar things together in new ways e.g in reasoning and it requires
high intelligence which is the ability to carry abstract thinking. E.g Kohler‟s work on chimpanzees
suggested “insight learning” when presented with wooden boxes and bananas too high to reach, the
chimps stacked up the boxes beneath the bananas and climbed up to get them; A child uses stones to hit
at mango fruits which are high on the tree.
N.B Note the following types of learning

Rote learning (memorization); learning through repetitive attempts but without understanding.
Motor learning; i.e hands-on experience i.e learning through practice or by experience.
Imitation learning; or observation learning i.e learning by copying or modeling behavior.
Trial and error learning; learning through various attempts due to encouragement.
Programmed learning; learning through self-instruction in small steps and motivated by feedback.
DISPLACEMENT ACTIVITY
Displacementactivity occursattimesofstress orfrustration; such asduring conflictsituationsor courtship
and mating and an organism performs a trivial action, out of context, and irrelevant to the situation.
Causes of displacement activity
INNATE BEHAVIOUR LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
Inborn and not acquired during an organism`s
lifetime
Not inborn and acquired throughout a lifetime
Genetically determined Not genetically determined.
Similar among the members of the same species;
the only difference may occur between males and
females (hence species-specific)
Varies considerably among members of the same
species (hence individualistic)
Unintelligent and organisms show no
appreciation of the purpose of the behavior.
Intelligent and the animal appreciates the
purpose of the behavior
Often comprises a chain of reflexes in which
completion of one acts as a trigger for the
commencement of the next
No fixed sequence of actions and the completion
of oneactionmay notnecessarily affecttheaction
to follow.
Behavior is permanent apart from minor
modifications
Behavior is usually short-lived and temporary
and can only become more or less permanent
with reinforcement.
Cannot be modified to meet changing
circumstances
Canbemodified to meetchanging circumstances.
Developed over many generations by natural
selection based on survival value to the species
Developed over the lifetime based on the
experiences of the organisms
Predominant in the lives of animals with short
life spans like invertebrates, where short life
cycles prevent modifications of behavior.
Predominant in lives of animals with long
lifespan such as vertebrates where long lifespans
allow modifications by trail-and-error
Least controlled by high centers of the brain Controlled by high centers of the brain
The response is very rapid The response is relatively slow

`Occurs when motivation is high; but two conflicting/opposing forces or releasers present themselves,
such as fighting and escape.
Examples
 Birds may peck at grass when uncertain whether to attack or flee from an opponent.
 A human may scratch his or her head when they do not know which of two options to choose.
 A bird may pick up nesting material from the ground and throw it away on being disturbed from
the nest.
 Sticklebacks suddenly dig in the vertical position during a boundary clash.
Significance of displacement activity
Displacement activity helps to relieve stress by providing an outlet for pent-up activities; as a result of
frustration caused by the presence of two conflicting releasers in a conflict situation.
VACUUM ACTIVITY
Vacuum activity occurs when a frustrated or stressed animal in a conflict situation, produces a normal
response; but is not directed towards the normal object or situation.
Is Animal behavior pattern performed without apparent need or stimuli
Causes of vacuum activity
It happens when motivation is high but nor releaser presents itself.
Examples
 Showing irritation towards someone who is not the cause of the irritation, but acts as a substitute.
 Kicking a cat after a quarrel with your parent
 Even if there are no insects, a bird snaps at imaginary insects in the air, no reason to do so but just
exercising instinctive action pattern.
 Domestic squirrels raised in a metal cage will go through the entire sequence of nut-burying
activities as if they were in the bush.
Significance of vacuum activity
Reduces frustration and stress in a conflict situation where no releaser presents itself
PLANT BEHAVIOR
Instinctive/innate behaviors of a plant depend mainly on growth or movement in a given direction due to
changes in their environment e.g. light, gravity, water, air, touch, etc.
Examples of instinctive/innate behavior in plants
Tropisms: Growth movement towards (positive) or away (negative) from the stimulus e.g. phototropism,
geotropism, hydrotropism, etc.
Nastism: Non-directional response to stimulus e.g. when touched, folding of Mimosa pudica leaves
(Thigmonasty).
Examples

(i) Photonasty: response to light (ii) Nyctinasty: movements at night or in the dark (iii) Chemonasty:
response to chemicals or nutrients (iv) Hydronasty: response to water (v) Thermonasty: response to
temperature (vi)
Geonasty/gravinasty: response to gravity (vii) Thigmonasty/seismonasty/haptonasty: response to contact
(more information in plant coordination later)

Advanced level behavior notes 2021

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Advanced level behavior notes 2021