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In MIxed CoMpany
Communicating in Small Groups and Teams
Eighth Edition
J. Dan Rothwell
Cabrillo College
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain
• United Kingdom • United States
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In Mixed Company: Communicating
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Brief Contents
Preface xix
Chapter One: Communication Competence in Groups 2

10. Chapter Two: Groups as Systems 42
Chapter Three: Group Development 76
Chapter Four: Developing the Group Climate 116
Chapter Five: Roles and Leadership in Groups 146
Chapter Six: Developing Effective Teams 190
Chapter Seven: Group Discussion: Defective Group Decision
Making
and Problem Solving 222
Chapter Eight: Group Discussion: Effective Decision Making
and Problem Solving 258
Chapter Nine: Power in Groups: A Central Dynamic 300
Chapter Ten: Conflict Management in Groups 344
Chapter Eleven: Technology and Virtual Groups 382
Appendix A: Group Oral Presentations 408
Appendix B: Critical Thinking Revisited: Arguments and
Fallacies 422
Glossary 427
References 439
Index 489
v u

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12. time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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Contents
Preface xix
Chapter One: COmmuniCatiOn COmpetenCe in GrOups 2
Myths about Communication 6
Myth 1: Communication Is a Cure-all 6
Myth 2: Communication Can Break Down 6
Myth 3: Effective Communication Is Merely Skill Building 7
Myth 4: Effective Communication Is Just Common Sense 7
Communication Defined 8
Communication as Transactional: The Four-Legged Perspective
10
Communication as a Process: The Continuous Flow 11
Communication as Sharing Meaning: Making Sense 12
Verbal Communication: Telling It Like It Isn’t 12

13. Nonverbal Communication: Wordless Meaning 14
Verbal and Nonverbal Interconnectedness: Joined at the Hip 17
Context: The Communication Environment 19
Communication Competence 20
Effectiveness: Achieving Goals 20
A Matter of Degree: From Deficiency to Proficiency 20
We (Not Me) Oriented: Primacy of Groups 21
Appropriateness: Following the Rules 21
Focus on culture: Individualism versus Collectivism:
A Basic Cultural Difference 22
Achieving Communication Competence 26
Knowledge: Learning the Rules 26
Skills: Showing, Not Just Knowing 28
vii u
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◀ viii CONTENTS
Sensitivity: Receptive Accuracy 29
Commitment: A Passion for Excellence 29
Ethics: The Right and Wrong of Communication 30
Focus on Gender: Gender and Communication Competence 32
Definition of a Group 36
Groups: More than People Standing at a Bus Stop 36
Interpersonal Communication and Public Speaking: Ungroups
38
Chapter twO: GrOups as systems 42
Interconnectedness of Parts 45
Ripple Effect: A Chain Reaction 46
Synergy: One Plus One Equals a Ton 47
Negative Synergy: Results Beyond Bad 50
Adaptability to Change 53
Dynamic Equilibrium: Managing Stability and Change 54

15. closer look: Dealing with Difficult Group Members:
A System Perspective on “Bad Apples” 55
Boundary Control: Regulating Input 60
Communication Methods of Boundary Control: Erecting
Barriers 61
Physical Barriers: Protecting Group Space 61
Psychological Barriers: Member in Name Only 61
Linguistic Barriers: Having to Speak the Language 61
Rules: Permission Not Granted 63
Roles: Staying in Bounds 63
Networks: Controlling Information Flow 63
Boundary Control and Group Effectiveness: Open and Closed
Systems 64
Influence of Size 66
Group Size and Complexity 66
Quantitative Complexity: Exponentially Complicated 66
Complexity and Group Transactions: Size Matters 67
An Organization: A Group of Groups 69
Chapter three: GrOup DevelOpment 76
Primary Dimensions of Groups 78
Task and Social Dimensions: Working and Socializing 79
Building Cohesiveness: Bringing Us Together 80
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CONTENTS ix ▶
Periodic Phases of Group Development 80
Forming: Gathering Members 81
Reasons We Join Groups: Motivation 81
Member Diversity: The Benefits and Challenges of Difference
83
Storming: Feeling the Tension 86
Primary Tension: Initial Uneasiness 86
Secondary Tension: Later Stress and Strain 87
Norming: Regulating the Group 89

17. Types of Norms: Explicit and Implicit 89
Purpose and Sources of Norms: Achieving Group Goals 90
Degree of Conformity: Strength of Group Pressure 91
Why We Conform: Fitting In 94
closer look: High School Cliques: A Lesson in Conformity 94
Conditions for Conformity: When We Bow to Group Pressure 96
closer look: Hazing Rituals: From Water Torture
to Liver Swallowing 96
Addressing Nonconformity: When Groups Get Tough 99
Performing: Group Output 101
Motivation to Perform: Social Loafing and Social
Compensation 103
When Groups Outperform Individuals: Three Heads
Are Better than One 106
When Individuals Outperform Groups: No Magic in Groups 108
Newcomers and Group Development 110
Nature of the Group: The Challenge of Acceptance 110
Newcomer Strategies: Gaining Acceptance 112
Group Socialization Strategies: Adjusting to Newcomers 112
Chapter FOur: DevelOpinG the GrOup Climate 116
Competition and Cooperation 118
Definitions: Conceptual Clarity 119
Competition: Winners Take All 119

18. Cooperation: Winners All 119
Individual Achievement: Going It Alone 120
Hypercompetitiveness: Winning Is Everything 121
Constructive Competition: Tempering the Need to Win 122
Necessary Conditions: A Trinity 123
Competition and Communication Competence: Can Me Be We?
125
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Intragroup Competition and Cooperation: Challenging
Orthodoxy 126

19. Group Productivity: Achievement and Performance on Tasks
126
Group Cohesiveness: Social Relationships among Group
Members 127
Intergroup Competition and Cooperation: Them versus Us 127
Focus on culture: Competition and Culture 129
Communication and Group Climate 131
Defensive and Supportive Communication: Shaping Group
Climate 131
Evaluation versus Description 131
Control versus Problem Orientation 135
Manipulation versus Assertiveness 137
Indifference versus Empathy 138
Superiority versus Equality 138
Certainty versus Provisionalism 139
Reciprocal Patterns: Like Begets Like 140
Competitive and Noncompetitive Listening: Shifting and
Supporting 141
Shift Response versus Support Response: Focusing
on Me or Thee 142
Competitive Interrupting: Seizing the Floor 143
Ambushing: Preparing Rebuttals 143
Chapter Five: rOles anD leaDership in GrOups 146
Group Roles 149
Influence of Roles: Not Just Playing Games 149
Role Reversal: When Students Become Teachers 149

20. closer look: The Stanford Prison Study 150
Role Conflict: Torn between Two Roles 153
Types of Roles: Formal and Informal 153
Role Emergence: Springing to Life 155
Group Endorsement: Accepting a Bid 155
Role Specialization: Settling into One’s Role 157
Role Fixation: Stuck Playing One Part 157
Leadership 158
Definition of Leadership: An Evolving Consensus 160
Leadership and Influence: A Two-Way Process 160
Leadership and Followership: It Takes Two to Tango 160
Leader versus Manager: Interpersonal versus Positional
Influence 161
Leadership and Communication: Duct-Taped Together 163
◀ x CONTENTS
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Gaining and Retaining Leadership: Getting There Is Just the
Start 164
How Not to Become a Leader: Thou Shalt Not 164
General Pattern of Leader Emergence: Process of Elimination
165
Retaining the Leader Role: Hanging onto Power 167
Focus on Gender/ethnicity: Gender and Ethnic Bias
in Leader Emergence 168
Perspectives on Effective Leadership: An Evolving View 171
Traits Perspective: The Born Leader View 172
Styles Perspective: One Style Doesn’t Fit All 174
Situational (Contingency) Perspective: Matching Styles
with Circumstances 178
Functional Perspective: Leadership Responsibilities 181
Servant Leadership Perspective: Ethics in Leadership 183
Culture and Leadership: Are Leadership Theories Universal?
185
Chapter six: DevelOpinG eFFeCtive teams 190
How Teams Differ from Groups 193

22. Level of Cooperation: The Working Together Imperative 193
Diversity of Skills: Looking for Complementarity 194
Group Identity: Operating as a Unit 195
Time and Resources: Commitment to the Team 195
Team Members 196
Team Slayers: Members’ Bad Attitudes and Bad Behavior 197
Egocentrism: Me-Deep in Omnipotence 197
Cynicism: Communicating a Can’t-Do Attitude 198
Verbal/Nonverbal Abuse: Bad Behavior Kills Teams 198
Team Member Removal: Purging the Rotten Egg 198
Team Builders: Choosing and Developing Team Members 199
Experience and Problem-Solving Abilities: Core Competencies
199
Cultural Diversity: Members with Different Perspectives 200
Communication Training: Developing Members’ Competence
200
Building Teamwork 201
Developing Team Goals: The Four Cs 202
Clear Goals: Everyone on the Same Page 202
Cooperative Goals: Interdependent Challenges 203
Challenging Goals: Denting the Universe 204
Commitment to Goals: A Passion to Succeed 205
CONTENTS xi ▶
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Developing a Team Identity: Unifying Members 205
Symbolic Convergence: Communicating Fantasy Themes 205
Solidarity Symbols: Unifying Nonverbally 206
Team Talk: The Language of We 207
Designating Clear, Appropriate Roles: Room for One
Quarterback 209
Structuring Team Empowerment: Enhancing Members’
Capabilities 211
Definition of Empowerment: Four Dimensions 211
Hierarchical Organizations: The Enemy of Empowerment 212
Quality Circles: Lame First Attempt 213
Self-Managing Work Teams: The IDEO Model 213
Impediments to Team Empowerment: No Buy-In 213
closer look: IDEO and Team Empowerment 214

24. Establishing Individual Accountability: Providing Feedback 217
Competent Team Leadership 217
Fostering Participative Leadership: Nurturing Empowerment
218
Insisting on a Cooperative Communication Climate: Jerks
Need Not Apply 219
Decision Making and Problem Solving: Using a Plan 220
Chapter seven: GrOup DisCussiOn: DeFeCtive GrOup DeCisiOn
makinG anD prOblem sOlvinG 222
Information Overload: Too Much Input 225
Scope of the Problem: The Information Avalanche 225
Consequences: The Downside of Information 226
Impairs Critical Thinking: Separating Wheat from Chaff 227
Indecisiveness: Conclusion Irresolution 227
closer look: Technology and the Bias of Speed 228
Information Bulimia: Binging and Purging 229
Group Attention Deficit Disorder: Difficulty Concentrating 229
Coping with Information Overload: Wrestling the Beast 230
Screening Information: Separating the Useful from the Useless
230
Shutting Off Technology: Hitting the Off Switch 230
Specializing: Knowing More and More about Less and Less 231
Becoming Selective: On a Need-to-Know Basis 231
Limiting the Search: When Enough Is Enough 231
Narrowing the Search: Databases and Patterns 231

25. Information Underload: Poor Sharing 233
◀ xii CONTENTS
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Mindsets: Critical Thinking Frozen Solid 234
Confirmation Bias: One-Sided Information Searches 234
The Problem: Poor Decisions and

26. Solution
s 235
Combating Confirmation Bias: A Plan 236
False Dichotomies: Either–Or Thinking 236
Collective Inferential Error: Uncritical Thinking 237
Prevalence of the Problem: It’s a Group Thing 238
Specific Sources of Inferential Errors 239
Unrepresentativeness: Distorting the Facts 239
Correlation Inferred as Causation: Covariation 241
Error Correction: Practicing Critical Thinking 243
Group Polarization: Extremely Uncritical Thinking 244
Polarization: From Gambling to Guarded 244
Why Groups Polarize: Social Comparison and Persuasive
Arguments 246
Combating Group Polarization: Necessary Steps 247

27. Groupthink: Critical Thinking in Suspended Animation 247
General Conditions: Excessive Cohesiveness and Concurrence
Seeking 248
Identification of Groupthink: Main Symptoms 249
Overestimation of the Group’s Power and Morality:
Arrogance 249
Closed-Mindedness: Clinging to Assumptions 251
Pressures toward Uniformity: Presenting a United Front 251
Preventing Groupthink: Promoting Vigilance 253
Chapter eiGht: GrOup DisCussiOn: eFFeCtive DeCisiOn
makinG
anD prOblem sOlvinG 258
Discussion Procedures 261
Phases and Functions: General Considerations 261
Multiple Sequence Model: Phases of Decision Making 261
Functional Perspective: Being Systematic 262

28. The Standard Agenda: Structuring Group Discussion 263
Problem Identification: What’s the Question? 263
Problem Analysis: Causes and Effects 264