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06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM Chinese line of control; Indian claim I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Beijing Pyeongyang Seoul Tokyo Hanoi Delhi Kathmandu Thimphu Dhaka Tashkent Bishkek Islamabad Ulaanbaatar Urumchi� Lhasa Xining Lanzhou Chengdu Hankou Xi'an Zhengzhou Tianjin Taiyuan Jinan Shijiazhuang Harbin Changchun Shenyang ShanghaiSuzhou Nanjing Chongqing Guiyang Kunming Guangzhou Xianggang Haikou Fuzhou Hangzhou Hefei Taipei Nanchang Nanning Changsha Yinchuan Hohhot Kashi Hotan Aksu Yining Patna Miran Korla Guyuan Datong Vladivostok Dunhuang Hami Pusan Kyoto Nagoya Sendai Osaka Nagasaki Qufu Luoyang Ningbo Suizhou Dali Xiamen Tarim In du s Ch enab Cham bal G a nga M aquan Brahmaputra C hi nd wi n Sa lw ee n D adu M ekong Jialing Huai H an G an Xiang Xi Yu an X ia o F uc hu n L ia o Wei Ya ng zi Yellow Red Ya lu Tu m en Ganges Yarlung Zangbo Ir ra w ad dy Nu Lancang Y along M in Jin sh a F en Selen ge Konqi Lake Balkhash Lake Issyk-kül Lop Nur Lake Qinghai Dongting Lake Lake Tai Poyang Lake P A C I F I C O C E A N S e a o f J a p a n E a s t C h i n a S e a B a y o f B e n g a l S o u t h C h i n a S e a Y e l l o w S e a Bay of Bohai HEILONGJIANG JILIN LIAONING NEI MENGGU HEBEI BEIJING TIANJIN SHANXI SHAANXI GANSU QINGHAI XINJIANG XIZANG (TIBET) N IN G X IA SHANDONG HENAN ANHUI JIA N G SU ZHEJIANG SHANGHAI S I C H U A N HUBEI GUIZHOU HUNAN JIANGXI FUJIAN GUANGXI GUANGDONG T A IW A N HAINAN YUNNAN HONG KONG C H O N G QI NG KYUSHU SH IK O KU HOKKAIDO H O N S H U R Y U K Y U �� IS L A N D S � VIETNAM LAOS THAILAND MYANMAR INDIA BHUTAN NEPAL PAKISTAN KAZAKHSTAN M O N G O L I A KYRGYZSTAN PHILIPPINES TAJIKISTAN BANGLADESH C H I N A NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA J A P A N A L T A Y � � � M O U N T A I N S � H I M A L A Y A N � � � � M O U N T A I N S � T I A N � M O U N T A I N S � K U N L U N � � � M O U N T A I N S � P A M I R � T a r i m � B a s i n � Q I N G � Z A N G P L A T E A U Modern�Grand�Canal Great�Wall Province�boundaries�in�China North�China�Plain Area�of�major�loess�deposits I I I 0 200�Mi.100 0 200�Km.100 06512_fm_rev04.indd 1 9/19/12 10:28 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 2 9/11/12 11: ...

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06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM Chinese line of control; Indian claim I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I Beijing Pyeongyang Seoul Tokyo Hanoi Delhi Kathmandu Thimphu Dhaka Tashkent Bishkek Islamabad Ulaanbaatar Urumchi� Lhasa
Xining Lanzhou Chengdu Hankou Xi'an Zhengzhou Tianjin Taiyuan Jinan Shijiazhuang Harbin Changchun Shenyang ShanghaiSuzhou Nanjing Chongqing Guiyang Kunming Guangzhou
Xianggang Haikou Fuzhou Hangzhou Hefei Taipei Nanchang Nanning Changsha Yinchuan Hohhot Kashi Hotan Aksu Yining Patna Miran Korla
Guyuan Datong Vladivostok Dunhuang Hami Pusan Kyoto Nagoya Sendai Osaka Nagasaki Qufu Luoyang Ningbo Suizhou Dali Xiamen Tarim
In du s Ch enab Cham bal G a nga M aquan Brahmaputra C hi nd wi n Sa lw ee n D
adu M ekong Jialing Huai H an G an Xiang Xi Yu an X ia o F uc hu n
L ia o Wei Ya ng zi Yellow Red Ya lu Tu m en Ganges Yarlung Zangbo Ir ra w
ad dy Nu Lancang Y along M in Jin sh a F en Selen ge Konqi Lake Balkhash Lake Issyk-kül
Lop Nur Lake Qinghai Dongting Lake Lake Tai Poyang Lake P A C I F I C O C E A N S e a o f J a p a n E a s t C h i n a S e a B a y o f B e n g a l S o u t h
C h i n a S e a Y e l l o w S e a Bay of Bohai HEILONGJIANG JILIN LIAONING NEI MENGGU HEBEI BEIJING
TIANJIN SHANXI SHAANXI GANSU QINGHAI XINJIANG XIZANG (TIBET) N IN G X IA SHANDONG HENAN ANHUI JIA N G SU ZHEJIANG
SHANGHAI S I C H U A N HUBEI GUIZHOU HUNAN JIANGXI FUJIAN GUANGXI GUANGDONG T A IW A N HAINAN YUNNAN HONG KONG C H O N G QI
NG KYUSHU SH IK O KU HOKKAIDO H O N S H U R Y U K Y U �� IS L A
N D S � VIETNAM LAOS THAILAND MYANMAR INDIA BHUTAN NEPAL PAKISTAN KAZAKHSTAN M O N G O L I A KYRGYZSTAN PHILIPPINES TAJIKISTAN BANGLADESH C H I N A NORTH
KOREA SOUTH KOREA J A P A N A L T A Y � � � M O U N T A I N S � H I M A L A Y A N � � � � M O U
N T A I N S � T I A N � M O U N T A I N S � K U N L U N � � � M O U N T A I N S � P A M I R � T a r i m � B a s i n � Q I N G � Z A N G P L A T E A U Modern�Grand�Canal Great�Wall Province�boundaries�in�China North�China�Plain Area�of�major�loess�deposits I I I 0 200�Mi.100 0 200�Km.100 06512_fm_rev04.indd 1 9/19/12 10:28 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 2 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia 06512_fm_rev04.indd 3 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage
Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 4 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia: To 1800 A Cultural, Social, and Political History Third Edition Patricia EbrEy University of Washington—Seattle annE Walthall University of california—irvine Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 06512_fm_rev04.indd 5 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
© 2014, 2009, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2012941790 ISBN-13: 978-1-133-60651-2 ISBN-10: 1-133-60651-2 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning
solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local office at international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources. Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History To 1800, Third Edition Ebrey/Walthall Editor-in-Chief: Lynn Uhl Senior Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Acquiring Sponsoring Editor: Brooke Barbier Development Editor: Elisa Adams Assistant Editor: Jamie Bushell Editorial Assistant: Katie Coaster Brand Manager: Melissa Larmon
Marketing Development Manager: Kyle Zimmerman Senior Content Project Manager: Carol Newman Senior Art Director: Cate Rickard Barr Manufacturing Buyer: Sandee Milewski Senior Rights Acquisition Specialist: Jennifer Meyer Dare Text Designer: Theurer/Briggs Associates Cover Designer: Sarah Bishins Cover Image: Detail from Wang Xizhi Watching Geese, Qian Xuan (Chinese, ca. 1235–before 1307), Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), ca. 1295, China. Handscroll; ink, color, and gold on paper/© The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, NY Production Service/Compositor: Cenveo Publisher Services For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected]
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12 06512_fm_rev04.indd 6 9/13/12 10:34 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Maps and Figures xv Preface xvii Conventions xxi PART ONE the Foundations of East asian civilization in china 1 Chapter 1 china in the bronze age: the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) 8 Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) 20 Chapter 3 the Founding of the bureaucratic
Empire: Qin-han china (256 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) 36 Chapter 4 Political Division in china and the Spread of buddhism (200–580) 61 Chapter 5 the cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and tang china (581–960) 75 PART TwO the Emergence of East asian civilization 97 Chapter 6 Early Korea to 935 98 Chapter 7 Early State and Society in Japan (to 794) 114 Chapter 8 china among Equals: Song, liao, Xia, and Jin 129 Chapter 9 heian Japan (794–ca. 1180) 148 Chapter 10 Goryeo Korea (935–1392) 169 Chapter 11 Kamakura Japan (1180–1333) 183 Chapter 12 china Under Mongol rule (1215–1368) 198 PART THREE Meeting new challenges (1300–1800) 211 Chapter 13 Japan’s Middle ages (1330–1600) 212 Chapter 14 the Ming Empire in china
(1368–1644) 227 Chapter 15 Joseon Korea (1392–1800) 247 Chapter 16 the creation of the Manchu Empire (1600–1800) 270 Chapter 17 Edo Japan (1603–1800) 288 Index I-1 b R i E f C O N T E N T s vii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 7 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Maps and Figures xv Preface xvii Conventions xxi PART ONE the Foundations of East asian civilization in china 1 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 2 Chapter 1 china in the bronze age: the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) 8 The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent 9 The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 10 MATEriAl CulTurE: Rammed Earth 11 Writing 12 Metalworking 13 Developments Outside the Shang Core 14 The Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 b.c.e.) 15 DoCuMEnTs: The Book of Songs 16 The Mandate of Heaven 16
The Zhou Political Structure 17 Western Zhou Society and Culture 18 Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) 20 The Multistate System of the Eastern Zhou 21 BiogrAPhy: Guan Zhong 22 Warfare and Its Consequences 23 DoCuMEnTs: The King of Zhao Convinces His Uncle to Wear Barbarian Dress 25 The Hundred Schools of Thought 26 Confucius and the Analects 26 Mozi 27 Mencius 28 Xunzi 29 Daoism and the Laozi and Zhuangzi 30 Legalism 31 Yin and Yang 32 The Art of War 32 The World of Spirits 32 MATEriAl CulTurE: Lacquer 33 Warring States Literature and Art: The Case of Chu 33 Chapter 3 the Founding of the bureaucratic Empire: Qin-han china (256 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) 36 The Qin Unification (256–206 b.c.e.) 37 The First Emperor (r. 221–210 b.c.e.) 38
The First Emperor’s Tomb 39 Qin Law 41 The Xiongnu and the Great Wall 41 The Han Dynasty (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) 42 Official Support for Confucianism 44 Wang Mang 44 Palace Eunuchs 44 Intellectual, Literary, and Religious Currents 45 Han Confucianism 45 DoCuMEnTs: Lucky and Unlucky Days 46 Sima Qian and the Records of the Grand Historian 47 BiogrAPhy: The Ban Family 49 Chinese Society in Han Times 49 Common Farmers 49 Elite Groups 50 The Family 51 C O N T E N T s ix 06512_fm_rev04.indd 9 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Central Asia and the Silk Road 52 MATEriAl CulTurE: Silk from the Silk Road 53 Borderlands 53 The Case of Vietnam 54 Maintaining the Empire 54 Connections: Buddhism in India and Its Spread Along the Silk Road 56 Chapter 4 Political Division in china and the Spread of buddhism (200–580) 61 The Three Kingdoms (220–265) and the Western Jin Dynasty (265–316) 62 Non-Chinese Dominance in the North 65 The Northern Wei and Hybrid Xianbei-Chinese Culture 66 The Revolt of the Garrisons and the Division of the North 67 The Southern Dynasties 67 Aristocratic Culture 68
BiogrAPhy: Yan Zhitui (531–591+) 69 Poetry, Calligraphy, and Painting as Arts of Men of Letters 69 The Buddhist Conquest of China 70 MATEriAl CulTurE: Cave 285 at Dunhuang 71 Daoist Religion 72 DoCuMEnTs: The Monastery of Eternal Tranquility 73 Chapter 5 the cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and tang china (581–960) 75 The Northwest Military Aristocracy and the Sui Reunification of China 76 The Founding of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) 77 The Tang at Its Height 79 MATEriAl CulTurE: Tea 80 The Tang Elite 81 Empress Wu 82 Emperor Xuanzong 84 The Rebellion of An Lushan (755–763) and Its Aftermath 84 The Achievements of Tang Men of Letters 86
BiogrAPhy: Du Fu (712–777), Confucian Poet 87 DoCuMEnTs: Poking Fun 88 The Dunhuang Documents 90 The Tang Dynasty’s Final Decades and the Five Dynasties 91 Connections: Cultural Contact Across Eurasia (600–900) 93 PART TwO the Emergence of East asian civilization 97 Chapter 6 Early Korea to 935 98 Geographical Setting 98 The Early Historical Period (200 b.c.e.–313 c.e.) 100 The North: Joseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, and the Chinese Commanderies 100 The South: The Three Han (Samhan [SAM-han]) 101 DoCuMEnTs: The Widow of King Gogukcheon 102 The Three Kingdoms: Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla (313–668) 103
Unification by Silla (581–668) 105 Unified Silla (668–892) 106 Society and Culture 107 BiogrAPhy: Gangsu, the Scribe 109 MATEriAl CulTurE: Seokguram Grotto 110 Balhae (698–926) 110 x Contents 06512_fm_rev04.indd 10 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents xi Gender Roles and Family Life 141 BiogrAPhy: The Cai Family of Geomancers 142 DoCuMEnTs: Tales of Retribution 144
Religion in Song Life 144 MATEriAl CulTurE: Huang Sheng’s Clothing 146 Chapter 9 heian Japan (794–ca. 1180) 148 The Age of Kingly Rule (ca. 794–900) 148 Taira no Masakado’s Rebellion 149 Early Heian Culture 150 Transformations in Religious Practice 150 BiogrAPhy: Sugawara no Michizane 152 The Fujiwara Era (900–1050) 152 Marriage and Politics 153 The Heyday of Aristocratic Culture 154 MATEriAl CulTurE: Writing Japanese 155 DoCuMEnTs: Sanbōe (The Three Jewels) 156 Buddhism and the Fujiwara 157 Rule by Retired Monarchs (1086–1180) 158 The Estate System 160 Connections: The Mongols 162 Chapter 10 Goryeo Korea (935–1392) 169 Early Goryeo Government (935–1170) 169 The Changing International Context (943–1146) 171
Society and Culture in the Goryeo Period 172 MATEriAl CulTurE: Celadon 173 Family and Kinship 173 DoCuMEnTs: Popular Songs 174 Buddhism and Confucianism 174 History-Writing 176 Making Comparisons: Languages and Writing Systems 113 Chapter 7 Early State and Society in Japan (to 794) 114 The Geography of the Japanese Archipelago 115 Early Kingship in Late Yayoi (ca. 100–350) 115 The Korea Connection 117 Ancient Religion 117 The Formation of a Centered Polity (350–794) 118 The China Connection 118 MATEriAl CulTurE: Haniwa 119 Fixing the Capital at Nara 120 The Conquest of Emishi and Hayato 122 The Introduction of Buddhism 122 DoCuMEnTs: Poems from Man’yō shū and Nihon shoki 124 Elite Culture 125 A Stagnant Agricultural Base 126
Chapter 8 china among Equals: Song, liao, Xia, and Jin 129 The Founding of the Song Dynasty 130 Song’s Rivals: Liao and Xia 130 A New Era 132 The Medieval Chinese Economic Revolution 132 International Trade 133 The Song Scholar-Official Class 134 Reformers and Anti-Reformers 136 The Fall of the Northern Song and the Establishment of the Jin Dynasty 138 Hangzhou and the Southern Song (1127–1276) 139 Song Culture and Society 140 The Revival of Confucianism and the Learning of the Way 140 06512_fm_rev04.indd 11 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any
time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Military Rule and the Mongol Invasions (1170–1259) 176 Choe Family Dominance 177 The Mongols 177 Goryeo Under Mongol Domination (1260–1351) 178 BiogrAPhy: Lady Ki, Consort of the Mongol Emperor 180 Making Comparisons: Monarchical Institutions 182 Chapter 11 Kamakura Japan (1180–1333) 183 Rise of the Warrior 183 Prelude to Kamakura Rule (1156–1185) 186 Military Government at Kamakura (1180–1333) 186 Family Politics 187 Kamakura Shogunate 188 Toward Intensive Agriculture and Economic Growth 189 DoCuMEnTs: The Estate Stewards in Legal Documents 190
Buddhism 192 Literature and Popular Arts 193 The Mongol Invasions (1271–1281) 194 MATEriAl CulTurE: Portrait Sculpture 195 BiogrAPhy: Nichiren 195 Fall of the Kamakura Regime (1293–1333) 196 Chapter 12 china Under Mongol rule (1215–1368) 198 The Mongol Conquest of the Jin and Xia Dynasties 198 The Mongol Conquest of the Southern Song 200 Khubilai 200 Crossing the Yangzi River 201 DoCuMEnTs: The Luoluo 202 Life in China Under the Mongols 202 BiogrAPhy: Hao Jing, Imprisoned Envoy 204 MATEriAl CulTurE: Blue-and-White Porcelain 205 The Chinese Educated Elite During the Mongol Era 206 Drama 208 Making Comparisons: Food Cultures 210
PART THREE Meeting new challenges (1300–1800) 211 Chapter 13 Japan’s Middle ages (1330–1600) 212 New Political Alignments (1338–1573) 212 How the Ashikaga Shoguns Governed Japan 213 Changes in Roles for Women 214 Trade in Town and Country 214 BiogrAPhy: Hino Meishi 215 Life on the Margins 217 Changes in Religious Practice 217 Muromachi Culture 218 MATEriAl CulTurE: The Matchlock 219 Civil War (1467–1600) 219 DoCuMEnTs: The Journal of Sō chō 220 Local Leagues 221 Rise of Warlords 223 The Conquerors 223 Chapter 14 the Ming Empire in china (1368–1644) 227 The Founding of the Ming Dynasty 228 Ming Taizu, the Hongwu Emperor 228 Chengzu, the Yongle Emperor 229 Weaknesses of the Imperial Institution 230 xii Contents
06512_fm_rev04.indd 12 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 16 the creation of the Manchu Empire (1600–1800) 270 The Manchus 271 Ming Loyalism 272 The Qing at Its Height 273 Kangxi 274 BiogrAPhy: Jiang Chun, Salt Merchant 275 Qianlong 276 The Banner System 277 DoCuMEnTs: Fang Bao’s “Random Notes from Prison” 278 Contacts with Europe 280 Social and Cultural Crosscurrents 281 The Conservative Turn 281
The Dream of Red Mansions 281 MATEriAl CulTurE: Jin Nong’s Inscribed Portrait of a Buddhist Monk 282 The Less Advantaged and the Disaffected 283 Chapter 17 Edo Japan (1603–1800) 288 Tokugawa Settlement (Seventeenth Century) 288 Government 289 Agricultural Transformations and the Commercial Revolution 291 MATEriAl CulTurE: Night Soil 294 Urban Life and Culture 294 DoCuMEnTs: Ihara Saikaku’s “Sensible Advice on Domestic Economy” 296 Intellectual Trends 296 BiogrAPhy: Tadano Makuzu, Daughter of the Samurai 299 Maturation and Decay (Eighteenth Century) 299 Popular Culture 300 Hard Times and Rural Uprisings 301 Making Comparisons: Neo-Confucianism 304 Index I-1 Diplomacy and Defense 231 Zheng He’s Voyages 232 The Mongols and the Great Wall 233
Trade and Piracy Along China’s Coasts 234 Social and Cultural Trends 234 The Educated Class and the Examination Life 234 Wang Yangming’s Challenge to Confucian Orthodoxy 237 BiogrAPhy: Tan Yunxian, Woman Doctor 238 Local Society 240 MATEriAl CulTurE: Gardens of Suzhou 241 Urban Culture 241 DoCuMEnTs: Scene from The Peony Pavilion 242 Dynastic Decline 244 Chapter 15 Joseon Korea (1392–1800) 247 Yi Seonggye’s Rise to Power 247 Kings and Yangban Confucian Officials 249 Dynastic Decline and the Japanese Invasion 251 MATEriAl CulTurE: Yangban Children’s Board Games 252 BiogrAPhy: Interpreter Jeong Myeongsu 253 Relations with the Manchus 254
Internal Politics in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 255 Economic Growth and the Decline of Slavery 257 DoCuMEnTs: Lady Hyegyeong’s Memoirs 258 Cultural Developments 258 Literature 258 Northern Learning 260 Christianity and Western Learning 260 The Family and Women in the Confucian Age 261 Making Comparisons: Women’s Situations 264 Connections: Europe Enters the Scene 265 Contents xiii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 13 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 14 9/11/12 11:05 AM
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Map C1.1 Neolithic Sites in East Asia 3 Map 1.1 Western Zhou China 9 Map 2.1 Zhou States in the Sixth Century b.c.e. 21 Map 3.1 The Han Empire at Its Maximum Extent, ca. 50 b.c.e. 37 Map C2.1 Expansion of Buddhism from 500 b.c.e. to 800 c.e. 59 Map 4.1 Rise and Fall of States During the Period of Division 63 Map 5.1 Tang China 81 Map C3.1 Map of Asian Trade and Communication Routes in the Sixth–Tenth Centuries 94 Map 6.1 Korea, 200 b.c.e.–100 b.c.e. 99 Map 6.2 Goguryeo at Its Largest Extent, Late Fifth Century c.e. 104
Map 6.3 Silla After Conquest of Han River Region in 552 c.e. 106 Map 7.1 Islands of Japan 116 Map 7.2 Kinai Area of Japan 121 Map 8.1 Northern Song, Liao, and Xia, ca. 1050 131 Map 8.2 Southern Song, Jin, and Xia, ca. 1200 139 Map C4.1 Map of Mongol Conquests 166 Map 10.1 Goryeo Dynasty After 1126 171 Map 11.1 Major Provinces, Regions, and Cities in Japan 184 Map 11.2 Site of the Mongol Invasions 196 Map 13.1 Kyoto in the Tenth–Eleventh Centuries and Its Transformation in the Sixteenth Century 222 Map 14.1 The Ming Empire 235 Map 15.1 Joseon Dynasty, 1392–1910 250 Map C5.1 Seaborne Trading Empires in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 266 Map 16.1 The Manchu Empire at Its Height 272
Map 17.1 Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1868 292 M A P s A N d f i G U R E s xv figure C1.1 Dolmens 6 figure 1.1 Mold for Bronze Casting 14 figure 3.1 Standardizing the Writing System 38 figure 5.1 Layout of Chang’an and One of the Cities Modeled on It Outside China 79 figure 15.1 Hangul Chart 248 06512_fm_rev04.indd 15 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 16 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due
to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. there are many reasons to learn about East Asia. A fifth of the world’s population lives there. Every day newspapers carry articles on the rapid transformations of the world economy that make China, Japan, and Korea a growing presence in our lives. Globalization means not only that people are crossing the Pacific in ever-increasing numbers but also that U.S. popular culture is drawing from many sources in East Asia, from Korean martial arts to Japanese anime and Chinese films. But why approach East Asia through its history rather than, say, its economy or contemporary cul- ture? Many reasons suggest themselves. We cannot gain an adequate understanding of modern phe- nomena without knowing the stages and processes that led up to them. Moreover, the peoples of East Asia are strongly historically minded. To a much greater extent than in the United States, they know and identify with people and events of a thousand or more years ago. In all three countries, readers still enjoy The Three Kingdoms, a novel written in fourteenth-century China about the leaders of three contending states in third-century China. Historical consciousness also underlies the strong sense of sep- arate identities among the people of China, Korea,
and Japan. The fact that time and again Korea was able to protect its independence despite the attempts of both China and Japan to conquer it is a central part of Korean identity today. Yet another reason to learn about East Asia’s past is its comparative value. As a region that developed nearly independently of the West, East Asia sheds light on the variety of ways human beings have found meaning, formed communities, and governed themselves, expanding our understanding of the human condition. What makes this East Asian history book distinc- tive? In it we cover all three countries from a broad range of perspectives, from the earliest signs of human civilization to the present, and we balance the big picture with specific cases. While availing our- selves of the framework provided by politics, we also focus on culture, social issues, and economic change. What iS nEW in thE thirD EDitiOn Our first goal in revising this book has been to bring it up to date—to cover the last few years and take account of new scholarship. But we have also put a lot of thought into how we can best serve our audience. Teachers and students who used the first and second editions of this book have told us how much they liked our coverage of social and cultural history, our mini-chapter “Connections,” and our boxed features—the Documents, Biogra- phies, Material Culture, and Making Comparisons features. With their encouragement, we continue to scrutinize our choices and in this edition offer sev- eral new ones, including new Material Culture fea- tures on Japanese portrait statues and matchlocks and China’s recent high-speed trains; new biogra-
phies of a Korean interpreter, a Japanese radical samurai, and a Chinese geomancer; and new docu- ments from the Book of Songs for the Zhou period and “Wild Lilies,” for the twentieth century. We also have added an additional Making Compari- sons feature on languages. Two more pervasive changes also deserve mention. On the advice of instructors who have used this book in class, we have added two ped- agogical aids. The first is pronunciation glosses aimed to give students the courage to pronounce foreign words in their heads while reading, and out loud in class. These glosses do not aim for linguistic precision; their sole purpose is to help U.S. students approximate the sounds of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean words. The second addition we have made is to add criti- cal thinking questions at the end of all the documents and biographies. It is our hope that these questions will encourage students to pause and think about what they are reading. Teachers might also consider asking students to prepare answers to them. The overall conception of this book remains the same as it was from the first edition. The following distinctive characteristics are worth underlining. P R E f A C E xvii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 17 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. cOMParablE cOVEraGE OF KOrEa Part of our original plan for this book was to cover Korea in comparable depth as China and Japan (we ended up giving China about 50 percent of the space, Japan 30 percent, and Korea 20 percent). We know that many teachers have been frustrated in their at- tempts to cover Korea in their East Asia courses for lack of suitable materials and hope that our efforts prove useful to both them and their students. a brOaD FOcUS: CONNECTIONS chaPtErS It is often difficult to keep the larger whole in mind as we tell the separate stories of China, Korea, and Japan. Our solution has been to periodically zoom out to look at the wider region from a global or world-historical perspective. Thus, after every few chapters we have inserted a mini-chapter on devel- opments that link the societies of East Asia both to each other and to the larger global context. We have labeled these mini-chapters “Connections” be- cause they emphasize the many ways each society was connected to outside events and people. For in- stance, the origins and spread of Buddhism are of
great importance to all the societies of East Asia, but much of the story can be told as a common narra- tive that connects East Asia with the rest of Asia. Similarly, many books write about World War II in East Asia in entirely different ways in their China and Japan chapters. By stepping back and writing about the war from a more global perspective, we help students see the larger picture. balancED cUltUral, SOcial, anD POlitical hiStOry This book strives for balanced coverage of the differ - ent strands of history. A basic political narrative is essential to give students a firm sense of chronology and to let them think about issues of change. More- over, there is no denying that the creation of state structures has much to do with how people lived their lives. Even the fact that people think of them- selves as “Chinese,” “Korean,” or “Japanese” is largely a by-product of political history. We also believe students should gain an under- standing of the philosophies and religions of East Asia. Confucianism and Buddhism have both been of great importance throughout the region, but in very diverse ways, as the historical context has con- tinually changed. Other elements of high culture also deserve coverage, such as the arts of poetry and calligraphy. Yet we did not want to neglect topics in social, cultural, and economic history, where much of our own work has been concentrated. Even if the state is important to understanding how people lived, so were families, villages, and religious sects. We also
wanted to bring in the results of scholarship on those who had been marginalized in the traditional histories, from laborers and minorities to women at all social levels. MaKinG cOMPariSOnS There are many similarities among the cultures of East Asia, often because of their direct influence on each other and the wide circulation of some core philosophical, religious, and literary texts. Yet dif- ferences are at least as significant and interesting. To help students take stock of what they have learned, from time to time we provide a brief, one-page dis- cussion placed between chapters that compares features of the three countries. The topics in the third edition are languages, food cultures, monarchical institutions, women’s situations, neo-Confucianism, slavery, and popular religion. a SPEciFic FOcUS: biOGraPhiES, DOcUMEntS, anD MatErial cUltUrE The potential danger of trying to cover so much is a high level of generalization. To keep our readers en- gaged and bring our story down to earth, we devote three or four pages per chapter to closer looks at specific people, documents, and material objects. biographies Most chapters have a one-page biography, often about someone who would not normally be mentioned xviii Preface
06512_fm_rev04.indd 18 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. in a history book. We thus highlight a diverse set of individuals, from the most accomplished (such as the eminent Chinese poet Du Fu) to those who are re- markably ordinary people (such as a woman whose job was to mind the neighborhood telephone). Three military men are portrayed; others were physicians, interpreters, entrepreneurs, and founders of religious sects. We also have included some agitators and revolutionaries, and even a winning volleyball coach. Documents In our chapters we frequently cite short passages from primary sources, but we believe students also benefit from texts long enough to give them a sense of the genre, the author’s point of view, and the cir- cumstances described. A few of those we have includ- ed are by famous writers, such as Fukuzawa Yūkichi and Lu Xun. Some are excerpted from well-known pieces of literature, such as the play The Peony Pavilion and ancient Japanese poetry collections. Others will be less familiar to teachers and students
alike. We selected legal documents, for what they re- veal of ordinary people’s lives, and religious texts of several sorts to help students see religion and popular beliefs in action. Many authors are utterly serious, complaining bitterly of war or corruption, for in- stance; others have well-developed senses of humor. All the documents prompt active involvement and critical interpretation because through them students hear the concerns of people of the past. Material culture Texts are not our only sources for reconstructing the past; there is much to be discovered from material remains of many sorts. To give focus to this dimension of history, for each chapter we have selected one ele- ment of material culture to describe in some detail. These range from the most mundane—food, drink, clothing, houses, and means of transportation—to objects of art including specific paintings, sculptures, and performing arts. Many of the objects discussed have economic significance—for example, fertilizers and the Grand Canal. Most of the features for the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries bring out ways material culture has changed, along with so much else in modern times—from the food people eat to their ways of amusing themselves to technological ad- vances such as the transistor that continue to have an impact not only in Asia but across the world. thinKinG liKE a hiStOrian The “Documents” and “Material Culture” features challenge students to draw inferences from primary materials much as historians do. Another way we have
tried to help students learn to think like historians is to present history as a set of questions more than a set of answers. What historians are able to say about a period or topic depends not only on the sources avail - able but also on the questions asked. To help students see this, we begin each chapter with a brief discussion of some of the questions that motivate contemporary historians to do research on the time period. Few have easy answers; they are not questions students will be able to resolve simply by reading the chapter. Rather they are real questions, interesting enough to moti- vate historians to sift through recalcitrant evidence in their efforts to find answers. The earliest chapter on Korea, for instance, poses the question of how the three states on the Korean peninsula were able to survive in the face of Chinese power. The chapter on early nineteenth-century Japan points out that histo- rians have studied the period for clues to the causes of the Meiji Restoration, wanting to know the rela- tive weight to assign to foreign pressure and domestic unrest. For the chapter dealing with China under the Nationalists, we point out that the desire to explain the Communist victory in 1949 has motivated his- torians to ponder why May Fourth Liberalism lost its appeal and whether the economic politics of the Nationalists could have brought prosperity to China if Japan had not invaded. We hope that posing these questions will help readers see the significance of the topics and issues presented in each chapter. USinG thiS tEXt in claSS East Asian history is commonly taught either as a one-term or one-year course. To fit both schedules, this text is available as a single volume and as two divided chronologically. Since those who divide
Preface xix 06512_fm_rev04.indd 19 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. chronologically might prefer to break at either 1600 or 1800, the period 1600–1800 appears in both the chronologically divided volumes. inStrUctOr SUPPlEMEnt eInstructor’s Resource Manual Prepared by Ethan Segal, Michigan State University. This manual has many features, including learning objectives, chapter outlines, discussion/essay questions, key terms, and activities for the classroom. Available on the instruc- tor’s companion website. acKnOWlEDGMEntS For the first edition of this book, the three authors divided the work primarily by country of special- ization, with Patricia Ebrey writing the parts on China, Anne Walthall those on Japan, and James
Palais those on Korea. The Connections chapters we divided among ourselves chronologically, with Patricia Ebrey taking the early ones (on Prehis- tory, Buddhism, Cultural Contact Across Eurasia, and the Mongols), Anne Walthall taking the early modern and modern ones (on Europe Enters the Scene, Western Imperialism, and World War II), and James Palais doing the final one on East Asia in the Twenty-First Century. Our original co-author, James Palais, passed away shortly after the first edi- tion was printed in summer 2006. For the second and third editions, Patricia Ebrey revised James Palais’s chapters covering up to 1800 and Anne Walthall the remainder. Many people have contributed to the shaping of this book. The authors have been teaching about the societies of East Asia for three decades, and the ways they approach their subjects owe much to ques- tions from their students, conversations with their colleagues, and the outpouring of scholarship in their fields. As we worked on this text, we received much advice from others, from early suggestions of possible collaborators to critiques of our original proposal and reviews of the drafts of our chapters. The reviewers’ reports prompted us to rethink some generalizations, urged us not to weigh the book down with too much detail, and saved us from a number of embarrassing errors. We appreciate the time and attention the following reviewers gave to helping us produce a better book: James Anderson, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; R. David Arkush, University of Iowa; Charles Armstrong, Columbia University; Richard
Bohr, College of Saint Benedict & Saint John; Craig N. Canning, College of William and Mary; Henry Chan, Minnesota State University; Alan Christy, Univer- sity of California, SC; Sue Fawn Chung, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Parks Coble, University of Nebraska; Anthony DeBlasi, University of Albany; Ronald G. Dimberg, University of Virginia; Franklin M. Doeringer, Lawrence University; Alexis Dudden, Connecticut College; Gordon Dutter, Monroe Com- munity College; Susan Fernsebner, Mary Wash- ington College; Karl Friday, University of Georgia; James Gao, University of Maryland; Karl Gerth, Uni- versity of South Carolina; Andrew Goble, University of Oregon; John B. Henderson, Louisiana State Uni- versity; Robert Henry, Grossmont College; Jennifer Holt-Dilley, University of Texas at San Antonio; Jeff Hornibrook, SUNY Plattsburgh; William Johnston, Wesleyan University; Fujiya Kawashima, Bowling Green State University; Sun Joo Kim, Harvard Uni- versity; Ari Daniel Levine, University of Georgia; Huaiyin Li, University of Missouri- Columbia; Jeff Long, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania; Andrew McGreevy, Ohio University-Lancaster; Angelene Naw, Judson College; Steve Phillips, Towson University; Jonathan Porter, University of New Mexico; Wesley Sasaki-Uemura, University of Utah; Edward Slack, Eastern Washington University; S. A. Thornton, Arizona State University; Constan- tine Vaporis, University of Maryland, BC; Lu Yan, University of New Hampshire; Ka-che Yip, Univer- sity of Maryland, Baltimore County; Theodore Jun Yoo, University of Hawaii at Manoa. We also are grateful for all the work put into this book by the editorial staff at Wadsworth, Cengage Learning: Brooke Barbier, Elisa Adams, Jamie Bushell,
and Katie Coaster. xx Preface 06512_fm_rev04.indd 20 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. throughout this book names are given in East Asian order, with family name preceding personal name. Thus Mao Zedong was from the Mao family, Ashikaga Takauji from the Ashikaga family, and Yi Sŏnggye from the Yi family. Both Japanese and Korean have phonetic scripts (Japanese a syllabary, Korean an alphabet), though Japanese additionally makes extensive use of Chinese characters. There are standard ways to tran- scribe these scripts into our alphabet. Here we have used the Hepburn system for transcribing Japanese. For Korean, we have used the revised romanization system of the Ministry of Culture in South Korea. Chinese does not have a phonetic script. In this book the pinyin system of romanization has been adopted.
The basic vowels, a, e, i, o, and u in all three lan- guages are pronounced as in Italian, German, and Spanish. a as in father e as in end i as the first e in eve (although in Chinese if it comes after an s, ch, or z, it is pronounced as the e in the) o as in old (shorter in length and with less of the ou sound of English) u as in rude (shorter in length than English) The macron over the ō or ū in Japanese indicates that the vowel is “long,” taking twice as long to say, as though it were doubled. Macrons have been omit- ted from common place names well known without them, such as Tokyo and Kyoto. ü in Chinese (used only after l or n) is like the German ü. The three languages are not so similar when one vowel follows another. In the case of Japanese, each vowel is pronounced as a separate syllable (shō en, is two syllables, shō -en). In Chinese, they create a (one-syllable) diphthong (e.g., mei, which is pronounced like may, and xia, which sounds like shya). In Korean, two vowels in a row are used to convey a distinct vowel sound; ae is like the a in at; eo is like the u in but; eu is like the oo in foot. Consonants for Japanese and Korean romaniza-
tion are close enough to English to give readers little difficulty. In the Chinese case, divergence between how an English speaker would guess a pronuncia- tion and how the word is actually pronounced is greater. The most confusing consonants are listed below: c ts in tsar z dz in adze zh j in jack q ch in chin x sh In the case of Chinese, the romanization system does not convey tones, which are also an important element in pronunciation. We have offered simple pronunciation guides after many words that might give readers trouble. These do not aim at linguistic accuracy; they are at best approximations, based on common American pronunciations, and are provided so that students will feel more comfortable using the words in class. They can be ignored once the reader has gotten the hang of the romanization system. For both Chinese and Korean, other ways of romanizing the language are also widely used. Through the last edition of this book we used the McCune-Reischauer system for Korean, which uses apostrophes and diacritical marks. Thus, the dynasty that was romanized as Chosŏn in the last edition is now romanized as Joseon. Comparisons of the two systems of romanization can be found at http://www .eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_ko.pdf.
In the case of Chinese, pinyin only became the standard system of romanization in recent decades. Some earlier spellings were based on dialects other than Mandarin (Peking, Canton, Sun Yat-sen). More often the Wade-Giles system of romanization was employed. From context, if nothing else, most readers C O N v E N T i O N s xxi 06512_fm_rev04.indd 21 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. have inferred that Mao Zedong is the same person whose name used to be spelled Mao Tse-tung, or that Wang Anshi is the pinyin form of Wang An-shih. Two older spellings have been retained in this book because they are so widely known (Sun Yatsen and Chiang Kaishek). Charts for converting pinyin to Wade-Giles and vice versa are widely available on the Internet, should anyone want verification of their guesses (see, for instance, http://www.loc.gov/ catdir/pinyin/romcover.html).
xxii Conventions 06512_fm_rev04.indd 22 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia 06512_fm_rev04.indd 23 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 24 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. P A R T O N E Connections The Prehistory of East Asia Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) Chapter 3 The Founding of the Bureaucratic Empire: Qin-Han China (256 b.c.e.– 200 c.e.) Connections Buddhism in India and Its Spread Along the Silk Road Chapter 4
Political Division in China and the Spread of Buddhism (200–580) Chapter 5 The Cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and Tang China (581–960) Connections Cultural Contact Across Eurasia (600–900) The Foundations of East Asian Civilization in China 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 1 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 2 During this long period, humans began to speak, and so the affinities of modern languages offer a rough clue to the spread of peoples in early times. Language affinities suggest at least three migra- tory routes through East Asia: from North Asia into Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and Japan; from
China into Tibet and Southeast Asia; and from south China to both Southeast Asia and the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia. Other evidence suggests additional routes—for instance, from Southeast Asia and Micronesia to Japan. All through Eurasia, much greater advance came after the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000 b.c.e. (See Map C1.1.) Soon after this date, people in Japan began making pottery, some of the earliest in the world. Pottery is of great value for holding water and storing food. In China and Korea, the ear- liest pottery finds were somewhat later, but pottery was apparently in use by 6000 b.c.e. Throughout East Asia, early pottery was commonly imprinted on its surface to give it texture. In Japan, this period is referred to as Jōmon and dated from about 10,000 to 300 b.c.e. The comparable period in Korea is called Jeulmun and dated from about 8000 to 700 b.c.e. These cultures share many features. From shell mounds found in many places in both Korea and Japan, it is evident that sites were occupied for long periods, that shellfish were collected onshore, and that fish were caught from both rivers and the ocean. Other food sources were animals such as deer and wild boar, which were hunted. Dogs seem to have been domesticated and perhaps used as hunting animals. China in the millennia after the last Ice Age fol- lowed more closely the pattern seen in western Eur- asia, which involved crop agriculture, domestication of animals for food and work, pottery, textiles, and villages. Agriculture is a crucial change because cul- tivating crops allows denser and more permanent settlements. Because tending crops, weaving, and
THINKING ABOUT THE WHOLE OF EAST Asia before the invention of writing helps to remind us that East Asia has always been a part of Eurasia and did not develop in isolation. During the Pleistocene geological era (the last great Ice Age), plants and animals spread across Eurasia as far as Japan, which was then connected to the mainland. In later times, peoples, crops, and inventions traveled in many directions. Early human beings (Homo erectus) appeared in East Asia more than 1 million years ago, having gradually spread from Africa and West Asia dur- ing the Pleistocene. Peking Man, discovered in the 1920s, is one of the best-documented examples of H. erectus, with skeletal remains of some forty indi- viduals found in a single cave complex. Peking Man could stand erect, hunt, make fire, and use chipped stones as tools. In recent decades, even earlier exam- ples of H. erectus have been found in south China. Modern human beings (Homo sapiens) appeared in East Asia perhaps fifty thousand years ago. The dominant theory in the West, supported by studies of the mitochondrial DNA of modern people, is that H. sapiens also spread out of Africa and displaced H. erectus in areas where it was not already extinct. Chinese archaeologists have given more credence to the theory that H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens independently in many parts of the world, making Peking Man the ancestor of modern Chinese. They can point to similarities between Peking Man and modern Chinese, such as the shape of certain teeth. During the period from 50,000 to 10,000 b.c.e.,
East Asia was home to numerous groups of Paleo- lithic hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. Many of these people were on the move, following the wild animals they hunted or searching for new environ- ments to exploit. This was the period that saw the movement of people from northeast Asia to the Americas and also from south China and Southeast Asia to the Pacific and Australia. C O N N E C T I O N S The Prehistory of East Asia 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 2 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 3 piles; wove baskets; and made hoes, spears, mallets, paddles, and other tools from wood. They decorated their pottery and lacquered bowls with incised geo- metrical designs or pictures of birds, fish, or trees. Millet, a crop domesticated in China, became the foundation of agriculture in north China.
Nanzhuangtou, the earliest site found so far, is in southern Hebei and dates to about 8000 b.c.e. At Cishan, a site in Hebei dating to about 5500 b.c.e., millet was cut with stone sickles and stored in cord- marked pottery bowls, jars, and tripods (three-legged pots). In addition to growing millet, the local people hunted deer and collected clams, snails, and turtles. The east–west divide among Chinese Neolithic cultures in terms of expressive culture may well have had connections to less tangible elements of culture such as language and religion. In the west (Shaanxi and Gansu provinces especially), pottery deco- rated with painted geometrical designs was com- monly produced from about 5000 to 3000 b.c.e. In the fully developed Yangshao style, grain jars were fashioning pots require different sorts of technical and social skills than do hunting and gathering, it is likely that skilled elders began to vie with hunters and warriors for leadership. The dozen or more distinct Neolithic cultures that have been identified in China can be roughly divided by latitude into the southern rice zone and the northern millet zone and by longitude into the eastern jade zone and the western painted pottery zone. Dogs and pigs were found in both areas as early as 5000 b.c.e. By 3000 b.c.e. sheep and cattle had become important in the north and water buf- falo and cattle important in the south. Whether rice was independently domesticated in China or spread there from Southeast Asia is not yet certain. The earliest finds in China date to about 8000 b.c.e. At Hemudu, a site south of Shanghai
and dating to about 5000 b.c.e., Neolithic villagers grew rice in wet fields and supplemented their diet with fish and water plants such as lotus and water chestnut. Hemudu villagers built wooden houses on Liao Wei Yangzi Yellow P A C I F I C O C E A N Yellow Sea Sea of Japan E a s t C h i n a S e a Hougang Liangzhu Hemudu Pengdoushan
Zengpiyan Banpo Cishan Qijia Yangshao-cun Erlitou Dawenkou Niuheliang Nanzhuangtou Amsadong Gungsanni Gangsari Dongsamdong Nongbo Ubuka Bog Isarago Togarilshi Umataka Fukui Cave Hongshan
Shaguotun Xiajiadian 0 300�Mi.150 0 300�Km.150 Neolithic�site Map C1.1 Neolithic Sites in East Asia © C en ga ge L ea rn in g 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 3 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage
Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia probably of captives. The earliest examples, dat- ing to about 2000 b.c.e., involved human remains placed under the foundations of buildings. At about the same time, metal began to be used on a small scale for weapons. These trends in Neolithic sites on the north China plain link it closely to the early stages of the Bronze Age civilization there, discussed in Chapter 1. For China, prehistory conventionally stops soon after 2000 b.c.e. It is true that in the Chinese subcontinent outside the core of Shang territories, subsistence technology continued in the Neolith- ic pattern for many more centuries. In Korea and J apan, the period before writing lasted longer, but during the first millennium b.c.e., technologies from China began to have an impact. To understand the links between early China and its East Asian neighbors, we must briefly consider the wider Eurasian context, especially the northern steppe region. In terms of contemporary countries, the steppe extends from southern Russia past the Caspian and Aral seas, through the Central Asian republics, the northern reaches of China, and into Mongolia and farther east. Horses were domes- ticated on the southern Russian steppe by about 4000 b.c.e. but spread only slowly to other regions. Chariots spread first, then riding on horseback.
exuberantly painted in red and black with spirals, diamonds, and other geometrical patterns. In the east, from Liaodong near Korea in the north to near Shanghai in the south, early pottery was rarely painted, but more elaborate forms ap- peared very early, with the finest wares formed on potters’ wheels. Some had exceptionally thin walls polished to an almost metallic appearance. Many forms were constructed by adding parts, such as legs, spouts, handles, or lids. The many ewers and goblets found in eastern sites were probably used for ritu- als of feasting or sacrifice. Eastern cultures were also marked by progressively more elaborate burials. At Dawenkou in Shandong (ca. 5000–2500 b.c.e.), not only were wooden coffins used but even wooden burial chambers were occasionally con- structed. The richest burials had more than a hun- dred objects placed in them, including jade, stone, or pottery necklaces and bracelets. Some of the people buried there had their upper lateral incisors extract- ed, a practice Chinese authors in much later times considered “barbarian” and that is also seen in some Japanese sites. Even more distinctive of the eastern Neolithic cultures is the use of jade. Because jade does not crack, shaping it requires slow grinding with abra- sive sand. The most spectacular discoveries of Neo- lithic jades have been made in Liaodong near Korea (Hongshan culture, ca. 3500 b.c.e.) and south of Shanghai (Liangzhu culture, ca. 2500 b.c.e.)— areas that literate Chinese in ca. 500 b.c.e. consid- ered barbarian. In the Hongshan culture area, jade
was made into small sculptures of turtles, birds, and strange coiled “pig dragons.” In the Liangzhu area, jade was fashioned into objects with no obvi- ous utilitarian purpose and that are therefore con- sidered ritual objects. Most common are disks and notched columns. In China, the late Neolithic period (ca. 3000– 2000 b.c.e.) was a time of increased contact and cultural borrowing between these regional cultures. Cooking tripods, for instance, spread west, while painted pottery spread east. This period must also have been one of increased conflict between com- munities because people began building defensive walls around settlements out of rammed earth, some as large as 20 feet high and 30 feet thick. Enclosing a settlement with such a wall required chiefs able to command men and resources on a large scale. Another sign of the increasing power of religious or military elites is human sacrifice, Jade Plaque. This small plaque (6.2 by 8.3 cm, or 2.5 by 3.25 in) is incised to depict a human figure who merges into a monster mask. The lower part could be interpreted as his arms and legs, but at the same time resembles a monster mask with bulging eyes, prominent nostrils, and a large mouth. Zh ej ia ng P ro
vi nc ia l I ns tit ut e of A rc ha eo lo gy /C ul tu ra l R el ic s Pr
es s 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 4 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 5 During the next phase there was such a radical change in burial practices that archaeologists sus- pect that a different, and militarily superior, horse- riding group entered the area. This new group used both wooden and stone-cist coffins. A cist burial is one with a burial chamber built of stones to form a box, with a flagstone or similar large, flat stone to cover it. By the third century b.c.e., the cultures of the Northern Zone became increasingly homoge- neous in material culture and rituals, with similar warrior elites and ornamental art. These societies came into contact with people settled farther south in the Korean peninsula. As mentioned previously, after the end of the last Ice Age, the Korean peninsula was home to the fishing
and foraging Jeulmun (comb pattern pottery) peo- ples. By the middle of the first millennium b.c.e., a new culture, called Mumun (plain pottery), became established. Mumun sites, in contrast to the earlier Jeulmun seaside ones, were on hillsides or hilltops. Grain production became more important, and met- alworking was adopted. Bronze began to be used in Korea about 700 b.c.e. and iron by about 400 b.c.e. Mumun farmers grew barley, millet, sorghum, and short-grained rice, a mix of crops similar to that grown in north China. They heated their homes with flues under the floor, a practice that contin- ued into modern times. Another distinctive feature of this culture, the use of stone-cist burials, links it to the Northern Zone. A fifth-century b.c.e. site in west-central Korea has a stone-cist burial, twenty- one pit buildings, red burnished pottery, a pottery kiln, a stone mold for casting bronze implements, whetstones for sharpening blades, bronze daggers and swords, and a bronze dagger of the type found farther north in the Northern Zone. Soon, howev- er, Korea was producing its own distinctive metal- work, such as finely decorated mirrors. A new burial form also emerged: large aboveground stone vaults called dolmens. The shift from Jeulmun to Mumun probably re- flects the same movement of people seen in south- ern Manchuria. Without textual evidence, how- ever, it is impossible to decide whether the local Jeulmun quickly adopted the superior technology of the Mumun people or whether the Mumun moved into the area in large numbers, gradually pushing out those who were already there. Some scholars speculate that the newcomers were the speakers of languages that were the ancestors of the Korean and
Japanese languages. A fourteenth-century b.c.e. Hittite text on horse- manship discusses the training of chariot horses; within a century or so, chariots appeared in Shang China. The Scythians appeared as mounted archers in the tenth or ninth century b.c.e. East of them, the Karasuk, with a similar culture, dominated the region from western Mongolia into south Siberia. The Scythians and the Karasuk lived in felt tents, traveled in covered carts, and had bronze technol- ogy, including the bronze bit that made possible horseback riding. By the seventh century b.c.e. in the Altai region of Mongolia, there were two dis- tinct groups of nomadic pastoralists: those who bur- ied the dead under mounds and those who buried the dead in stone boxes. Their bronze implements, however, were much the same. South of these groups on the steppe, but in con- tact with them, were pastoral–agricultural cultures in China’s Northern Zone, stretching in terms of modern provinces from Gansu through northern Shaanxi, northern Shanxi, and northern Hebei, into Liaoning (southern Manchuria). During the late second millennium b.c.e., this zone was settled by a variety of cultures with distinct pottery and burial customs but bronze knives much like those of the steppe to the north. In the early first mil- lennium b.c.e., warrior elites emerged in many of these cultures, and animal raising became more central to their economies, perhaps in response to a climate that was becoming colder and drier. From 600 to 300 b.c.e., evidence of horses becomes more and more common, as does riding astride. Some of these cultures adopted nomadic pastoralism, mov-
ing with their herds to new pastures. These cul- tures also adopted the art styles common on the steppe, such as bronze and gold animal plaques. They made increasing use of iron, which may have spread to them from the Central Asian steppe rather than from China, which was also beginning to use iron in this period. At the same time, these Northern Zone cultures were in contact with the Chinese states; early Chinese coins have been found at some sites. The eastern end of this Northern Zone was di- rectly north of Korea. Archaeologists have identified a culture there that lasted eight centuries, from the eleventh to the fourth centuries b.c.e., called Upper Xiajiadian culture. Finds include an ancient mine, along with distinctive bronze knives, helmets, mir- rors, and horse fittings. The faces of the dead were covered with a cloth decorated with bronze buttons. 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 5 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 6 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia
It is likely that the shift to Yayoi-style pottery and associated technologies was the result of an influx of people from Korea. Archaeologists have identified two distinct skeleton types in Yayoi pe- riod sites in western Japan, which they interpret as the indigenous Jōmon people and the new immi- grants from Korea. The Jōmon type were shorter and more round-faced. The influx of the immi- grants seems to have been greatest in Kyushu and western Honshu. Some scholars speculate that the Ainu, who survived into modern times only on the northern island of Hokkaido, are of relatively pure Jōmon stock. Another sign that the influx of Yayoi people was not so great in eastern Japan is that bronze imple- ments did not become important in the east, nor did easterners adopt the western Yayoi style of burying the whole body in a jar, coffin, or pit. Rather, in the east, reburial of the bones in a jar predominated. Another important technology that made its way to Korea and Japan before writing was rice cultivation. Studies based on stone reaping knives suggest that rice spread north along the China seaboard, reaching Korea and Japan by about 300 b.c.e. In the case of Japan, rice seems to have been grown by the end of the Jōmon pe- riod but is more strongly associated with the next stage, called the Yayoi period. The Yayoi period is marked by distinctive pottery, found earliest in Kyushu, then spreading east through Honshu, though farther north more of the Jōmon style is retained in Yayoi pieces. Rice cultivation was more thoroughly adopted in western Japan, with the marine-based way of life retaining more of its
hold in northern Japan. Iron tools such as hoes and shovels also spread through Japan during this period, as did silk and associated spinning and weaving technologies. Figure C1.1 Dolmens. Burial structures capped with large stones, called dolmens, have been found in both the Korean peninsula and nearby parts of Japan. The two shown on the left were found in northern and southern Korea, respectively. The one on the right, which also shows the arrangement of the bones beneath the capstone, was found in Kyushu, across the Korean Strait. (© Cengage Learning) 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 6 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 7 with horse riders and there was no chariot stage. Ge- ography has much to do with the fact that Korea’s direct neighbors frequently were not Chinese but no- madic pastoralists with distinctive cultures. Geogra- phy also dictates that passage from Korea to Japan was shorter and easier than crossing from China,
giving Korea more direct influence on Japan than China had. In Chapters 6 and 7, when we pick up the story of Korea and Japan again, it will be evident that as we move into the historical period, not only is the prehistoric period of continuing significance, but many of the same cultural processes continued to be at work. Because contact between southern Korea and west- ern Japan continued through this period and because new technologies entered through this route, western Japan in this period was relatively more advanced than eastern Japan. As we can see from this review of prehistory, con- tact among the societies of East Asia did not lead to identical developmental sequences. In China a mil- lennium passed between the introduction of bronze technology and that of iron, in Korea only three cen- turies, and in Japan they were acquired together. In China the horse was first used to pull chariots, and it took five hundred or more years before soldiers were riding horses. In Korea and Japan, horses came 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 7 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any
time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 8 C H A P T E R O N E China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) Material Culture: Rammed Earth Developments Outside the Shang Core The Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 b.c.e.) Documents: The Book of Songs China’s Bronze Age began soon after 2000 b.c.e., and by 1200 b.c.e. there were bronze-based civilizations in several regions of China. The best known of these was centered on Anyang (ahn-yahng)
in north- central China, where the Shang (shahng) Dynasty developed a complex state with writing and large settlements. The inscribed oracle bones found at Anyang confirm traditions about Shang rulers passed down in early texts. In 1045 b.c.e. the Shang Dynasty was overthrown by an erstwhile ally- vassal, the state of Zhou (joe). The early Zhou Dynasty is known not only from archaeological evidence but also from transmitted texts, which provide the Zhou version of their righteous victory over the decadent Shang. The Zhou rulers sent out vassals to establish settlements in distant regions, creating a feudal-like system. The issues that engage archaeologists, paleographers, and historians of China’s Bronze Age remain the basic ones: Can we reconcile texts that talk of a sequence of dynasties with the archaeological evidence of distinct cultural centers? What were the consequences of the invention of writ- ing? What can be inferred about Shang society and culture from surviving material artifacts such as bronze vessels? Is there any way to tell whether cultures outside the core regions of the Shang and Zhou spoke the same language or considered themselves part of the same culture?
How sig- nificant in political and cultural terms was the transition from Shang to Zhou? Was anything significant learned from other parts of Eurasia in this period, or were all advances locally generated? 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 8 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent 9 within China, modern province names are used for convenience (see frontispiece map). The geographical context in which Chinese civiliza- tion developed changed slowly over time: rivers and coastlines have shifted, forests have been cleared, and climates have warmed and cooled. The human ge- ography has undergone even more extensive changes as the area occupied by speakers of Chinese has ex- panded and they have faced different neighbors. China proper, by the nineteenth century about a thousand miles north to south and east to west,
occupies much of the temperate zone of East Asia. The northern part, drained by the Yellow River, is colder, flatter, and more arid than the south. Rain- fall in many northern areas is less than 20 inches a year, making it best suited to crops like wheat and millet. The dominant soil is loess—fine wind-driv- en earth that is fertile and easy to work even with primitive tools. Much of the loess soil ends up as silt in the Yellow River, causing the riverbed to rise THE GEOGRAPHy OF THE CHINESE SuBCONTINENT The term China as it is used in this book does not re- fer to the same geographical entity at all points in his- tory. The historical China, also called China proper, was smaller than present-day China and changed in size over time. It can be thought of as the area settled by Chinese speakers or controlled by a Chinese state, or both. (To radically simplify complex issues of identity, references here to “the Chinese” can be tak- en to mean speakers of the Chinese language, a group that can also be referred to as the Han Chinese.) The contemporary People’s Republic of China includes territories like Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Turkestan, and Manchuria that were the traditional homes of other peoples and were not incorporated into Chinese states until relatively late in their histories. In this book, to indicate the location of historically significant places BA-SHU QIANG VARIOUS RONG
NORTHERN RONG RONG HUAI LAIYI SHU QIANG SICHUAN BASIN RONG IN MOUNTAINS Zhengzhou Zheng Jin YuDu Zhou Bengwu Qi Lu Xu Wu
Song Sui Zeng CaiShen Lü Chu Yan Wei SAN ZE ER DAN YAN JI I BENGWU GAO- LING Y
el lo w ( H ua ng H e) Hu ai Ye llow (H ua ng H e) Y el lo w (H ua
ng H e) Wei Qing Yang zi Y an gz i H an 0 100 200 Km. 0 100 200 Mi. Locations in important bronze inscriptions Royal capital State capital Ethnic group The Western Zhou State SAN
RONG Map 1.1 Western Zhou China © C en ga ge L ea rn in g 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 9 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 10 Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.)
According to tradition, Shang kings ruled from five successive cities. The best known is the last, Anyang, first excavated between 1928 and 1937. The Shang kings ruled there from approximately 1200 b.c.e. to 1045 b.c.e. At the center of Anyang were large pal- aces, temples, and altars that were constructed on rammed earth foundations (see Material Culture: Rammed Earth). The Shang kings were military chieftains who regularly sent out armies of three thousand to five thousand men on campaigns; when not at war, they would go on hunts that lasted for months. Their armies fought rebellious vassals and foreign tribes, but the situation constantly changed as vassals be- came enemies and enemies accepted offers of alli- ance. War booty, especially the war captives who could be enslaved or sacrificed, was an important source of the king’s revenue. Bronze technology gave Shang warriors superior weapons: bronze-tipped spears and dagger-axes, used for hacking and stabbing. Bronze was also used for the fittings of the spoke-wheeled chariots that came into use around 1200 b.c.e. There is no evi- dence of animal traction in China before the chariot or of the use of wheels, spoked or solid disk, leading to the conclusion that the chariot was introduced to China by diffusion across Asia. Shang chariots were pulled by two or four horses and provided com- manders with mobile stations from which they could supervise their troops; chariots also gave archers and soldiers armed with battle-axes increased mobility. Shang power did not rest solely on military su-
premacy. The oracle bone texts show that the Shang king also acted as the high priest, the person best qualified to offer sacrifices to the royal ancestors and the high god, Di (dee), who could command rain, thunder, and wind. The king also made offerings to an array of nature gods, such as the spirits of the sun and moon, the Yellow River, the winds of the four directions, and specific mountains. Royal ancestors were viewed as able to intervene with the remote Di. They also could send curses, produce dreams, assist the king in battle, and more. The king addressed his ancestors in prayers and made offerings of millet, wine, cattle, sheep, grain, and human victims to them. He discerned his ances- tors’ wishes and responses by interpreting the cracks made on heated cattle or turtle bones. King Wu Ding (woo ding) (ca. 1200 b.c.e.) had his diviner ask the high god Di or his ancestors about rain, the harvest, military expeditions, dreams, floods, tribute pay- ments, sacrifices, and even a toothache. over time. Once people began to dike the river, it be- came flood prone, since when the dikes break, huge floods result. Drought is another perennial problem for farmers in the north. The Yangzi River is the dominant feature of the warmer, wetter, and more lush south, a region well suited to rice cultivation and to growing two crops a year. The Yangzi and many of its tributaries are navigable, so boats were traditionally the preferred means of transportation in the south. Mountains, deserts, and grasslands separated China proper from the sites of other early civiliza-
tions. Between China and India lay Tibet, with its vast mountain ranges and high plateaus. North of Tibet are great expanses of desert, where nothing grows except in rare oases; north of the desert, grasslands stretch from Ukraine to eastern Siberia. Until modern times, Chinese civilization did not spread into these Inner Asian regions because they were not suited to crop agriculture. The northern grasslands, where rais- ing animals is a more productive use of land than is planting crops, were the heartland of China’s tradi- tional enemies, such as the Xiongnu and the Mongols. THE SHANG DyNASTy (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) China’s Neolithic Age is discussed in Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia. China had agriculture from about 10,000 b.c.e.; by 4000 b.c.e. distinct regional cultures are evident; by 2500 b.c.e. settlements were sometimes walled, and burials give evidence of increas- ing social differentiation. It was from these roots that China’s first civilization emerged soon after 2000 b.c.e. Early Chinese texts refer to the first dynasty as the Xia (shya) Dynasty and give the names of its kings. The earliest Bronze Age sites may have some con- nection to Xia, but they contain no texts to prove or disprove this supposition. The Shang Dynasty, however, is documented in both excavated and transmitted texts, and no one today doubts that it existed. The key excavated texts are the oracle bone inscriptions found in and near the Shang settlement at Anyang, in modern Henan province. Although these inscribed cattle bones and turtle shells had been unearthed from time to time, it was only after 1898 that scholars connected them to Shang kings. Since then, rubbings of some forty-eight thousand
bone fragments have been published, giving paleog- raphers much to study. 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 10 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 11 Ding. Although it was one of the smaller royal tombs (about 13 feet by 18 feet at the mouth and about 25 feet deep) and not in the main royal cemetery, it was nonetheless filled with an extraordinary array of valuable goods. The hundreds of bronze objects in the tomb weighed 1.6 metric tons. About 60 of the bronze vessels had Lady Hao’s name inscribed Shang palaces were undoubtedly splendid, but they were constructed of perishable material like wood, and nothing remains of them today. What has survived are the lavish underground tombs built for Shang kings and their consorts. The one royal tomb not to have been robbed before it was excavated was for Lady Hao, one of the many wives of King Wu M A T E R I A L C U L T U R E
From the late Neolithic period on, pounded or rammed earth was used in north China to build foundations and walls. In fact, in areas of loess soil, rammed earth is still used as a building material, pri- marily for the walls around houses and farmyards. The method used today begins with dumping loose soil into wooden frames, then pounding it into thin layers with wooden logs. At archaeological sites, the impressions of the pounders are often still visible on the top layer of the wall. Ancient rammed earth can be nearly as hard as concrete. The most massive rammed earth structure from the Shang period excavated so far is the wall surrounding the city of Zhengzhou (juhng-joe) in Henan (huh-nahn) province. It is about 1,800 meters on each side and about 9 meters tall. The base of the wall was as much as 20 meters thick. Chinese archaeologists have estimated that it contained 870,000 cubic meters of rammed earth, which would have required a labor force of ten thousand men working for eight years to dig the soil, trans- port it to the site, and pound it into a wall. Earthen Walls. Walls are still constructed of rammed earth today. A frame of logs is built, the earth is pounded into place, and after it is dry, the frame is removed. Rammed Earth Ro na
ld G . K na pp 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 11 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 12 Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) others in ritual vessels. Another important product was silk made from the cocoons of the silkworm, which fed on the leaves of mulberry trees. Silk from Shang China has recently been discovered in an Egyptian tomb, evidence that its importance as an item of east–west trade began very early. At the level of technology, the life of Shang farm- ers was not very different from that of their Neolithic ancestors. They lived in small, compact villages, sur- rounded by fields that they worked with stone tools.
Millet continued to be the basic grain, but some new crops became common in Shang times, most nota- bly wheat, which had spread from West Asia. Sheep, cattle, and pigs were all raised. The primary difference between Shang farmers and their Neolithic predecessors is the huge gulf that separated them from the most powerful in their soci- ety. Shang rulers could command the labor of thou- sands of men for long periods of time. Huge work forces were mobilized to build the rammed earth city walls, dig the great tombs, open new lands, and fight in wars. Some scholars assume that those la- boring for the king were slaves, perhaps acquired through warfare. Others speculate that these labor- ers also included conscripts called up as needed from among the serf-like farmers. Whatever the status of the workers, coercion, backed by violence, was an essential element of the Shang state. Writing The inscribed oracle bones demonstrate that writing was already a major element in Chinese culture by 1200 b.c.e. Writing must have been invented ear- lier, but the early stages of its development cannot be traced, probably because it was done on perishable materials like wood, bamboo, or silk. What impact did writing have? Literacy is an ally of political control, facilitating communication across an expanding realm. From the oracle bones, we know that Shang kept records of enemies slain, booty taken, animals bagged in hunts, and other information, using lunar months and ten-day and sixty-day cycles to record dates.
Although only about 40 percent of the five thou- sand or so characters used on Shang divination texts have been deciphered, there is no longer any doubt that the language and the writing system of the Shang are directly ancestral to both the language and the writing systems of later Chinese. This script was logographic, similar to ancient Egyptian and on them. The 130 weapons found in this tomb show that Lady Hao took an interest in military affairs. There were also 755 jade objects, 63 stone ones, and 564 made of bone. From inscribed bones found elsewhere at Anyang, we know that Lady Hao led several military campaigns, once with thirteen thou- sand troops against the Qiang (chyahng) tribes to the west. Some of the objects in her tomb appear to be tributes sent to Anyang from distant places. These include both bronze vessels from the south and knives and mirrors from the Northern Zone (oc- cupied by non-Han peoples, discussed below). In addition to objects of symbolic value or prac- tical use, the Shang interred human beings, some- times dozens of them, in royal tombs. Why did they do this? From oracle bone texts, it seems that cap- tives not needed as slaves often ended up as sacrifi - cial victims. Other people buried with the king had chosen their fate; that is, his spouses, retainers, or servants could decide to accompany him in death. Those who voluntarily followed their king to the grave generally had their own ornaments and might also have coffins and grave goods such as weapons. Early Shang graves rarely had more than three vic- tims or followers accompanying the main occupant, but the practice grew over time. A late Shang king’s
tomb contained the remains of ninety followers plus seventy-four human sacrifices (not to mention the twelve horses and eleven dogs). Archaeologists often can identify sacrificial victims because they were de- capitated or cut in two at the waist. Human sacrifice was not confined to burials. Div- ination texts refer to ceremonies where from three to four hundred captives were sacrificed. In 1976, twelve hundred victims were found in 191 pits near the royal tombs, apparently representing successive sacrifices of a few dozen victims each. Animals were also frequently offered in sacrifice. Divinations pro- posed the sacrifice of one hundred, two hundred, or three hundred cattle, sheep, pigs, or dogs. What about those in Shang society who were not buried in well-furnished tombs? The Shang nobility lived in large houses built on platforms of rammed earth. Those lower down on the social scale often lived in homes built partly below ground level, prob- ably as a way to conserve heat. In the urban centers, substantial numbers of crafts- men worked in stone, bone, bronze, and clay. Their workshops, concentrated in certain sections of the city, were often quite specialized. Some workshops specialized in hairpins, others in arrowheads, and 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 12 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 13 longer than learning to read a phonetic script. Thus, because China retained its logographic writing sys- tem, it takes many years of study for a person to master reading and writing. Why did China retain a logographic writing sys- tem even after encounters with phonetic systems? Although phonetic systems make learning to read easier, there are costs to abandoning a logographic system. Those who learned to read Chinese could communicate with a wider range of people than those who read scripts based on speech. Because Chinese characters remained recognizable after the passage of many centuries, despite phonological change, educated Chinese could read texts written centuries earlier without needing them to be trans- lated. Moreover, as the Chinese language developed mutually unintelligible regional variants, readers of Chinese could read books and letters by contempo- raries whose oral language they could not compre- hend. Thus, the Chinese script played a large role in holding China together and fostering a sense of con- nection with the past. For the history of East Asia, the Chinese script has a further significance. Korea, Japan, and Vietnam all began writing by adopting the Chinese script.
Metalworking As in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India, the develop- ment of more complex forms of social organiza- tion in Shang China coincided with the mastery of metalworking, specifically bronze. Beginning about 2000 b.c.e., people learned to prospect metals, re- move them from their ores, and fashion them into tools or ornaments. The next stage, reached by about 1500 b.c.e., involved large-scale production. In Shang times, bronze was used more for ritual than for war. Most surviving Shang bronze objects are vessels such as cups, goblets, steamers, and caul - drons, which originally would have been used to hold food and wine offered to the ancestors or gods during sacrificial ceremonies. Both kings and nobles owned bronze vessels, but the kings had many more. When compared to bronze objects made in other early societies, Chinese bronzes stand out for their quantity, their decoration, and the ways they were manufactured. Shang bronze-making required a large labor force to mine, refine, and transport cop- per, tin, and lead ores and to produce and transport charcoal. To achieve the high degree of precision and standardization evident from surviving bronze Sumerian, meaning that each word was represented by a single graph (character). In the Chinese case, some of these graphs began as pictures, but other methods were adopted to represent the names of abstract concepts. Sometimes the graph for a dif- ferent word was borrowed because the two words were pronounced alike. As in later times, sometimes two different graphs were combined; for instance, to
represent different types of trees, the graph for tree could be combined with the graph for another word that sounded like the name of a kind of tree. More than half of the characters found on oracle bones combine components in these ways. In western Eurasia, logographic scripts were even- tually modified or replaced by phonetic scripts, but that never happened in China (though, because of changes in the spoken language, many words today are represented by two or three characters rather than a single one). Basic literacy requires knowing the characters for two or three thousand common words, and well-educated people learn a couple of thousand more. Because characters are composed of a few hundred components, this task is not as daunt- ing as it may seem at first, but it still takes much Th e G ra ng er C ol le ct io n
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06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
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06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line
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06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 91112 1105 AMChinese line

  • 1. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM Chinese line of control; Indian claim I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
  • 2. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
  • 11. Lop Nur Lake Qinghai Dongting Lake Lake Tai Poyang Lake P A C I F I C O C E A N S e a o f J a p a n E a s t C h i n a S e a B a y o f B e n g a l S o u t h
  • 12. C h i n a S e a Y e l l o w S e a Bay of Bohai HEILONGJIANG JILIN LIAONING NEI MENGGU HEBEI BEIJING
  • 14. SHANGHAI S I C H U A N HUBEI GUIZHOU HUNAN JIANGXI FUJIAN GUANGXI GUANGDONG T A IW A N HAINAN YUNNAN HONG KONG C H O N G QI
  • 16. N D S � VIETNAM LAOS THAILAND MYANMAR INDIA BHUTAN NEPAL PAKISTAN KAZAKHSTAN M O N G O L I A KYRGYZSTAN PHILIPPINES TAJIKISTAN BANGLADESH C H I N A NORTH
  • 17. KOREA SOUTH KOREA J A P A N A L T A Y � � � M O U N T A I N S � H I M A L A Y A N � � � � M O U
  • 18. N T A I N S � T I A N � M O U N T A I N S � K U N L U N � � � M O U N T A I N S � P A M I R � T a r i m � B a s i n � Q I N G � Z A N G P L A T E A U Modern�Grand�Canal Great�Wall Province�boundaries�in�China North�China�Plain Area�of�major�loess�deposits I I I 0 200�Mi.100 0 200�Km.100 06512_fm_rev04.indd 1 9/19/12 10:28 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
  • 19. not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 2 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia 06512_fm_rev04.indd 3 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage
  • 20. Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 4 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia: To 1800 A Cultural, Social, and Political History Third Edition Patricia EbrEy University of Washington—Seattle annE Walthall University of california—irvine Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 06512_fm_rev04.indd 5 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
  • 21. not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
  • 22. © 2014, 2009, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2012941790 ISBN-13: 978-1-133-60651-2 ISBN-10: 1-133-60651-2 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning
  • 23. solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local office at international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources. Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History To 1800, Third Edition Ebrey/Walthall Editor-in-Chief: Lynn Uhl Senior Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Acquiring Sponsoring Editor: Brooke Barbier Development Editor: Elisa Adams Assistant Editor: Jamie Bushell Editorial Assistant: Katie Coaster Brand Manager: Melissa Larmon
  • 24. Marketing Development Manager: Kyle Zimmerman Senior Content Project Manager: Carol Newman Senior Art Director: Cate Rickard Barr Manufacturing Buyer: Sandee Milewski Senior Rights Acquisition Specialist: Jennifer Meyer Dare Text Designer: Theurer/Briggs Associates Cover Designer: Sarah Bishins Cover Image: Detail from Wang Xizhi Watching Geese, Qian Xuan (Chinese, ca. 1235–before 1307), Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), ca. 1295, China. Handscroll; ink, color, and gold on paper/© The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, NY Production Service/Compositor: Cenveo Publisher Services For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected]
  • 25. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12 06512_fm_rev04.indd 6 9/13/12 10:34 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Maps and Figures xv Preface xvii Conventions xxi PART ONE the Foundations of East asian civilization in china 1 Chapter 1 china in the bronze age: the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) 8 Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) 20 Chapter 3 the Founding of the bureaucratic
  • 26. Empire: Qin-han china (256 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) 36 Chapter 4 Political Division in china and the Spread of buddhism (200–580) 61 Chapter 5 the cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and tang china (581–960) 75 PART TwO the Emergence of East asian civilization 97 Chapter 6 Early Korea to 935 98 Chapter 7 Early State and Society in Japan (to 794) 114 Chapter 8 china among Equals: Song, liao, Xia, and Jin 129 Chapter 9 heian Japan (794–ca. 1180) 148 Chapter 10 Goryeo Korea (935–1392) 169 Chapter 11 Kamakura Japan (1180–1333) 183 Chapter 12 china Under Mongol rule (1215–1368) 198 PART THREE Meeting new challenges (1300–1800) 211 Chapter 13 Japan’s Middle ages (1330–1600) 212 Chapter 14 the Ming Empire in china
  • 27. (1368–1644) 227 Chapter 15 Joseon Korea (1392–1800) 247 Chapter 16 the creation of the Manchu Empire (1600–1800) 270 Chapter 17 Edo Japan (1603–1800) 288 Index I-1 b R i E f C O N T E N T s vii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 7 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 8 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
  • 28. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Maps and Figures xv Preface xvii Conventions xxi PART ONE the Foundations of East asian civilization in china 1 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 2 Chapter 1 china in the bronze age: the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) 8 The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent 9 The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 10 MATEriAl CulTurE: Rammed Earth 11 Writing 12 Metalworking 13 Developments Outside the Shang Core 14 The Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 b.c.e.) 15 DoCuMEnTs: The Book of Songs 16 The Mandate of Heaven 16
  • 29. The Zhou Political Structure 17 Western Zhou Society and Culture 18 Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) 20 The Multistate System of the Eastern Zhou 21 BiogrAPhy: Guan Zhong 22 Warfare and Its Consequences 23 DoCuMEnTs: The King of Zhao Convinces His Uncle to Wear Barbarian Dress 25 The Hundred Schools of Thought 26 Confucius and the Analects 26 Mozi 27 Mencius 28 Xunzi 29 Daoism and the Laozi and Zhuangzi 30 Legalism 31 Yin and Yang 32 The Art of War 32 The World of Spirits 32 MATEriAl CulTurE: Lacquer 33 Warring States Literature and Art: The Case of Chu 33 Chapter 3 the Founding of the bureaucratic Empire: Qin-han china (256 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) 36 The Qin Unification (256–206 b.c.e.) 37 The First Emperor (r. 221–210 b.c.e.) 38
  • 30. The First Emperor’s Tomb 39 Qin Law 41 The Xiongnu and the Great Wall 41 The Han Dynasty (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) 42 Official Support for Confucianism 44 Wang Mang 44 Palace Eunuchs 44 Intellectual, Literary, and Religious Currents 45 Han Confucianism 45 DoCuMEnTs: Lucky and Unlucky Days 46 Sima Qian and the Records of the Grand Historian 47 BiogrAPhy: The Ban Family 49 Chinese Society in Han Times 49 Common Farmers 49 Elite Groups 50 The Family 51 C O N T E N T s ix 06512_fm_rev04.indd 9 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
  • 31. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Central Asia and the Silk Road 52 MATEriAl CulTurE: Silk from the Silk Road 53 Borderlands 53 The Case of Vietnam 54 Maintaining the Empire 54 Connections: Buddhism in India and Its Spread Along the Silk Road 56 Chapter 4 Political Division in china and the Spread of buddhism (200–580) 61 The Three Kingdoms (220–265) and the Western Jin Dynasty (265–316) 62 Non-Chinese Dominance in the North 65 The Northern Wei and Hybrid Xianbei-Chinese Culture 66 The Revolt of the Garrisons and the Division of the North 67 The Southern Dynasties 67 Aristocratic Culture 68
  • 32. BiogrAPhy: Yan Zhitui (531–591+) 69 Poetry, Calligraphy, and Painting as Arts of Men of Letters 69 The Buddhist Conquest of China 70 MATEriAl CulTurE: Cave 285 at Dunhuang 71 Daoist Religion 72 DoCuMEnTs: The Monastery of Eternal Tranquility 73 Chapter 5 the cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and tang china (581–960) 75 The Northwest Military Aristocracy and the Sui Reunification of China 76 The Founding of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) 77 The Tang at Its Height 79 MATEriAl CulTurE: Tea 80 The Tang Elite 81 Empress Wu 82 Emperor Xuanzong 84 The Rebellion of An Lushan (755–763) and Its Aftermath 84 The Achievements of Tang Men of Letters 86
  • 33. BiogrAPhy: Du Fu (712–777), Confucian Poet 87 DoCuMEnTs: Poking Fun 88 The Dunhuang Documents 90 The Tang Dynasty’s Final Decades and the Five Dynasties 91 Connections: Cultural Contact Across Eurasia (600–900) 93 PART TwO the Emergence of East asian civilization 97 Chapter 6 Early Korea to 935 98 Geographical Setting 98 The Early Historical Period (200 b.c.e.–313 c.e.) 100 The North: Joseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, and the Chinese Commanderies 100 The South: The Three Han (Samhan [SAM-han]) 101 DoCuMEnTs: The Widow of King Gogukcheon 102 The Three Kingdoms: Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla (313–668) 103
  • 34. Unification by Silla (581–668) 105 Unified Silla (668–892) 106 Society and Culture 107 BiogrAPhy: Gangsu, the Scribe 109 MATEriAl CulTurE: Seokguram Grotto 110 Balhae (698–926) 110 x Contents 06512_fm_rev04.indd 10 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents xi Gender Roles and Family Life 141 BiogrAPhy: The Cai Family of Geomancers 142 DoCuMEnTs: Tales of Retribution 144
  • 35. Religion in Song Life 144 MATEriAl CulTurE: Huang Sheng’s Clothing 146 Chapter 9 heian Japan (794–ca. 1180) 148 The Age of Kingly Rule (ca. 794–900) 148 Taira no Masakado’s Rebellion 149 Early Heian Culture 150 Transformations in Religious Practice 150 BiogrAPhy: Sugawara no Michizane 152 The Fujiwara Era (900–1050) 152 Marriage and Politics 153 The Heyday of Aristocratic Culture 154 MATEriAl CulTurE: Writing Japanese 155 DoCuMEnTs: Sanbōe (The Three Jewels) 156 Buddhism and the Fujiwara 157 Rule by Retired Monarchs (1086–1180) 158 The Estate System 160 Connections: The Mongols 162 Chapter 10 Goryeo Korea (935–1392) 169 Early Goryeo Government (935–1170) 169 The Changing International Context (943–1146) 171
  • 36. Society and Culture in the Goryeo Period 172 MATEriAl CulTurE: Celadon 173 Family and Kinship 173 DoCuMEnTs: Popular Songs 174 Buddhism and Confucianism 174 History-Writing 176 Making Comparisons: Languages and Writing Systems 113 Chapter 7 Early State and Society in Japan (to 794) 114 The Geography of the Japanese Archipelago 115 Early Kingship in Late Yayoi (ca. 100–350) 115 The Korea Connection 117 Ancient Religion 117 The Formation of a Centered Polity (350–794) 118 The China Connection 118 MATEriAl CulTurE: Haniwa 119 Fixing the Capital at Nara 120 The Conquest of Emishi and Hayato 122 The Introduction of Buddhism 122 DoCuMEnTs: Poems from Man’yō shū and Nihon shoki 124 Elite Culture 125 A Stagnant Agricultural Base 126
  • 37. Chapter 8 china among Equals: Song, liao, Xia, and Jin 129 The Founding of the Song Dynasty 130 Song’s Rivals: Liao and Xia 130 A New Era 132 The Medieval Chinese Economic Revolution 132 International Trade 133 The Song Scholar-Official Class 134 Reformers and Anti-Reformers 136 The Fall of the Northern Song and the Establishment of the Jin Dynasty 138 Hangzhou and the Southern Song (1127–1276) 139 Song Culture and Society 140 The Revival of Confucianism and the Learning of the Way 140 06512_fm_rev04.indd 11 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any
  • 38. time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Military Rule and the Mongol Invasions (1170–1259) 176 Choe Family Dominance 177 The Mongols 177 Goryeo Under Mongol Domination (1260–1351) 178 BiogrAPhy: Lady Ki, Consort of the Mongol Emperor 180 Making Comparisons: Monarchical Institutions 182 Chapter 11 Kamakura Japan (1180–1333) 183 Rise of the Warrior 183 Prelude to Kamakura Rule (1156–1185) 186 Military Government at Kamakura (1180–1333) 186 Family Politics 187 Kamakura Shogunate 188 Toward Intensive Agriculture and Economic Growth 189 DoCuMEnTs: The Estate Stewards in Legal Documents 190
  • 39. Buddhism 192 Literature and Popular Arts 193 The Mongol Invasions (1271–1281) 194 MATEriAl CulTurE: Portrait Sculpture 195 BiogrAPhy: Nichiren 195 Fall of the Kamakura Regime (1293–1333) 196 Chapter 12 china Under Mongol rule (1215–1368) 198 The Mongol Conquest of the Jin and Xia Dynasties 198 The Mongol Conquest of the Southern Song 200 Khubilai 200 Crossing the Yangzi River 201 DoCuMEnTs: The Luoluo 202 Life in China Under the Mongols 202 BiogrAPhy: Hao Jing, Imprisoned Envoy 204 MATEriAl CulTurE: Blue-and-White Porcelain 205 The Chinese Educated Elite During the Mongol Era 206 Drama 208 Making Comparisons: Food Cultures 210
  • 40. PART THREE Meeting new challenges (1300–1800) 211 Chapter 13 Japan’s Middle ages (1330–1600) 212 New Political Alignments (1338–1573) 212 How the Ashikaga Shoguns Governed Japan 213 Changes in Roles for Women 214 Trade in Town and Country 214 BiogrAPhy: Hino Meishi 215 Life on the Margins 217 Changes in Religious Practice 217 Muromachi Culture 218 MATEriAl CulTurE: The Matchlock 219 Civil War (1467–1600) 219 DoCuMEnTs: The Journal of Sō chō 220 Local Leagues 221 Rise of Warlords 223 The Conquerors 223 Chapter 14 the Ming Empire in china (1368–1644) 227 The Founding of the Ming Dynasty 228 Ming Taizu, the Hongwu Emperor 228 Chengzu, the Yongle Emperor 229 Weaknesses of the Imperial Institution 230 xii Contents
  • 41. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 12 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 16 the creation of the Manchu Empire (1600–1800) 270 The Manchus 271 Ming Loyalism 272 The Qing at Its Height 273 Kangxi 274 BiogrAPhy: Jiang Chun, Salt Merchant 275 Qianlong 276 The Banner System 277 DoCuMEnTs: Fang Bao’s “Random Notes from Prison” 278 Contacts with Europe 280 Social and Cultural Crosscurrents 281 The Conservative Turn 281
  • 42. The Dream of Red Mansions 281 MATEriAl CulTurE: Jin Nong’s Inscribed Portrait of a Buddhist Monk 282 The Less Advantaged and the Disaffected 283 Chapter 17 Edo Japan (1603–1800) 288 Tokugawa Settlement (Seventeenth Century) 288 Government 289 Agricultural Transformations and the Commercial Revolution 291 MATEriAl CulTurE: Night Soil 294 Urban Life and Culture 294 DoCuMEnTs: Ihara Saikaku’s “Sensible Advice on Domestic Economy” 296 Intellectual Trends 296 BiogrAPhy: Tadano Makuzu, Daughter of the Samurai 299 Maturation and Decay (Eighteenth Century) 299 Popular Culture 300 Hard Times and Rural Uprisings 301 Making Comparisons: Neo-Confucianism 304 Index I-1 Diplomacy and Defense 231 Zheng He’s Voyages 232 The Mongols and the Great Wall 233
  • 43. Trade and Piracy Along China’s Coasts 234 Social and Cultural Trends 234 The Educated Class and the Examination Life 234 Wang Yangming’s Challenge to Confucian Orthodoxy 237 BiogrAPhy: Tan Yunxian, Woman Doctor 238 Local Society 240 MATEriAl CulTurE: Gardens of Suzhou 241 Urban Culture 241 DoCuMEnTs: Scene from The Peony Pavilion 242 Dynastic Decline 244 Chapter 15 Joseon Korea (1392–1800) 247 Yi Seonggye’s Rise to Power 247 Kings and Yangban Confucian Officials 249 Dynastic Decline and the Japanese Invasion 251 MATEriAl CulTurE: Yangban Children’s Board Games 252 BiogrAPhy: Interpreter Jeong Myeongsu 253 Relations with the Manchus 254
  • 44. Internal Politics in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 255 Economic Growth and the Decline of Slavery 257 DoCuMEnTs: Lady Hyegyeong’s Memoirs 258 Cultural Developments 258 Literature 258 Northern Learning 260 Christianity and Western Learning 260 The Family and Women in the Confucian Age 261 Making Comparisons: Women’s Situations 264 Connections: Europe Enters the Scene 265 Contents xiii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 13 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 14 9/11/12 11:05 AM
  • 45. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Map C1.1 Neolithic Sites in East Asia 3 Map 1.1 Western Zhou China 9 Map 2.1 Zhou States in the Sixth Century b.c.e. 21 Map 3.1 The Han Empire at Its Maximum Extent, ca. 50 b.c.e. 37 Map C2.1 Expansion of Buddhism from 500 b.c.e. to 800 c.e. 59 Map 4.1 Rise and Fall of States During the Period of Division 63 Map 5.1 Tang China 81 Map C3.1 Map of Asian Trade and Communication Routes in the Sixth–Tenth Centuries 94 Map 6.1 Korea, 200 b.c.e.–100 b.c.e. 99 Map 6.2 Goguryeo at Its Largest Extent, Late Fifth Century c.e. 104
  • 46. Map 6.3 Silla After Conquest of Han River Region in 552 c.e. 106 Map 7.1 Islands of Japan 116 Map 7.2 Kinai Area of Japan 121 Map 8.1 Northern Song, Liao, and Xia, ca. 1050 131 Map 8.2 Southern Song, Jin, and Xia, ca. 1200 139 Map C4.1 Map of Mongol Conquests 166 Map 10.1 Goryeo Dynasty After 1126 171 Map 11.1 Major Provinces, Regions, and Cities in Japan 184 Map 11.2 Site of the Mongol Invasions 196 Map 13.1 Kyoto in the Tenth–Eleventh Centuries and Its Transformation in the Sixteenth Century 222 Map 14.1 The Ming Empire 235 Map 15.1 Joseon Dynasty, 1392–1910 250 Map C5.1 Seaborne Trading Empires in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 266 Map 16.1 The Manchu Empire at Its Height 272
  • 47. Map 17.1 Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1868 292 M A P s A N d f i G U R E s xv figure C1.1 Dolmens 6 figure 1.1 Mold for Bronze Casting 14 figure 3.1 Standardizing the Writing System 38 figure 5.1 Layout of Chang’an and One of the Cities Modeled on It Outside China 79 figure 15.1 Hangul Chart 248 06512_fm_rev04.indd 15 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 16 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due
  • 48. to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. there are many reasons to learn about East Asia. A fifth of the world’s population lives there. Every day newspapers carry articles on the rapid transformations of the world economy that make China, Japan, and Korea a growing presence in our lives. Globalization means not only that people are crossing the Pacific in ever-increasing numbers but also that U.S. popular culture is drawing from many sources in East Asia, from Korean martial arts to Japanese anime and Chinese films. But why approach East Asia through its history rather than, say, its economy or contemporary cul- ture? Many reasons suggest themselves. We cannot gain an adequate understanding of modern phe- nomena without knowing the stages and processes that led up to them. Moreover, the peoples of East Asia are strongly historically minded. To a much greater extent than in the United States, they know and identify with people and events of a thousand or more years ago. In all three countries, readers still enjoy The Three Kingdoms, a novel written in fourteenth-century China about the leaders of three contending states in third-century China. Historical consciousness also underlies the strong sense of sep- arate identities among the people of China, Korea,
  • 49. and Japan. The fact that time and again Korea was able to protect its independence despite the attempts of both China and Japan to conquer it is a central part of Korean identity today. Yet another reason to learn about East Asia’s past is its comparative value. As a region that developed nearly independently of the West, East Asia sheds light on the variety of ways human beings have found meaning, formed communities, and governed themselves, expanding our understanding of the human condition. What makes this East Asian history book distinc- tive? In it we cover all three countries from a broad range of perspectives, from the earliest signs of human civilization to the present, and we balance the big picture with specific cases. While availing our- selves of the framework provided by politics, we also focus on culture, social issues, and economic change. What iS nEW in thE thirD EDitiOn Our first goal in revising this book has been to bring it up to date—to cover the last few years and take account of new scholarship. But we have also put a lot of thought into how we can best serve our audience. Teachers and students who used the first and second editions of this book have told us how much they liked our coverage of social and cultural history, our mini-chapter “Connections,” and our boxed features—the Documents, Biogra- phies, Material Culture, and Making Comparisons features. With their encouragement, we continue to scrutinize our choices and in this edition offer sev- eral new ones, including new Material Culture fea- tures on Japanese portrait statues and matchlocks and China’s recent high-speed trains; new biogra-
  • 50. phies of a Korean interpreter, a Japanese radical samurai, and a Chinese geomancer; and new docu- ments from the Book of Songs for the Zhou period and “Wild Lilies,” for the twentieth century. We also have added an additional Making Compari- sons feature on languages. Two more pervasive changes also deserve mention. On the advice of instructors who have used this book in class, we have added two ped- agogical aids. The first is pronunciation glosses aimed to give students the courage to pronounce foreign words in their heads while reading, and out loud in class. These glosses do not aim for linguistic precision; their sole purpose is to help U.S. students approximate the sounds of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean words. The second addition we have made is to add criti- cal thinking questions at the end of all the documents and biographies. It is our hope that these questions will encourage students to pause and think about what they are reading. Teachers might also consider asking students to prepare answers to them. The overall conception of this book remains the same as it was from the first edition. The following distinctive characteristics are worth underlining. P R E f A C E xvii 06512_fm_rev04.indd 17 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
  • 51. not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. cOMParablE cOVEraGE OF KOrEa Part of our original plan for this book was to cover Korea in comparable depth as China and Japan (we ended up giving China about 50 percent of the space, Japan 30 percent, and Korea 20 percent). We know that many teachers have been frustrated in their at- tempts to cover Korea in their East Asia courses for lack of suitable materials and hope that our efforts prove useful to both them and their students. a brOaD FOcUS: CONNECTIONS chaPtErS It is often difficult to keep the larger whole in mind as we tell the separate stories of China, Korea, and Japan. Our solution has been to periodically zoom out to look at the wider region from a global or world-historical perspective. Thus, after every few chapters we have inserted a mini-chapter on devel- opments that link the societies of East Asia both to each other and to the larger global context. We have labeled these mini-chapters “Connections” be- cause they emphasize the many ways each society was connected to outside events and people. For in- stance, the origins and spread of Buddhism are of
  • 52. great importance to all the societies of East Asia, but much of the story can be told as a common narra- tive that connects East Asia with the rest of Asia. Similarly, many books write about World War II in East Asia in entirely different ways in their China and Japan chapters. By stepping back and writing about the war from a more global perspective, we help students see the larger picture. balancED cUltUral, SOcial, anD POlitical hiStOry This book strives for balanced coverage of the differ - ent strands of history. A basic political narrative is essential to give students a firm sense of chronology and to let them think about issues of change. More- over, there is no denying that the creation of state structures has much to do with how people lived their lives. Even the fact that people think of them- selves as “Chinese,” “Korean,” or “Japanese” is largely a by-product of political history. We also believe students should gain an under- standing of the philosophies and religions of East Asia. Confucianism and Buddhism have both been of great importance throughout the region, but in very diverse ways, as the historical context has con- tinually changed. Other elements of high culture also deserve coverage, such as the arts of poetry and calligraphy. Yet we did not want to neglect topics in social, cultural, and economic history, where much of our own work has been concentrated. Even if the state is important to understanding how people lived, so were families, villages, and religious sects. We also
  • 53. wanted to bring in the results of scholarship on those who had been marginalized in the traditional histories, from laborers and minorities to women at all social levels. MaKinG cOMPariSOnS There are many similarities among the cultures of East Asia, often because of their direct influence on each other and the wide circulation of some core philosophical, religious, and literary texts. Yet dif- ferences are at least as significant and interesting. To help students take stock of what they have learned, from time to time we provide a brief, one-page dis- cussion placed between chapters that compares features of the three countries. The topics in the third edition are languages, food cultures, monarchical institutions, women’s situations, neo-Confucianism, slavery, and popular religion. a SPEciFic FOcUS: biOGraPhiES, DOcUMEntS, anD MatErial cUltUrE The potential danger of trying to cover so much is a high level of generalization. To keep our readers en- gaged and bring our story down to earth, we devote three or four pages per chapter to closer looks at specific people, documents, and material objects. biographies Most chapters have a one-page biography, often about someone who would not normally be mentioned xviii Preface
  • 54. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 18 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. in a history book. We thus highlight a diverse set of individuals, from the most accomplished (such as the eminent Chinese poet Du Fu) to those who are re- markably ordinary people (such as a woman whose job was to mind the neighborhood telephone). Three military men are portrayed; others were physicians, interpreters, entrepreneurs, and founders of religious sects. We also have included some agitators and revolutionaries, and even a winning volleyball coach. Documents In our chapters we frequently cite short passages from primary sources, but we believe students also benefit from texts long enough to give them a sense of the genre, the author’s point of view, and the cir- cumstances described. A few of those we have includ- ed are by famous writers, such as Fukuzawa Yūkichi and Lu Xun. Some are excerpted from well-known pieces of literature, such as the play The Peony Pavilion and ancient Japanese poetry collections. Others will be less familiar to teachers and students
  • 55. alike. We selected legal documents, for what they re- veal of ordinary people’s lives, and religious texts of several sorts to help students see religion and popular beliefs in action. Many authors are utterly serious, complaining bitterly of war or corruption, for in- stance; others have well-developed senses of humor. All the documents prompt active involvement and critical interpretation because through them students hear the concerns of people of the past. Material culture Texts are not our only sources for reconstructing the past; there is much to be discovered from material remains of many sorts. To give focus to this dimension of history, for each chapter we have selected one ele- ment of material culture to describe in some detail. These range from the most mundane—food, drink, clothing, houses, and means of transportation—to objects of art including specific paintings, sculptures, and performing arts. Many of the objects discussed have economic significance—for example, fertilizers and the Grand Canal. Most of the features for the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries bring out ways material culture has changed, along with so much else in modern times—from the food people eat to their ways of amusing themselves to technological ad- vances such as the transistor that continue to have an impact not only in Asia but across the world. thinKinG liKE a hiStOrian The “Documents” and “Material Culture” features challenge students to draw inferences from primary materials much as historians do. Another way we have
  • 56. tried to help students learn to think like historians is to present history as a set of questions more than a set of answers. What historians are able to say about a period or topic depends not only on the sources avail - able but also on the questions asked. To help students see this, we begin each chapter with a brief discussion of some of the questions that motivate contemporary historians to do research on the time period. Few have easy answers; they are not questions students will be able to resolve simply by reading the chapter. Rather they are real questions, interesting enough to moti- vate historians to sift through recalcitrant evidence in their efforts to find answers. The earliest chapter on Korea, for instance, poses the question of how the three states on the Korean peninsula were able to survive in the face of Chinese power. The chapter on early nineteenth-century Japan points out that histo- rians have studied the period for clues to the causes of the Meiji Restoration, wanting to know the rela- tive weight to assign to foreign pressure and domestic unrest. For the chapter dealing with China under the Nationalists, we point out that the desire to explain the Communist victory in 1949 has motivated his- torians to ponder why May Fourth Liberalism lost its appeal and whether the economic politics of the Nationalists could have brought prosperity to China if Japan had not invaded. We hope that posing these questions will help readers see the significance of the topics and issues presented in each chapter. USinG thiS tEXt in claSS East Asian history is commonly taught either as a one-term or one-year course. To fit both schedules, this text is available as a single volume and as two divided chronologically. Since those who divide
  • 57. Preface xix 06512_fm_rev04.indd 19 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. chronologically might prefer to break at either 1600 or 1800, the period 1600–1800 appears in both the chronologically divided volumes. inStrUctOr SUPPlEMEnt eInstructor’s Resource Manual Prepared by Ethan Segal, Michigan State University. This manual has many features, including learning objectives, chapter outlines, discussion/essay questions, key terms, and activities for the classroom. Available on the instruc- tor’s companion website. acKnOWlEDGMEntS For the first edition of this book, the three authors divided the work primarily by country of special- ization, with Patricia Ebrey writing the parts on China, Anne Walthall those on Japan, and James
  • 58. Palais those on Korea. The Connections chapters we divided among ourselves chronologically, with Patricia Ebrey taking the early ones (on Prehis- tory, Buddhism, Cultural Contact Across Eurasia, and the Mongols), Anne Walthall taking the early modern and modern ones (on Europe Enters the Scene, Western Imperialism, and World War II), and James Palais doing the final one on East Asia in the Twenty-First Century. Our original co-author, James Palais, passed away shortly after the first edi- tion was printed in summer 2006. For the second and third editions, Patricia Ebrey revised James Palais’s chapters covering up to 1800 and Anne Walthall the remainder. Many people have contributed to the shaping of this book. The authors have been teaching about the societies of East Asia for three decades, and the ways they approach their subjects owe much to ques- tions from their students, conversations with their colleagues, and the outpouring of scholarship in their fields. As we worked on this text, we received much advice from others, from early suggestions of possible collaborators to critiques of our original proposal and reviews of the drafts of our chapters. The reviewers’ reports prompted us to rethink some generalizations, urged us not to weigh the book down with too much detail, and saved us from a number of embarrassing errors. We appreciate the time and attention the following reviewers gave to helping us produce a better book: James Anderson, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; R. David Arkush, University of Iowa; Charles Armstrong, Columbia University; Richard
  • 59. Bohr, College of Saint Benedict & Saint John; Craig N. Canning, College of William and Mary; Henry Chan, Minnesota State University; Alan Christy, Univer- sity of California, SC; Sue Fawn Chung, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Parks Coble, University of Nebraska; Anthony DeBlasi, University of Albany; Ronald G. Dimberg, University of Virginia; Franklin M. Doeringer, Lawrence University; Alexis Dudden, Connecticut College; Gordon Dutter, Monroe Com- munity College; Susan Fernsebner, Mary Wash- ington College; Karl Friday, University of Georgia; James Gao, University of Maryland; Karl Gerth, Uni- versity of South Carolina; Andrew Goble, University of Oregon; John B. Henderson, Louisiana State Uni- versity; Robert Henry, Grossmont College; Jennifer Holt-Dilley, University of Texas at San Antonio; Jeff Hornibrook, SUNY Plattsburgh; William Johnston, Wesleyan University; Fujiya Kawashima, Bowling Green State University; Sun Joo Kim, Harvard Uni- versity; Ari Daniel Levine, University of Georgia; Huaiyin Li, University of Missouri- Columbia; Jeff Long, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania; Andrew McGreevy, Ohio University-Lancaster; Angelene Naw, Judson College; Steve Phillips, Towson University; Jonathan Porter, University of New Mexico; Wesley Sasaki-Uemura, University of Utah; Edward Slack, Eastern Washington University; S. A. Thornton, Arizona State University; Constan- tine Vaporis, University of Maryland, BC; Lu Yan, University of New Hampshire; Ka-che Yip, Univer- sity of Maryland, Baltimore County; Theodore Jun Yoo, University of Hawaii at Manoa. We also are grateful for all the work put into this book by the editorial staff at Wadsworth, Cengage Learning: Brooke Barbier, Elisa Adams, Jamie Bushell,
  • 60. and Katie Coaster. xx Preface 06512_fm_rev04.indd 20 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. throughout this book names are given in East Asian order, with family name preceding personal name. Thus Mao Zedong was from the Mao family, Ashikaga Takauji from the Ashikaga family, and Yi Sŏnggye from the Yi family. Both Japanese and Korean have phonetic scripts (Japanese a syllabary, Korean an alphabet), though Japanese additionally makes extensive use of Chinese characters. There are standard ways to tran- scribe these scripts into our alphabet. Here we have used the Hepburn system for transcribing Japanese. For Korean, we have used the revised romanization system of the Ministry of Culture in South Korea. Chinese does not have a phonetic script. In this book the pinyin system of romanization has been adopted.
  • 61. The basic vowels, a, e, i, o, and u in all three lan- guages are pronounced as in Italian, German, and Spanish. a as in father e as in end i as the first e in eve (although in Chinese if it comes after an s, ch, or z, it is pronounced as the e in the) o as in old (shorter in length and with less of the ou sound of English) u as in rude (shorter in length than English) The macron over the ō or ū in Japanese indicates that the vowel is “long,” taking twice as long to say, as though it were doubled. Macrons have been omit- ted from common place names well known without them, such as Tokyo and Kyoto. ü in Chinese (used only after l or n) is like the German ü. The three languages are not so similar when one vowel follows another. In the case of Japanese, each vowel is pronounced as a separate syllable (shō en, is two syllables, shō -en). In Chinese, they create a (one-syllable) diphthong (e.g., mei, which is pronounced like may, and xia, which sounds like shya). In Korean, two vowels in a row are used to convey a distinct vowel sound; ae is like the a in at; eo is like the u in but; eu is like the oo in foot. Consonants for Japanese and Korean romaniza-
  • 62. tion are close enough to English to give readers little difficulty. In the Chinese case, divergence between how an English speaker would guess a pronuncia- tion and how the word is actually pronounced is greater. The most confusing consonants are listed below: c ts in tsar z dz in adze zh j in jack q ch in chin x sh In the case of Chinese, the romanization system does not convey tones, which are also an important element in pronunciation. We have offered simple pronunciation guides after many words that might give readers trouble. These do not aim at linguistic accuracy; they are at best approximations, based on common American pronunciations, and are provided so that students will feel more comfortable using the words in class. They can be ignored once the reader has gotten the hang of the romanization system. For both Chinese and Korean, other ways of romanizing the language are also widely used. Through the last edition of this book we used the McCune-Reischauer system for Korean, which uses apostrophes and diacritical marks. Thus, the dynasty that was romanized as Chosŏn in the last edition is now romanized as Joseon. Comparisons of the two systems of romanization can be found at http://www .eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_ko.pdf.
  • 63. In the case of Chinese, pinyin only became the standard system of romanization in recent decades. Some earlier spellings were based on dialects other than Mandarin (Peking, Canton, Sun Yat-sen). More often the Wade-Giles system of romanization was employed. From context, if nothing else, most readers C O N v E N T i O N s xxi 06512_fm_rev04.indd 21 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. have inferred that Mao Zedong is the same person whose name used to be spelled Mao Tse-tung, or that Wang Anshi is the pinyin form of Wang An-shih. Two older spellings have been retained in this book because they are so widely known (Sun Yatsen and Chiang Kaishek). Charts for converting pinyin to Wade-Giles and vice versa are widely available on the Internet, should anyone want verification of their guesses (see, for instance, http://www.loc.gov/ catdir/pinyin/romcover.html).
  • 64. xxii Conventions 06512_fm_rev04.indd 22 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Pre-Modern East Asia 06512_fm_rev04.indd 23 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 06512_fm_rev04.indd 24 9/11/12 11:05 AM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
  • 65. not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. P A R T O N E Connections The Prehistory of East Asia Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) Chapter 2 Philosophers and Warring States During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 b.c.e.) Chapter 3 The Founding of the Bureaucratic Empire: Qin-Han China (256 b.c.e.– 200 c.e.) Connections Buddhism in India and Its Spread Along the Silk Road Chapter 4
  • 66. Political Division in China and the Spread of Buddhism (200–580) Chapter 5 The Cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and Tang China (581–960) Connections Cultural Contact Across Eurasia (600–900) The Foundations of East Asian Civilization in China 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 1 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 2 During this long period, humans began to speak, and so the affinities of modern languages offer a rough clue to the spread of peoples in early times. Language affinities suggest at least three migra- tory routes through East Asia: from North Asia into Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and Japan; from
  • 67. China into Tibet and Southeast Asia; and from south China to both Southeast Asia and the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia. Other evidence suggests additional routes—for instance, from Southeast Asia and Micronesia to Japan. All through Eurasia, much greater advance came after the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000 b.c.e. (See Map C1.1.) Soon after this date, people in Japan began making pottery, some of the earliest in the world. Pottery is of great value for holding water and storing food. In China and Korea, the ear- liest pottery finds were somewhat later, but pottery was apparently in use by 6000 b.c.e. Throughout East Asia, early pottery was commonly imprinted on its surface to give it texture. In Japan, this period is referred to as Jōmon and dated from about 10,000 to 300 b.c.e. The comparable period in Korea is called Jeulmun and dated from about 8000 to 700 b.c.e. These cultures share many features. From shell mounds found in many places in both Korea and Japan, it is evident that sites were occupied for long periods, that shellfish were collected onshore, and that fish were caught from both rivers and the ocean. Other food sources were animals such as deer and wild boar, which were hunted. Dogs seem to have been domesticated and perhaps used as hunting animals. China in the millennia after the last Ice Age fol- lowed more closely the pattern seen in western Eur- asia, which involved crop agriculture, domestication of animals for food and work, pottery, textiles, and villages. Agriculture is a crucial change because cul- tivating crops allows denser and more permanent settlements. Because tending crops, weaving, and
  • 68. THINKING ABOUT THE WHOLE OF EAST Asia before the invention of writing helps to remind us that East Asia has always been a part of Eurasia and did not develop in isolation. During the Pleistocene geological era (the last great Ice Age), plants and animals spread across Eurasia as far as Japan, which was then connected to the mainland. In later times, peoples, crops, and inventions traveled in many directions. Early human beings (Homo erectus) appeared in East Asia more than 1 million years ago, having gradually spread from Africa and West Asia dur- ing the Pleistocene. Peking Man, discovered in the 1920s, is one of the best-documented examples of H. erectus, with skeletal remains of some forty indi- viduals found in a single cave complex. Peking Man could stand erect, hunt, make fire, and use chipped stones as tools. In recent decades, even earlier exam- ples of H. erectus have been found in south China. Modern human beings (Homo sapiens) appeared in East Asia perhaps fifty thousand years ago. The dominant theory in the West, supported by studies of the mitochondrial DNA of modern people, is that H. sapiens also spread out of Africa and displaced H. erectus in areas where it was not already extinct. Chinese archaeologists have given more credence to the theory that H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens independently in many parts of the world, making Peking Man the ancestor of modern Chinese. They can point to similarities between Peking Man and modern Chinese, such as the shape of certain teeth. During the period from 50,000 to 10,000 b.c.e.,
  • 69. East Asia was home to numerous groups of Paleo- lithic hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. Many of these people were on the move, following the wild animals they hunted or searching for new environ- ments to exploit. This was the period that saw the movement of people from northeast Asia to the Americas and also from south China and Southeast Asia to the Pacific and Australia. C O N N E C T I O N S The Prehistory of East Asia 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 2 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 3 piles; wove baskets; and made hoes, spears, mallets, paddles, and other tools from wood. They decorated their pottery and lacquered bowls with incised geo- metrical designs or pictures of birds, fish, or trees. Millet, a crop domesticated in China, became the foundation of agriculture in north China.
  • 70. Nanzhuangtou, the earliest site found so far, is in southern Hebei and dates to about 8000 b.c.e. At Cishan, a site in Hebei dating to about 5500 b.c.e., millet was cut with stone sickles and stored in cord- marked pottery bowls, jars, and tripods (three-legged pots). In addition to growing millet, the local people hunted deer and collected clams, snails, and turtles. The east–west divide among Chinese Neolithic cultures in terms of expressive culture may well have had connections to less tangible elements of culture such as language and religion. In the west (Shaanxi and Gansu provinces especially), pottery deco- rated with painted geometrical designs was com- monly produced from about 5000 to 3000 b.c.e. In the fully developed Yangshao style, grain jars were fashioning pots require different sorts of technical and social skills than do hunting and gathering, it is likely that skilled elders began to vie with hunters and warriors for leadership. The dozen or more distinct Neolithic cultures that have been identified in China can be roughly divided by latitude into the southern rice zone and the northern millet zone and by longitude into the eastern jade zone and the western painted pottery zone. Dogs and pigs were found in both areas as early as 5000 b.c.e. By 3000 b.c.e. sheep and cattle had become important in the north and water buf- falo and cattle important in the south. Whether rice was independently domesticated in China or spread there from Southeast Asia is not yet certain. The earliest finds in China date to about 8000 b.c.e. At Hemudu, a site south of Shanghai
  • 71. and dating to about 5000 b.c.e., Neolithic villagers grew rice in wet fields and supplemented their diet with fish and water plants such as lotus and water chestnut. Hemudu villagers built wooden houses on Liao Wei Yangzi Yellow P A C I F I C O C E A N Yellow Sea Sea of Japan E a s t C h i n a S e a Hougang Liangzhu Hemudu Pengdoushan
  • 73. Shaguotun Xiajiadian 0 300�Mi.150 0 300�Km.150 Neolithic�site Map C1.1 Neolithic Sites in East Asia © C en ga ge L ea rn in g 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 3 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage
  • 74. Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia probably of captives. The earliest examples, dat- ing to about 2000 b.c.e., involved human remains placed under the foundations of buildings. At about the same time, metal began to be used on a small scale for weapons. These trends in Neolithic sites on the north China plain link it closely to the early stages of the Bronze Age civilization there, discussed in Chapter 1. For China, prehistory conventionally stops soon after 2000 b.c.e. It is true that in the Chinese subcontinent outside the core of Shang territories, subsistence technology continued in the Neolith- ic pattern for many more centuries. In Korea and J apan, the period before writing lasted longer, but during the first millennium b.c.e., technologies from China began to have an impact. To understand the links between early China and its East Asian neighbors, we must briefly consider the wider Eurasian context, especially the northern steppe region. In terms of contemporary countries, the steppe extends from southern Russia past the Caspian and Aral seas, through the Central Asian republics, the northern reaches of China, and into Mongolia and farther east. Horses were domes- ticated on the southern Russian steppe by about 4000 b.c.e. but spread only slowly to other regions. Chariots spread first, then riding on horseback.
  • 75. exuberantly painted in red and black with spirals, diamonds, and other geometrical patterns. In the east, from Liaodong near Korea in the north to near Shanghai in the south, early pottery was rarely painted, but more elaborate forms ap- peared very early, with the finest wares formed on potters’ wheels. Some had exceptionally thin walls polished to an almost metallic appearance. Many forms were constructed by adding parts, such as legs, spouts, handles, or lids. The many ewers and goblets found in eastern sites were probably used for ritu- als of feasting or sacrifice. Eastern cultures were also marked by progressively more elaborate burials. At Dawenkou in Shandong (ca. 5000–2500 b.c.e.), not only were wooden coffins used but even wooden burial chambers were occasionally con- structed. The richest burials had more than a hun- dred objects placed in them, including jade, stone, or pottery necklaces and bracelets. Some of the people buried there had their upper lateral incisors extract- ed, a practice Chinese authors in much later times considered “barbarian” and that is also seen in some Japanese sites. Even more distinctive of the eastern Neolithic cultures is the use of jade. Because jade does not crack, shaping it requires slow grinding with abra- sive sand. The most spectacular discoveries of Neo- lithic jades have been made in Liaodong near Korea (Hongshan culture, ca. 3500 b.c.e.) and south of Shanghai (Liangzhu culture, ca. 2500 b.c.e.)— areas that literate Chinese in ca. 500 b.c.e. consid- ered barbarian. In the Hongshan culture area, jade
  • 76. was made into small sculptures of turtles, birds, and strange coiled “pig dragons.” In the Liangzhu area, jade was fashioned into objects with no obvi- ous utilitarian purpose and that are therefore con- sidered ritual objects. Most common are disks and notched columns. In China, the late Neolithic period (ca. 3000– 2000 b.c.e.) was a time of increased contact and cultural borrowing between these regional cultures. Cooking tripods, for instance, spread west, while painted pottery spread east. This period must also have been one of increased conflict between com- munities because people began building defensive walls around settlements out of rammed earth, some as large as 20 feet high and 30 feet thick. Enclosing a settlement with such a wall required chiefs able to command men and resources on a large scale. Another sign of the increasing power of religious or military elites is human sacrifice, Jade Plaque. This small plaque (6.2 by 8.3 cm, or 2.5 by 3.25 in) is incised to depict a human figure who merges into a monster mask. The lower part could be interpreted as his arms and legs, but at the same time resembles a monster mask with bulging eyes, prominent nostrils, and a large mouth. Zh ej ia ng P ro
  • 78. es s 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 4 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 5 During the next phase there was such a radical change in burial practices that archaeologists sus- pect that a different, and militarily superior, horse- riding group entered the area. This new group used both wooden and stone-cist coffins. A cist burial is one with a burial chamber built of stones to form a box, with a flagstone or similar large, flat stone to cover it. By the third century b.c.e., the cultures of the Northern Zone became increasingly homoge- neous in material culture and rituals, with similar warrior elites and ornamental art. These societies came into contact with people settled farther south in the Korean peninsula. As mentioned previously, after the end of the last Ice Age, the Korean peninsula was home to the fishing
  • 79. and foraging Jeulmun (comb pattern pottery) peo- ples. By the middle of the first millennium b.c.e., a new culture, called Mumun (plain pottery), became established. Mumun sites, in contrast to the earlier Jeulmun seaside ones, were on hillsides or hilltops. Grain production became more important, and met- alworking was adopted. Bronze began to be used in Korea about 700 b.c.e. and iron by about 400 b.c.e. Mumun farmers grew barley, millet, sorghum, and short-grained rice, a mix of crops similar to that grown in north China. They heated their homes with flues under the floor, a practice that contin- ued into modern times. Another distinctive feature of this culture, the use of stone-cist burials, links it to the Northern Zone. A fifth-century b.c.e. site in west-central Korea has a stone-cist burial, twenty- one pit buildings, red burnished pottery, a pottery kiln, a stone mold for casting bronze implements, whetstones for sharpening blades, bronze daggers and swords, and a bronze dagger of the type found farther north in the Northern Zone. Soon, howev- er, Korea was producing its own distinctive metal- work, such as finely decorated mirrors. A new burial form also emerged: large aboveground stone vaults called dolmens. The shift from Jeulmun to Mumun probably re- flects the same movement of people seen in south- ern Manchuria. Without textual evidence, how- ever, it is impossible to decide whether the local Jeulmun quickly adopted the superior technology of the Mumun people or whether the Mumun moved into the area in large numbers, gradually pushing out those who were already there. Some scholars speculate that the newcomers were the speakers of languages that were the ancestors of the Korean and
  • 80. Japanese languages. A fourteenth-century b.c.e. Hittite text on horse- manship discusses the training of chariot horses; within a century or so, chariots appeared in Shang China. The Scythians appeared as mounted archers in the tenth or ninth century b.c.e. East of them, the Karasuk, with a similar culture, dominated the region from western Mongolia into south Siberia. The Scythians and the Karasuk lived in felt tents, traveled in covered carts, and had bronze technol- ogy, including the bronze bit that made possible horseback riding. By the seventh century b.c.e. in the Altai region of Mongolia, there were two dis- tinct groups of nomadic pastoralists: those who bur- ied the dead under mounds and those who buried the dead in stone boxes. Their bronze implements, however, were much the same. South of these groups on the steppe, but in con- tact with them, were pastoral–agricultural cultures in China’s Northern Zone, stretching in terms of modern provinces from Gansu through northern Shaanxi, northern Shanxi, and northern Hebei, into Liaoning (southern Manchuria). During the late second millennium b.c.e., this zone was settled by a variety of cultures with distinct pottery and burial customs but bronze knives much like those of the steppe to the north. In the early first mil- lennium b.c.e., warrior elites emerged in many of these cultures, and animal raising became more central to their economies, perhaps in response to a climate that was becoming colder and drier. From 600 to 300 b.c.e., evidence of horses becomes more and more common, as does riding astride. Some of these cultures adopted nomadic pastoralism, mov-
  • 81. ing with their herds to new pastures. These cul- tures also adopted the art styles common on the steppe, such as bronze and gold animal plaques. They made increasing use of iron, which may have spread to them from the Central Asian steppe rather than from China, which was also beginning to use iron in this period. At the same time, these Northern Zone cultures were in contact with the Chinese states; early Chinese coins have been found at some sites. The eastern end of this Northern Zone was di- rectly north of Korea. Archaeologists have identified a culture there that lasted eight centuries, from the eleventh to the fourth centuries b.c.e., called Upper Xiajiadian culture. Finds include an ancient mine, along with distinctive bronze knives, helmets, mir- rors, and horse fittings. The faces of the dead were covered with a cloth decorated with bronze buttons. 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 5 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 6 Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia
  • 82. It is likely that the shift to Yayoi-style pottery and associated technologies was the result of an influx of people from Korea. Archaeologists have identified two distinct skeleton types in Yayoi pe- riod sites in western Japan, which they interpret as the indigenous Jōmon people and the new immi- grants from Korea. The Jōmon type were shorter and more round-faced. The influx of the immi- grants seems to have been greatest in Kyushu and western Honshu. Some scholars speculate that the Ainu, who survived into modern times only on the northern island of Hokkaido, are of relatively pure Jōmon stock. Another sign that the influx of Yayoi people was not so great in eastern Japan is that bronze imple- ments did not become important in the east, nor did easterners adopt the western Yayoi style of burying the whole body in a jar, coffin, or pit. Rather, in the east, reburial of the bones in a jar predominated. Another important technology that made its way to Korea and Japan before writing was rice cultivation. Studies based on stone reaping knives suggest that rice spread north along the China seaboard, reaching Korea and Japan by about 300 b.c.e. In the case of Japan, rice seems to have been grown by the end of the Jōmon pe- riod but is more strongly associated with the next stage, called the Yayoi period. The Yayoi period is marked by distinctive pottery, found earliest in Kyushu, then spreading east through Honshu, though farther north more of the Jōmon style is retained in Yayoi pieces. Rice cultivation was more thoroughly adopted in western Japan, with the marine-based way of life retaining more of its
  • 83. hold in northern Japan. Iron tools such as hoes and shovels also spread through Japan during this period, as did silk and associated spinning and weaving technologies. Figure C1.1 Dolmens. Burial structures capped with large stones, called dolmens, have been found in both the Korean peninsula and nearby parts of Japan. The two shown on the left were found in northern and southern Korea, respectively. The one on the right, which also shows the arrangement of the bones beneath the capstone, was found in Kyushu, across the Korean Strait. (© Cengage Learning) 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 6 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia 7 with horse riders and there was no chariot stage. Ge- ography has much to do with the fact that Korea’s direct neighbors frequently were not Chinese but no- madic pastoralists with distinctive cultures. Geogra- phy also dictates that passage from Korea to Japan was shorter and easier than crossing from China,
  • 84. giving Korea more direct influence on Japan than China had. In Chapters 6 and 7, when we pick up the story of Korea and Japan again, it will be evident that as we move into the historical period, not only is the prehistoric period of continuing significance, but many of the same cultural processes continued to be at work. Because contact between southern Korea and west- ern Japan continued through this period and because new technologies entered through this route, western Japan in this period was relatively more advanced than eastern Japan. As we can see from this review of prehistory, con- tact among the societies of East Asia did not lead to identical developmental sequences. In China a mil- lennium passed between the introduction of bronze technology and that of iron, in Korea only three cen- turies, and in Japan they were acquired together. In China the horse was first used to pull chariots, and it took five hundred or more years before soldiers were riding horses. In Korea and Japan, horses came 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 7 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any
  • 85. time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 8 C H A P T E R O N E China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) Material Culture: Rammed Earth Developments Outside the Shang Core The Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 b.c.e.) Documents: The Book of Songs China’s Bronze Age began soon after 2000 b.c.e., and by 1200 b.c.e. there were bronze-based civilizations in several regions of China. The best known of these was centered on Anyang (ahn-yahng)
  • 86. in north- central China, where the Shang (shahng) Dynasty developed a complex state with writing and large settlements. The inscribed oracle bones found at Anyang confirm traditions about Shang rulers passed down in early texts. In 1045 b.c.e. the Shang Dynasty was overthrown by an erstwhile ally- vassal, the state of Zhou (joe). The early Zhou Dynasty is known not only from archaeological evidence but also from transmitted texts, which provide the Zhou version of their righteous victory over the decadent Shang. The Zhou rulers sent out vassals to establish settlements in distant regions, creating a feudal-like system. The issues that engage archaeologists, paleographers, and historians of China’s Bronze Age remain the basic ones: Can we reconcile texts that talk of a sequence of dynasties with the archaeological evidence of distinct cultural centers? What were the consequences of the invention of writ- ing? What can be inferred about Shang society and culture from surviving material artifacts such as bronze vessels? Is there any way to tell whether cultures outside the core regions of the Shang and Zhou spoke the same language or considered themselves part of the same culture?
  • 87. How sig- nificant in political and cultural terms was the transition from Shang to Zhou? Was anything significant learned from other parts of Eurasia in this period, or were all advances locally generated? 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 8 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Geography of the Chinese Subcontinent 9 within China, modern province names are used for convenience (see frontispiece map). The geographical context in which Chinese civiliza- tion developed changed slowly over time: rivers and coastlines have shifted, forests have been cleared, and climates have warmed and cooled. The human ge- ography has undergone even more extensive changes as the area occupied by speakers of Chinese has ex- panded and they have faced different neighbors. China proper, by the nineteenth century about a thousand miles north to south and east to west,
  • 88. occupies much of the temperate zone of East Asia. The northern part, drained by the Yellow River, is colder, flatter, and more arid than the south. Rain- fall in many northern areas is less than 20 inches a year, making it best suited to crops like wheat and millet. The dominant soil is loess—fine wind-driv- en earth that is fertile and easy to work even with primitive tools. Much of the loess soil ends up as silt in the Yellow River, causing the riverbed to rise THE GEOGRAPHy OF THE CHINESE SuBCONTINENT The term China as it is used in this book does not re- fer to the same geographical entity at all points in his- tory. The historical China, also called China proper, was smaller than present-day China and changed in size over time. It can be thought of as the area settled by Chinese speakers or controlled by a Chinese state, or both. (To radically simplify complex issues of identity, references here to “the Chinese” can be tak- en to mean speakers of the Chinese language, a group that can also be referred to as the Han Chinese.) The contemporary People’s Republic of China includes territories like Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Turkestan, and Manchuria that were the traditional homes of other peoples and were not incorporated into Chinese states until relatively late in their histories. In this book, to indicate the location of historically significant places BA-SHU QIANG VARIOUS RONG
  • 92. ng H e) Wei Qing Yang zi Y an gz i H an 0 100 200 Km. 0 100 200 Mi. Locations in important bronze inscriptions Royal capital State capital Ethnic group The Western Zhou State SAN
  • 93. RONG Map 1.1 Western Zhou China © C en ga ge L ea rn in g 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 9 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 10 Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.)
  • 94. According to tradition, Shang kings ruled from five successive cities. The best known is the last, Anyang, first excavated between 1928 and 1937. The Shang kings ruled there from approximately 1200 b.c.e. to 1045 b.c.e. At the center of Anyang were large pal- aces, temples, and altars that were constructed on rammed earth foundations (see Material Culture: Rammed Earth). The Shang kings were military chieftains who regularly sent out armies of three thousand to five thousand men on campaigns; when not at war, they would go on hunts that lasted for months. Their armies fought rebellious vassals and foreign tribes, but the situation constantly changed as vassals be- came enemies and enemies accepted offers of alli- ance. War booty, especially the war captives who could be enslaved or sacrificed, was an important source of the king’s revenue. Bronze technology gave Shang warriors superior weapons: bronze-tipped spears and dagger-axes, used for hacking and stabbing. Bronze was also used for the fittings of the spoke-wheeled chariots that came into use around 1200 b.c.e. There is no evi- dence of animal traction in China before the chariot or of the use of wheels, spoked or solid disk, leading to the conclusion that the chariot was introduced to China by diffusion across Asia. Shang chariots were pulled by two or four horses and provided com- manders with mobile stations from which they could supervise their troops; chariots also gave archers and soldiers armed with battle-axes increased mobility. Shang power did not rest solely on military su-
  • 95. premacy. The oracle bone texts show that the Shang king also acted as the high priest, the person best qualified to offer sacrifices to the royal ancestors and the high god, Di (dee), who could command rain, thunder, and wind. The king also made offerings to an array of nature gods, such as the spirits of the sun and moon, the Yellow River, the winds of the four directions, and specific mountains. Royal ancestors were viewed as able to intervene with the remote Di. They also could send curses, produce dreams, assist the king in battle, and more. The king addressed his ancestors in prayers and made offerings of millet, wine, cattle, sheep, grain, and human victims to them. He discerned his ances- tors’ wishes and responses by interpreting the cracks made on heated cattle or turtle bones. King Wu Ding (woo ding) (ca. 1200 b.c.e.) had his diviner ask the high god Di or his ancestors about rain, the harvest, military expeditions, dreams, floods, tribute pay- ments, sacrifices, and even a toothache. over time. Once people began to dike the river, it be- came flood prone, since when the dikes break, huge floods result. Drought is another perennial problem for farmers in the north. The Yangzi River is the dominant feature of the warmer, wetter, and more lush south, a region well suited to rice cultivation and to growing two crops a year. The Yangzi and many of its tributaries are navigable, so boats were traditionally the preferred means of transportation in the south. Mountains, deserts, and grasslands separated China proper from the sites of other early civiliza-
  • 96. tions. Between China and India lay Tibet, with its vast mountain ranges and high plateaus. North of Tibet are great expanses of desert, where nothing grows except in rare oases; north of the desert, grasslands stretch from Ukraine to eastern Siberia. Until modern times, Chinese civilization did not spread into these Inner Asian regions because they were not suited to crop agriculture. The northern grasslands, where rais- ing animals is a more productive use of land than is planting crops, were the heartland of China’s tradi- tional enemies, such as the Xiongnu and the Mongols. THE SHANG DyNASTy (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) China’s Neolithic Age is discussed in Connections: The Prehistory of East Asia. China had agriculture from about 10,000 b.c.e.; by 4000 b.c.e. distinct regional cultures are evident; by 2500 b.c.e. settlements were sometimes walled, and burials give evidence of increas- ing social differentiation. It was from these roots that China’s first civilization emerged soon after 2000 b.c.e. Early Chinese texts refer to the first dynasty as the Xia (shya) Dynasty and give the names of its kings. The earliest Bronze Age sites may have some con- nection to Xia, but they contain no texts to prove or disprove this supposition. The Shang Dynasty, however, is documented in both excavated and transmitted texts, and no one today doubts that it existed. The key excavated texts are the oracle bone inscriptions found in and near the Shang settlement at Anyang, in modern Henan province. Although these inscribed cattle bones and turtle shells had been unearthed from time to time, it was only after 1898 that scholars connected them to Shang kings. Since then, rubbings of some forty-eight thousand
  • 97. bone fragments have been published, giving paleog- raphers much to study. 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 10 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 11 Ding. Although it was one of the smaller royal tombs (about 13 feet by 18 feet at the mouth and about 25 feet deep) and not in the main royal cemetery, it was nonetheless filled with an extraordinary array of valuable goods. The hundreds of bronze objects in the tomb weighed 1.6 metric tons. About 60 of the bronze vessels had Lady Hao’s name inscribed Shang palaces were undoubtedly splendid, but they were constructed of perishable material like wood, and nothing remains of them today. What has survived are the lavish underground tombs built for Shang kings and their consorts. The one royal tomb not to have been robbed before it was excavated was for Lady Hao, one of the many wives of King Wu M A T E R I A L C U L T U R E
  • 98. From the late Neolithic period on, pounded or rammed earth was used in north China to build foundations and walls. In fact, in areas of loess soil, rammed earth is still used as a building material, pri- marily for the walls around houses and farmyards. The method used today begins with dumping loose soil into wooden frames, then pounding it into thin layers with wooden logs. At archaeological sites, the impressions of the pounders are often still visible on the top layer of the wall. Ancient rammed earth can be nearly as hard as concrete. The most massive rammed earth structure from the Shang period excavated so far is the wall surrounding the city of Zhengzhou (juhng-joe) in Henan (huh-nahn) province. It is about 1,800 meters on each side and about 9 meters tall. The base of the wall was as much as 20 meters thick. Chinese archaeologists have estimated that it contained 870,000 cubic meters of rammed earth, which would have required a labor force of ten thousand men working for eight years to dig the soil, trans- port it to the site, and pound it into a wall. Earthen Walls. Walls are still constructed of rammed earth today. A frame of logs is built, the earth is pounded into place, and after it is dry, the frame is removed. Rammed Earth Ro na
  • 99. ld G . K na pp 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 11 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 12 Chapter 1 China in the Bronze Age: The Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1500–771 b.c.e.) others in ritual vessels. Another important product was silk made from the cocoons of the silkworm, which fed on the leaves of mulberry trees. Silk from Shang China has recently been discovered in an Egyptian tomb, evidence that its importance as an item of east–west trade began very early. At the level of technology, the life of Shang farm- ers was not very different from that of their Neolithic ancestors. They lived in small, compact villages, sur- rounded by fields that they worked with stone tools.
  • 100. Millet continued to be the basic grain, but some new crops became common in Shang times, most nota- bly wheat, which had spread from West Asia. Sheep, cattle, and pigs were all raised. The primary difference between Shang farmers and their Neolithic predecessors is the huge gulf that separated them from the most powerful in their soci- ety. Shang rulers could command the labor of thou- sands of men for long periods of time. Huge work forces were mobilized to build the rammed earth city walls, dig the great tombs, open new lands, and fight in wars. Some scholars assume that those la- boring for the king were slaves, perhaps acquired through warfare. Others speculate that these labor- ers also included conscripts called up as needed from among the serf-like farmers. Whatever the status of the workers, coercion, backed by violence, was an essential element of the Shang state. Writing The inscribed oracle bones demonstrate that writing was already a major element in Chinese culture by 1200 b.c.e. Writing must have been invented ear- lier, but the early stages of its development cannot be traced, probably because it was done on perishable materials like wood, bamboo, or silk. What impact did writing have? Literacy is an ally of political control, facilitating communication across an expanding realm. From the oracle bones, we know that Shang kept records of enemies slain, booty taken, animals bagged in hunts, and other information, using lunar months and ten-day and sixty-day cycles to record dates.
  • 101. Although only about 40 percent of the five thou- sand or so characters used on Shang divination texts have been deciphered, there is no longer any doubt that the language and the writing system of the Shang are directly ancestral to both the language and the writing systems of later Chinese. This script was logographic, similar to ancient Egyptian and on them. The 130 weapons found in this tomb show that Lady Hao took an interest in military affairs. There were also 755 jade objects, 63 stone ones, and 564 made of bone. From inscribed bones found elsewhere at Anyang, we know that Lady Hao led several military campaigns, once with thirteen thou- sand troops against the Qiang (chyahng) tribes to the west. Some of the objects in her tomb appear to be tributes sent to Anyang from distant places. These include both bronze vessels from the south and knives and mirrors from the Northern Zone (oc- cupied by non-Han peoples, discussed below). In addition to objects of symbolic value or prac- tical use, the Shang interred human beings, some- times dozens of them, in royal tombs. Why did they do this? From oracle bone texts, it seems that cap- tives not needed as slaves often ended up as sacrifi - cial victims. Other people buried with the king had chosen their fate; that is, his spouses, retainers, or servants could decide to accompany him in death. Those who voluntarily followed their king to the grave generally had their own ornaments and might also have coffins and grave goods such as weapons. Early Shang graves rarely had more than three vic- tims or followers accompanying the main occupant, but the practice grew over time. A late Shang king’s
  • 102. tomb contained the remains of ninety followers plus seventy-four human sacrifices (not to mention the twelve horses and eleven dogs). Archaeologists often can identify sacrificial victims because they were de- capitated or cut in two at the waist. Human sacrifice was not confined to burials. Div- ination texts refer to ceremonies where from three to four hundred captives were sacrificed. In 1976, twelve hundred victims were found in 191 pits near the royal tombs, apparently representing successive sacrifices of a few dozen victims each. Animals were also frequently offered in sacrifice. Divinations pro- posed the sacrifice of one hundred, two hundred, or three hundred cattle, sheep, pigs, or dogs. What about those in Shang society who were not buried in well-furnished tombs? The Shang nobility lived in large houses built on platforms of rammed earth. Those lower down on the social scale often lived in homes built partly below ground level, prob- ably as a way to conserve heat. In the urban centers, substantial numbers of crafts- men worked in stone, bone, bronze, and clay. Their workshops, concentrated in certain sections of the city, were often quite specialized. Some workshops specialized in hairpins, others in arrowheads, and 06475_ch01_rev04.indd 12 9/8/12 3:45 PM Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
  • 103. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1045 b.c.e.) 13 longer than learning to read a phonetic script. Thus, because China retained its logographic writing sys- tem, it takes many years of study for a person to master reading and writing. Why did China retain a logographic writing sys- tem even after encounters with phonetic systems? Although phonetic systems make learning to read easier, there are costs to abandoning a logographic system. Those who learned to read Chinese could communicate with a wider range of people than those who read scripts based on speech. Because Chinese characters remained recognizable after the passage of many centuries, despite phonological change, educated Chinese could read texts written centuries earlier without needing them to be trans- lated. Moreover, as the Chinese language developed mutually unintelligible regional variants, readers of Chinese could read books and letters by contempo- raries whose oral language they could not compre- hend. Thus, the Chinese script played a large role in holding China together and fostering a sense of con- nection with the past. For the history of East Asia, the Chinese script has a further significance. Korea, Japan, and Vietnam all began writing by adopting the Chinese script.
  • 104. Metalworking As in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India, the develop- ment of more complex forms of social organiza- tion in Shang China coincided with the mastery of metalworking, specifically bronze. Beginning about 2000 b.c.e., people learned to prospect metals, re- move them from their ores, and fashion them into tools or ornaments. The next stage, reached by about 1500 b.c.e., involved large-scale production. In Shang times, bronze was used more for ritual than for war. Most surviving Shang bronze objects are vessels such as cups, goblets, steamers, and caul - drons, which originally would have been used to hold food and wine offered to the ancestors or gods during sacrificial ceremonies. Both kings and nobles owned bronze vessels, but the kings had many more. When compared to bronze objects made in other early societies, Chinese bronzes stand out for their quantity, their decoration, and the ways they were manufactured. Shang bronze-making required a large labor force to mine, refine, and transport cop- per, tin, and lead ores and to produce and transport charcoal. To achieve the high degree of precision and standardization evident from surviving bronze Sumerian, meaning that each word was represented by a single graph (character). In the Chinese case, some of these graphs began as pictures, but other methods were adopted to represent the names of abstract concepts. Sometimes the graph for a dif- ferent word was borrowed because the two words were pronounced alike. As in later times, sometimes two different graphs were combined; for instance, to
  • 105. represent different types of trees, the graph for tree could be combined with the graph for another word that sounded like the name of a kind of tree. More than half of the characters found on oracle bones combine components in these ways. In western Eurasia, logographic scripts were even- tually modified or replaced by phonetic scripts, but that never happened in China (though, because of changes in the spoken language, many words today are represented by two or three characters rather than a single one). Basic literacy requires knowing the characters for two or three thousand common words, and well-educated people learn a couple of thousand more. Because characters are composed of a few hundred components, this task is not as daunt- ing as it may seem at first, but it still takes much Th e G ra ng er C ol le ct io n