CSCE 1030 Project 2 Due 1159 PM on Sunday, March 28, 2021

CSCE 1030: Project 2
Due: 11:59 PM on Sunday, March 28, 2021
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
In this project, you have to write a C++ program to keep track
of banking transactions.
Your objective is to get transactions from a user and process the
transactions for debiting or crediting the
account, keeping in view the rules regarding minimum balances
and penalties. Each user holds two
accounts – a business account and a personal account. Both
accounts use the same account number.
This is an extension of Project 1 so you may reuse any work you
have done for Project 1.
PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS
1. As with all projects in this course, your program’s output
will display your name, your EUID, your
e-mail address, the department name, and course number. This
means that your program will
print this information to the terminal (see the sample output).

2. Declare and initialize the following constants and variables.
• A global floating-point constant of type double to store the
minimum balance for the
business account initialized to 10000.00.
• A global floating-point constant to of type double to store the
minimum balance for the
personal account initialized to 1000.00.
• A global integer constant of type integer to store the length of
account number and
initialize it to 6.
• A global integer constant of type integer to store the maximum
number of transactions
and initialize it to 20.
3. Declare an enumeration constant with values Business and
Personal and assign integer values 0
and 1 to the data items, respectively. They represent the type of
bank account.
4. Declare another enumeration constant with values Process,
Display and Quit, and assign suitable
integer values 1, 2 and 3 to the data items, respectively. They
represent menu choice presented
to the user.

5. Write a function named getName which gets the name on the
bank account. Inside the function:
• Using a suitable message, prompt the user for the name on the
account. The name can
have multiple words.
• Only alphabets (A-Z or a-z) and whitespaces are permitted in
the account name.
o If the user enters any other characters in the name, you need
to generate an error
message and ask for the name again.
o Your program must keep on asking the user to enter the name
until the user enters it
correctly.(SEE SAMPLE OUTPUT 1)
• The user may type the name in either uppercase or lowercase,
but you need to convert
every initial to uppercase. (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUTS)
• This function will be called by the main function.
6. Write a function named getAccountNumber which get the
account number. Inside the function:
• Using a suitable message, prompt the user for the number of
the account.
• The account number must be a 6-digit number.

• If the user enters an account number with more than 6 digits
generate an error message
and ask the user to enter the number again.
• Only numbers 0-9 are permitted in the account number. If the
user enters an account
number with non-numeric characters, generate an error message,
and ask the user to
enter the number again.
• Your program must keep on asking the user to enter the
number until the user enters it
correctly. (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUTS 1 and 2)
7. Write a function named encrypt_num. This function must
receive the account number using a
string variable and encrypt the account number. Inside this
function:
• Declare an array of integers with size equal to the length of
the account number.
• Using a loop of your choice, populate the array with seeded
randomly generated numbers
between 10 and 20 inclusive.

• In a second loop, add the randomly generated number to the
characters in the account
number to offset each character by the random value.
o Store the new characters in a different string. This new string
is now your encrypted
account number.
8. Write a function named display_transactions. It accepts four
parameters:
• A 2D array of type double named transactions that stores the
transactions performed on
the accounts. The number of columns this 2D array is 2. The
first column stores the
business transactions while the second column stores the
personal transactions. The
maximum number of rows is limited to the maximum number of
transactions declared
globally, but note that the account may not have values for all
20 transactions. Also note
that the number of personal and business transactions that are
actually performed can
be different.

• An integer that represents the number of transactions to
display.
• An enum variable that determines whether the account is a
Business account or a
Personal Account.
• A Boolean variable that determines if the transactions needed
to sorted while displaying.
The default value of this Boolean is false.
• Inside this function:
o Display the content of the transactions array that relates to the
correct account type –
Business and Personal (display the correct column, not both
columns).
o Sort if the default value has been overridden with true when
this function is called.
o Your numeric data must have two numbers after the decimal
point and a $ sign in front
of the number (for example, $1375.85).
• This function will be called by the displayAccount function.
9. Write a function named displayAccount.
• This function accepts three parameters.

o A 2D array of type double named transactions that stores the
transactions performed
on the accounts.
o An integer that represents the number of business transactions
to display.
o An integer that represents the number of personal transactions
to display.
o Using a suitable message, ask the user which account needs to
be displayed – Business
or Personal.
o Using a suitable message, ask the user if the display needs to
be sorted.
o Based on the account type selected by a user, design a switch-
case block with a default
case, to implement the following features.
➢ You must use the enumeration constants to set up your cases.
➢ You must use a variable of your enumeration constant type
for switching control.
➢ If the user chooses a Business account, call function
display_transactions with

suitable value of parameters.
➢ If the user chooses a Personal account, call function
display_transactions with
suitable value of parameters.
➢ If the user enters a wrong choice, use the default case to
provide an error message
and ask the user to make the choice again.
➢ Your program needs to keep on asking the user for the choice
until the user chooses
a correct choice. (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUT 1)
• This fun ction will be called by the main function.
10. Write a function named process_account.
• It accepts five parameters:
o A 2D array of type double named transactions that stores the
transactions performed
on the accounts.
o An integer that represents the number of business transactions
that has been
processed.
o An integer that represents the number of personal transactions
that has been
processed.

o A double that represents the current business account balance.
o A double that represents the current personal account balance.
• Ask the user to choose which account the user wants to access
– Business or Personal.
o Use a suitable integer value to get the choice from the user.
• Based on the choice of the user, design a switch case block to
implement the following
requirements.
o You must use the enumeration constants to set up your cases.
o You must use a variable of your enumeration constant type for
switching control.
o If the user chooses a Business account
➢ Prompt the user for a transaction to process. The transaction
can be a positive or a
negative value. Positive transactions are deposits and negative
transactions are
withdrawals.
➢ If the current balance falls below the required minimum
balance for a business
account, there is a 10$ penalty (decrease current balance by $10

for every new
transaction) until the current balance updates to at least the
minimum required
balance. (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUT 5)
➢ If the current balance is below the minimum required
balance, remind the user that
the account is losing 10$ for every transaction using a suitable
message. (SEE
SAMPLE OUTPUT 5)
o If the user chooses a Personal account
➢ Prompt the user for a transaction to process. The transaction
can be a positive or a
negative value. Positive transactions are deposits and negative
transactions are
withdrawals.
➢ If any transaction drops the current balance below the
minimum personal balance,
the transaction will be denied with a suitable message to the
user.
➢ Note that for personal accounts the current balance will never
be less than the

minimum balance and hence there are no provision of penalties
either.
o If the user enters a wrong choice, use the default case to
provide an error message and
ask the user to make the choice again.
➢ Your program needs to keep on asking the user for the choice
until the user chooses
a correct choice. (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUT 1)
o Display the current balance in either case after each
successful transaction. (SEE
SAMPLE OUTPUTS)
➢ Your numeric data must have two numbers after the decimal
point and a $ sign in
front of the number (for example, $1375.85).
o This function needs be able to process more than one
transaction.
o After successfully processing a transaction, ask the user if the
user wants to process
another transaction.
o If the user chooses to process another transaction, use a
suitable loop to ask the user
about the type of account and the transaction to process. (SEE
SAMPLE OUTPUTS )
o If the user chooses to process additional transactions, the
previous transactions should
not be overwritten.
o Assume the user will not perform more than 20 transactions

on either account.
11. Inside your main function:
• Declare a 2D array of doubles to store the transactions
performed on the account.
• Display a menu for the user (SEE SAMPLE OUTPUT) that
provides the user three choices.
o Process an account
o Display the transactions on an account.
o Quit the program
• Declare a double variable to store the current personal account
balance and initialize it
with the value 1000.00.
• Declare a double variable to store the current business account
balance and initialize it
with the value 10000.00.
• Declare two integer variables to store the number of business
transactions and the
number of personal transaction and initialize both with 0.
• Declare a string variable to store the name on the account.
o Call the getName function and pass the string variable for
name to get the name.
• Declare a string variable to store the account number.

o Call the getAccountNumber function and pass the string
variable for account number
to get the account number.
• Using a suitable message, ask the user to make the menu
choice using an integer variable.
• Based on the value entered by the user for menu choice,
design a switch-case block to
implement the following requirements.
o You must use the enumeration constants to set up your cases.
o You must use a variable of your enumeratio n constant type for
switching control.
o If the user chooses to process an account
➢ Call the function processAccount with suitable parameters.
o If the user chooses to display an account
➢ Display the name with suitable message. Make sure the
displayed name follows all
requirements of Step 5.
➢ Display the encrypted account number with suitable message.
Call the
encrypt_num function with appropriate arguments to encrypt the
account number.
➢ Call the function displayAccount with appropriate arguments.
o If the user choose to quit the program.

➢ Exit the program with a suitable message.
o If the user chooses anything else, execute the default case to
notify the user an incorrect
choice.
➢ Using a suitable loop, ask the use for the choice again.
➢ Your program must keep on looping until the user enters the
correct choice. (SEE
SAMPLE OUTPUT 2)
12. Your program source code should be named
“euidProject2.cpp”, without the quotes.
where euid should be replaced by your EUID.
13. Your program will be graded based largely on whether it
works correctly on the CSE machines
(e.g., cse01, cse02, …, cse06), so you should make sure that
your program compiles and runs on a
CSE machine.
DESIGN (ALGORITHM):
On a piece of paper (or word processor), write down the
algorithm, or sequence of steps, that you will
use to solve the problem. You may think of this as a “recipe”
for someone else to follow. Continue to
refine your “recipe” until it is clear and deterministically solves
the problem. Be sure to include the steps
for prompting for input, performing calculations, and displaying

output.
You should attempt to solve the problem by hand first (using a
calculator as needed) to work out what
the answer should be for a few sets of inputs.
Type these steps and calculations into a document (i.e., Word,
text, or PDF) that will be submitted along
with your source code. Note that if you do any work by hand,
images (such as pictures) may be used, but
they must be clear and easily readable. This document shall
contain both the algorithm and any supporting
hand-calculations you used in verifying your results.
Here are some sample outputs to help you write the code. The
items in bold are entered by the user on
the terminal as input data.
SAMPLE OUTPUT 1
$ ./a.out
+-------------------------------------------------+
| Computer Science and Engineering |
| CSCE 1030 - Computer Science I |
| Student Name EUID [email protected] |
+-------------------------------------------------+
Enter your name:john 12345

Your name can only have alphabets or spaces. Enter again.
Enter your name:joh25
Your name can only have alphabets or spaces. Enter again.
Enter your name:john smith
Enter your account number:123
Your account number is a 6-digit number. Enter again:0001
1. Process Accounts
2. Display Account Information
3. Quit
Enter your choice:3
Goodbye!!!
SAMPLE OUTPUT 2
$ ./a.out
+-------------------------------------------------+

+-------------------------------------------------+
Enter your account number:accdef
Account number can only contain numbers. Enter again:123456
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:5
Wrong choice. Please enter again.
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:6
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:3

Goodbye!!!
SAMPLE OUTPUT 3
$ ./a.out
+-------------------------------------------------+
+-------------------------------------------------+
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:1
What is your account type?0 for Business, 1 for Personal:0
Enter transaction:1125.36

Business Balance:$11125.36
Do you want to process another transaction? Y/N:y
Do you want to process another transaction? Y/N:n
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:1

1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:2
Name:John Smith
Account Number (Encrypted): ;FF?CI
Which account to display? 0 for Business, 1 for Personal:0
Do you want to sort? Y/N:n
1125.36
36.25
98.45
45.68
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:3
Goodbye!!!

SAMPLE OUTPUT 4
$ ./a.out
+-------------------------------------------------+
+-------------------------------------------------+
Enter your name:abcd efgh
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:1
Personal Balance:$1036.85

1. Process Accounts
3. Quit

Enter your choice:2
Name:Abcd Efgh
Account Number (Encrypted): [email protected]==<
Do you want to sort? Y/N:y
99.85
36.85
15.50
12.89
1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:2
Name:Abcd Efgh
Account Number (Encrypted): <?ADEI
Do you want to sort? Y/N:n
55.69

1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:3
Goodbye!!!
SAMPLE OUTPUT 5
$ ./a.out
+-------------------------------------------------+
+-------------------------------------------------+
1. Process Accounts

3. Quit
Enter your choice:1
Enter transaction:-50000
Business Balance:$-40000.00
Enter transaction:10000
Your current balance is less than the required minimum. There
will be a $10.00 fee for every transaction.

1. Process Accounts
3. Quit
Enter your choice:3
Goodbye!!!

TESTING:
Test your program to check that it operates as desired with a
variety of inputs. Then, compare the answers
your code gives with the ones you get from hand calculations.
SUBMISSION:
• Your program will be graded based largely upon whether it
works correctly on the CSE machines,
so you should make sure your program compiles and runs on the
CSE machines.
• Your program will also be graded based upon your program
style. This means that you should use
comments (as directed), meaningful variable names, and a
consistent indentation style as
recommended in the textbook and in class.
• We will be using an electronic homework submission on
Canvas to make sure that all students
hand their programming projects on time. You will submit both
(1) the program source code file
and (2) the algorithm design document to the Project 2 dropbox
on Canvas by the due date and
time.
• Homework are meant to be problem-solving exercises and are
designed to help you practice your
coding on larger projects with various pieces of functionality.
While the coding should be primarily
your sole work, you are allowed to get assistance from
classmates when working on these

assignments. However, each student is required to report the
name(s) of the students they
worked with on the assignment. Cheating for these assignments
is now defined as copying from
a fellow student without reporting it or copying from the web.
You should not copy someone
else’s code or let a classmate examine your code if you have not
identified as working in a group
for your homework.
• As a safety precaution, do not edit your program (using vim or
nano) after you have submitted
your program where you might accidentally re-save the
program, causing the timestamp on your
file to be later than the due date. If you want to look (or work
on it) after submitting, make a copy
of your submission and work on that copy. Should there be any
issues with your submission, this
timestamp on your code on the CSE machines will be used to
validate when the program was
completed.
7Early Childhood Development (4–5 years)
© Zurijeta/iStock/Thinkstock

“The moment you doubt whether you can fly,
you cease for ever to be able to do it.”
Peter Pan (J. M. Barrie, 1904)
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
ሁ Summarize cognitive milestones of children ages 4 and 5
years.
ሁ Describe how to communicate appropriately with children
ages 4 and 5 years.
ሁ Describe appropriate techniques for working with children
ages 4 and 5 years.
ሁ Describe how to assist 4 and 5 year olds in positive social
interactions.
ሁ Identify and encourage healthy eating habits in children.
ሁ Describe and recognize typical developmental red flags for
children ages 4 and 5 years.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 147 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Chapter Overview
Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview
7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 4 and 5 Year
Olds
7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year
Olds

7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Summary and Resources
Chapter Overview
Although some researchers refer to ages 3–8 as early childhood,
there is no debating that a
3 year old is very different from an 8 year old. For this reason,
it is important to recognize the
significant stages within early childhood and the reason for the
division of ages in Chapters
6, 7, and 8. Whereas Chapter 6 discussed the egocentric toddler
(ages 1–3 years) learning
to gain motor control and speech, this chapter discusses the
more coordinated, complex-
thinking 4 and 5 year olds. Important changes take place from
the time a child just turns
3 years old until he or she reaches 5 years old, and these
changes affect all developmental
domains. Children who are 4 or 5 years old are interested in the
world around them, open to
and wanting experiences and interactions outside of the family
unit. This stage of early child-
hood is truly a time for more active exploration, and this
exploration is driven by a curiosity
that seems to dominate all aspects of daily activities.
Just as the toddlers discussed in Chapter 6 are developmentally
different from the 4 and

5 year olds discussed in this chapter, the older 6–8 year olds
discussed in Chapter 8 are sig-
nificantly more advanced than 4 and 5 year olds. Children ages
6–8 are developing individual
identities, creating complex relationships with peers, and
forming their own unique opinions.
Compared to toddlers or 4 and 5 year olds, these children are
advanced!
In Oh, the Places You’ll Go! (1990), Dr. Seuss writes “So be
sure when you step. Step with care
and great tact and remember that Life’s a Great Balancing Act. .
. . And will you succeed?
Yes! You will, indeed! (98 and 3/4 percent guaranteed.) KID,
YOU’LL MOVE MOUNTAINS!”
This quote talks about stepping “with care and great tact” and
compares life to “a great bal-
ancing act.” The journey through ages 4 and 5 is similar to the
journey Dr. Seuss
describes and is closely related to the opening chapter quote
from J. M. Barrie’s Peter Pan
(1904) that describes a young child’s attempts at independence
(flying) and feelings of self-
doubt that are typical for this age group.
Children ages 4 and 5 years are a fascinating group. They have
imaginations and opinions.
In addition, this stage brings about more cooperation in play
and attention to rules, details,
and tasks. The motor skills of 4 and 5 year olds take a leap as
they become more dexterous
with fine motor skills, thereby becoming gradually more
independent in their own care. Gross
motor capabilities allow better balance in bicycling and provide
coordination in ball games
and other play. In language development, children provide

clearer answers to questions and
engage in more conversations among peers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 148 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 4 and 5
Year Olds
In addition, the self-help skills of 4 and 5 year olds are
becoming more refined, and increased
independence is demonstrated in dressing, eating, and
elimination. Therefore, children at this
age find themselves in an uncertain position of wanting
independence but needing guidance
and support. Socially and emotionally they are most
comfortable with family members and
close friends, but in their own world of peers they often bounce
from one friend to another
with preference for certain characteristics in peers becoming
apparent.
Caregivers and educators find that the intense levels of
emotions and activity of children ages
4 and 5 years can be tiring but also endearing. Because this is a
time to ensure school readi-
ness, early care environments must provide such skills, getting
children off to a good start.
Both academic and nonacademic skills mastered at this time
influence children’s ability to
succeed in reading, writing, and math, once they begin school.
7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development
in 4 and 5 Year Olds

Continuing into ages 4 and 5, physical growth and motor
development build off of growth and
skills accomplished during the previous stages of development.
Physical growth and change
are unique to each child, and motor development progresses in
an individualized manner as
well. These processes interact and contribute to changes in
physical appearance, mobility,
and other motor abilities during these years.
Physical Growth
As a toddler continues through early childhood and enters the
age range of 4–5 years, physi-
cal maturation continues. Physical growth may occur at
different times for children at these
ages, so these children often come in a variety of shapes and
sizes, even at the same age. In
general, children will begin to gain muscle and lose baby fat
during this period, making their
limbs and torsos slimmer and longer over time. A 4- or 5-year-
old child will often increase
in height faster than in weight, resulting in a very thin body
shape. This is normal at this age.
Facial features also continue to mature, becoming more adult-
like as the skull bones elongate
and the jaw widens. A wider jaw bone also makes room in the
child’s mouth for permanent
teeth to come in.
Motor Development
Because motor development is a process
that continually builds on already-mastered
skills, children of the same age may be at
very different levels of motor development.
Motor development is growing more sophis-
ticated at this point, and greater strides are

made in fine motor skills. These basic gross
and fine motor movements are important
as children transition to a classroom envi-
ronment and engage in physical games, dra-
matic play, and crafts.
© Anatoliy Samara/iStock/Thinkstock
▶ With more advanced gross motor skills than
during toddlerhood, preschoolers can engage in
physical games and sports with their peers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 149 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and
5 Year Olds
Generally, children emerging from toddlerhood and entering
preschool age (around 4 or
5 years old) are advancing with most gross motor skills. These
children have mastered walk-
ing and can even run, stop, and change directions with ease.
Children at this age can also go
up and down steps independently with alternating feet, and can
easily accomplish most of the
large muscle movements needed for athletic play, such as
kicking, throwing overhand, and
catching. Children around the age of 4 and 5 are usually very
energetic and use physical play
a lot. Galloping, tumbling, and other playful movements are
common and much enjoyed. An
older child (around 5 years old) is even more skillful and can
walk heel to toe, run on tiptoes,
hop and balance on one foot, and climb. These gross motor

skills allow for swimming, bicy-
cling, swinging a bat or racket, and pumping skillfully on a
swing.
Fine motor development progresses quite a bit during these
years as children gain more con-
trol of their small muscle movements. Attendance in a preschool
setting also helps children to
master these skills. Children at this age learn to draw shapes
with straight lines, like crosses,
squares, and even triangles and diamonds. They begin to trace
lines and even print large let-
ters. They also can use scissors to cut along a line, and with
help will eventually be able to
cut while moving the paper to cut curves and circles. As fine
motor skills develop, children’s
drawings will become more recognizable. Activities requiring
smaller grasps and refined
movements like fitting small pieces into jigsaw puzzles, turning
small dials and knobs, and
sculpting with clay help to develop fine motor skills.
Gross and fine motor skills allow for group games and activities
with peers and adults that
help to foster social-emotional, cognitive, and communication
development. See Table 7.1 for
details on motor development, both gross and fine.
Table 7.1: Observable motor development in children ages 4 and
5
Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills
Can balance on one foot for 10 seconds or more
Can do a forward roll

Can swing and can climb with good coordination
Can run and hop
May be learning to skip
Can use utensils to feed self, including a fork, a
spoon, and possibly a table knife
Can copy shapes like triangles, circles, or squares
and can draw a person with a body
Can print some letters
Can don and doff clothes without much help
Can take care of toileting needs without much help
Source: Adapted from American Academy of Pediatrics.
(2013a). Ages and stages, developmental milestones: 4 to 5
years old.
Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-
stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to
-5-Year-Olds.aspx.
7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development
in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Continuing into ages 4 and 5, children’s cognitive development
is advancing alongside their
progress in brain growth and development. Brain growth and
cognitive skills continue to
increase in complexity, building on the development made in
the toddler years.

gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 150 4/24/14 12:53 PM
http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-
stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to-5-Year-
Olds.aspx
Olds.aspx
5 Year Olds
Brain Growth
The cognitive processes of 4 and 5 year olds are advancing and
are facilitated through spe-
cific brain development. Neurons, at this time, are connecting
and more synaptic pruning
occurs, leaving the remaining connections stronger and more
efficient (Brown & Jernigan,
2012; Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Myelination also continues so
that axons are coated to be
more efficient in sending signals back and forth between
neurons (Brown & Jernigan, 2012).
At this time, executive functioning abilities (discussed in
Chapter 2) strengthen so that skills
of attention, short-term memory, and rule changing become
apparent and assist in learning
and socializing (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard
University, 2011). Related to this
continuing brain development is the finding that children in
higher-quality early learning
programs develop improved behaviors such as the ability to
remember details and to make
plans and other skills that help in school and group participation
like taking turns, waiting

before speaking, and working with others (Child Care Aware of
America, 2013).
Cognitive Development
The thought processes of children ages 4 or 5 years are more
complex than those of toddlers.
At this age, children are capable of understanding new concepts,
solving problems on their
own, considering options, and identifying rudimentary cause-
and-effect principles. Children
learn more advanced cognitive skills primarily through social
interactions and experience
with the environment. Advancements in children’s
communication skills provide for richer
interactions and experiences because they can better convey
their own thoughts and under-
stand the thoughts of others. Caregivers can help children to
develop more sophisticated cog-
nition by discussing everyday events with them.
Steve (preschool teacher): Good morning Patti. How are you
today?
Patti (4 year old): Good. I had bananas and there was a deer. It
looked like a
horse, but small. Why was the deer there?
Steve: I don’t know where the deer was, Patti. Where did you
see the deer?
Patti: In my backyard. It was eating our garden!
Steve: Oh, no! Maybe he was really hungry!
Patti: He WAS really hungry, but my dad was mad at him. I told
my dad that he

had to eat breakfast, too!
Steve: Just like when you ate your bananas, right?
Patti: Right. I had bananas and the deer ate our garden.
Steve: Why do you think your dad was mad at the deer?
Patti: I don’t know . . . . He was just eating! He should be
allowed to eat!
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 151 4/24/14 12:53 PM
5 Year Olds
Conversation comes naturally in the care of 4- and 5-year-old
children because they often ask
a lot of questions to help feed their curiosity about the world
around them. A very simple
statement may spur a series of what, why, how, when, and
where questions. It is important for
caregivers and teachers to be patient and engage with children
to try to answer all questions.
Children should also be able to answer similar questions when
asked. This back-and-forth
dialogue offers many rich experiences for children and is
essential for development in many
domains. Responses should be age appropriate without
oversimplifying, but with an appro-
priate amount of detail. Children provide cues that often
demonstrate their level of interest
and the extent of details needed. Behaviors that indicate the
topic is not of interest include

looking away, becoming fidgety, and asking irrelevant
questions. Cues that indicate genuine
interest and a need for more details include the asking of
relevant questions and visually
attending to the task or speaker.
By age 4, a typically developing child under-
stands time-oriented words like soon,
now, and later. Children at around this age
understand size relationships (including
bigger and smaller), concepts of different
and same, and location words like here,
there, under, over, and in. They also can fol-
low multistep commands, such as, “Go to
your bookshelf, choose what book you’d
like us to read together, and bring it to the
couch.” Children at around 5 years will be
able to follow multistep commands that
are not logically related, such as, “Put Blue
Bunny in the toy box and then put your shirt
and socks back on.”
Sometime during the ages of 4 or 5, children
begin to recognize common properties or
patterns across objects. Identifying these
patterns gives way to categorization skills.
In child-care centers, teachers often make
a game of categorizing by asking children
to put the blue blocks together, the red blocks together, and the
green blocks together. The
teacher affirms the children’s success when the task is done and
then mixes up the blocks and
asks them to ignore the colors and put the big blocks together
and the small blocks together.
This game also helps children to practice following rules. With

more advanced cognitive skills,
including basic memorization, children at this age are able to
engage in group activities with
rules. Children in this age group may be at different skill levels,
but typically they know their
first and last names as well as their ages, they are able to count
up to 5 or even 10, they can
name at least four colors, and they recognize basic shapes.
Counting is an obvious foundation for later math skills, but
many other concepts that should
be mastered in this stage of life help to lay the groundwork
needed for later mathematical
mastery. Play is a wonderful way for children of this age to
experience the world around them.
Play can also help children gain an understanding of the
concepts of volume, speed, length,
height, and other measurements that are important later for
comprehending mathematics. In
addition to having children learn through daily experiences, it is
important for caregivers to
be intentional in teaching the foundations needed for later
mathematics.
Tim Hall/Taxi/Thinkstock
▶ Typically, a preschooler can count up to 5 (or
even 10), and can name four or more colors.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 152 4/24/14 12:53 PM
5 Year Olds

This is also the time when children learn the skills that will lead
later to reading and writ-
ing, also known as early literacy. Reading books, singing songs,
making rhymes, and even
engaging in simple conversation all help to further develop
interest in communication and to
reinforce the concept that ideas are conveyed through language.
Early literacy includes hav-
ing fun with language, creating an interest in books and other
written materials, and experi-
encing the technical basics of reading (including reading from
front to back and left to right).
For example, reading the words on street signs, cereal boxes,
and other environmental print;
making up silly new words; playing rhyming games; engaging
in group or individual story
time; and singing along with familiar songs can help children to
develop early literacy skills
(Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003).
Children typically begin to identify different genders at age 4.
A child’s initial understand-
ing of gender differences may rely heavily on observable, and
often incorrect, characteristics
assigned to each gender by the child’s own experiences. For
example, a child may observe that
females wear necklaces and males wear baseball hats.
Therefore, anyone wearing a baseball
hat is male and anyone wearing a necklace is female. This i s
called gender typing. Gender
typing is related directly to the cognitive skill of categorization.
It helps children to better
distinguish and contrast between two groupings. At this level of
gender recognition, children
often believe that gender can be changed. Later, in middle
childhood, comes the understand-

ing that gender is constant throughout life. See Table 7.2 for
more details on cognitive devel-
opment in 4 and 5 year olds.
Table 7.2: Cognitive development in children ages 4 and 5
Can answer simple questions easily and logically
Can count 10 or more objects
Can name at least four colors correctly
Is better able to understand the concept of time as well as the
order of activities throughout the day (e.g., break-
fast in the morning, lunch in the afternoon, and supper at night)
Knows what things are used in the home context every day
(including money, food, and appliances)
Source: Adapted from American Academy of Pediatrics.
(2013a). Ages and stages, developmental milestones: 4 to 5
years old.
Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-
stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to-5
-Year-Olds.aspx.
Because children at the ages of 4 and 5 years are developing
abstract thinking, use creative
play skills, and have good fine motor skills, including eye-hand
coordination, the time is ripe
for advancing technological skills and for integrating the use of
interactive media and other
technology into early childhood programs. For instance, the use
of digital photo journals to
document skills and fun activities and the use of video to record
dramatic play, storytell-

ing, and dancing and singing can be motivating to 4 and 5 year
olds (Ching, Wang, & Kedem,
2006). Children at this age often use touch screens at museums
and in some libraries and can
discover the usefulness of websites on computers to learn more
about diverse cultures. Advo-
cates for the use of technology in early childhood programs
believe that age-appropriate use
of such technology can expand social connections (Buckleitner,
2000) and enhance a child’s
imagination. Others believe that overuse can lead to social
isolation and reduced attention
spans (Alliance for Children, 2004).
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 153 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Olds.aspx
Olds.aspx
Section 7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
“I WANT TO GO TO SCHOOL!”
Miss Isabella’s early childhood center for 4 and 5 year olds has
a long waiting
list. She has “fun” areas of play that children talk about for
years after they enter
school-age programs. Parents also promote it by word-of-mouth
to their friends

and neighbors. What’s so special and enticing? Everything!
Not only does Miss Isabella offer clean, safe, and cheerful play
areas with pretend kitchen and
dress-up activities, but she also has riding and climbing areas
and “bouncy” items to promote
gross motor skills and to allow children the opportunity to let
off energy. In addition, she has
quiet reading and listening “soft places” that offer choices of
hard books and e-books and
other parts of the center where children can use hands-on
manipulative toys like small Legos,
large lightweight indestructible blocks, and sensory materials
like water and sand tables. But
the all-time favorite is the interactive media area, where Miss
Isabella always assigns her best
adult volunteers to be involved with the children by providing
support in the proper use of the
technology provided, such as computers, tablets, digital
cameras, and recording devices. They
also monitor and guide children in taking turns, sharing, and
being innovative.
Some of the innovations that volunteers have encouraged in this
area of the center include
promoting a “media team” through which children buddy-up and
share roles as they go off
into the other play areas to document art, science, and cooking
projects; interview class-
mates on topics of interest; or record each other’s stories about
their in-school experiences.
Technology users also partner with children in other play areas
to create imaginative dances
or to act out stories that can be recorded. These videos and
audio recordings are often shared
at “family night” in various parts of the room, just as are other

craft projects. The energy and
pride just f lows from the children and their families in Mi ss
Isabella’s early childhood center!
7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
As children leave toddlerhood and enter into the more social
and complex world of the ages
of 4 and 5, they also enter into the world of constant
communication. Children at this age are
very verbal and talk seemingly nonstop at times. The topic of
conversation can range from
serious musings about their surroundings and emotions, to
nonsensical jokes and memo-
rized rhymes. This flurry of sophisticated speech leads to
development in almost all other
domains. It is important to encourage talk at this time, and to
seek advice from a specialist if
any delays are suspected (see section on developmental red
flags).
At around age 4, a child is typically using approximately 1,500
words formed in complete
short sentences (Children’s Hospital of the King’s Daughters,
2006). At around age 5, the
child’s vocabulary is increasing to more than 2,000 words, with
sentences made up of five or
more words, and using all parts of speech (Mannheim, 2012).
Children at this age are able to
understand most of what is said in both the home and the school
contexts (American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association, n.d.a). For many years, theorists
have recognized the impor-
tance of interaction for vocabulary development. However, the
development of language is
much more complicated than associating words with their
definitions. Children also use the

different aspects of what is said—like inflection, volume, and
rhythm—to determine meaning.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 154 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
These aspects of speech are called paralinguistics. The use of
paralinguistics to develop lan-
guage becomes more sophisticated as a child develops. For
example, a recent study showed
that 5 year olds, but not 4 year olds, were able to use the
emotional cues conveyed in speech to
determine the speaker’s intended meaning (Berman, Graham,
Callaway, & Chambers, 2013).
A child’s words at 4 and 5 years are much more recognizable
than a toddler’s words. As a child
continues to practice saying different words, each consonant
and vowel sound becomes more
refined to form discernable syllables. This clearer speaking of
words is called enunciation.
Children ages 4 and 5 years old like familiar stories and may
ask to hear their favorites over
and over with few word changes. Repeating rhymes, singing
songs, and playing word games
are among the favorite activities at this age. Communication
skills are growing rapidly at this
time, and all of these activities help to advance this domain and
even build literacy skills for
later in life.
Children may make up their own words and repeat sounds over
and over. It is also common

for children at this age to involuntarily repeat a syllable, or the
first consonant of a word, over
and over before completing the word or phrase. This repetition
is known as stuttering. Stut-
tering in early childhood does not necessarily indicate a cause
for concern. A child’s ideas may
come faster than his or her verbal skills can process them.
Caregivers who notice stuttering
should be sure to give the child undivided attention and not
comment on the stuttering.
By age 5, as their verbal communication skills progress,
children will begin to use the correct
rules for language, such as order of words (e.g., “I will go to
the car”), different words for the
same meaning (e.g., we and us), and different forms of the same
word to indicate past, pres-
ent, and future tenses (e.g., play, plays, played). This set of
language rules is called grammar.
Grammar continues to develop through school age. By the age
of 5, children will often begin
to recognize and read common words in their favorite books.
Having conversations, reading
books, and singing songs with children can help them to
continue development of vocabulary,
pronunciation, and grammar. See Table 7.3 for detailed
information on communication devel-
opment in 4 and 5 year olds.
Table 7.3: Communication development in children ages 4 and 5
Understanding Talking
Pays attention to a short story and answers simple
questions about it

Understands most of what is said at home and
in school
Understands simple humor
Hears differences among rhyming words
Has improved reading comprehension
Names some letters and numbers
Uses sentences that give lots of details (“The biggest
peach on the table is mine because I washed it.”)
Tells stories that stick to topic
Expresses self easily to other children and adults
Says most sounds correctly, except a few, such as l, s,
r, v, z, ch, sh, and th
Says rhyming words
Uses the same grammar as the rest of the family, but
in simpler sentences
Source: Reprinted with permission from American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association. (2013). How does your child
hear and
talk? Four to five years. Retrieved from
http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/01.htm. © 2014
American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association. All rights reserved.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 155 4/24/14 12:53 PM

http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/01.htm
Section 7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Children at ages 4 and 5 blossom socially.
They enjoy and prefer to be with other chil-
dren and quickly gain the skills needed to
function in a community of peers. Children
are driven by the desire to be liked and place
the utmost importance on friends. Especially
when introduced into structured child-care
settings and preschool classrooms, children
develop skills to thrive in larger groups of
peers. This includes sharing, sympathizing
with others, communicating, compromis-
ing, setting and testing boundaries, and fol-
lowing rules. However, because these skills
are still being developed, children at this
age rely on adult supervision to help use
them appropriately.
Kirsten was quiet when she first
started coming here about 5 weeks
ago. She would go sit on one cor-
ner of the mat on the side of the room and roll a car back and
forth while she
watched the other kids. We worked closely with her, suggesting
things she could
say to the other kids and helping them play together.
Eventually, Kirsten became
comfortable interacting with Blair. They still don’t share very
well, but they love
to play at the water table together and help each other on and
off the swings

outside.—Preschool teacher
According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (see
Chapter 3), children at
4 and 5 years of age are transitioning between the stages of
autonomy versus shame and doubt
(ages 2–3) and initiative versus guilt (ages 4–5), which
necessitates working toward a sense of
self-control and the ability to initiate one’s own activities,
respectively. These stages are well
represented within the social-emotional realm, as they apply
directly to a child’s ability to be
autonomous and in control within social situations and play
interactions with both adults
and peers.
Imaginative play is very important at this time, and children
often engage in make-believe
play together. Because of the newly identified genders, make-
believe play often includes gen-
der roles. Imaginary friends are also common during this period.
At this age, children’s active
imaginations and desire for social interaction often lead them to
create fictional characters
that function as constant companions. This is completely normal
and typically fades out as the
child ages. However, children at this age are able to
differentiate between real and pretend.
Justin always tells us about the “preetles” that live in the
bathtub under the
water. None of my other kids had imaginary friends, if that’s
what the pree-
tles are anyway. He’s never been able to tell me exactly what
they are, but he
seems to think they are just great! He actually likes to take

baths now instead of
screaming, so we love the preetles!—Jolie (mother of three)
Susanne Dittrich/Fuse/Thinkstock
▶ Preschool-age children see friendships as
increasingly important and want to be liked by their
peers. Many social-emotional skills emerge and are
strengthened during this developmental period.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 156 4/24/14 12:53 PM
It is important for caregivers to help children at this age to
maneuver through social-
emotional development. Discussing feelings and encouraging
verbal expressions of anger,
frustration, and disappointment can be valuable tools that
children use throughout life to
cope with negative feelings. Friendships are fluid at this age,
but caregivers can help children
ages 4–5 years to appreciate friends and begin to understand the
feeling of loyalty. Adults can
help children talk about what characteristics they like about
their friends and then help them
to imitate those characteristics to be a good friend to others.
Imitating positive behaviors is a
great way to capitalize on a child’s desire to be liked.
Children learn what is socially unacceptable by trying and
testing out different behaviors.
Children at this age will naturally push limits to get a sense of
what is acceptable. They may

use profane language to shock and get attention from adults. For
similar reasons, children at
this age will test boundaries with authority figures by talking
back. Their active imaginations
can also easily lead to confusion between fantasy and reality or
simple confusion of the facts,
which may be misinterpreted as lying. In addition, their active
play can also lead to aggressive
physical play. It is important to set clear and firm boundaries
and to be consistent with con-
sequences for negative behaviors. If any of these negative
behaviors is allowed, children may
think they are acceptable and have a much harder time
correcting them when they are older.
Children ages 4 and 5 years can have a tendency to be bossy at
times. They are exercising
independence and trying out new social roles within their world.
Sometimes social situations
result in aggression between peers. This aggression can be with
the intent to hurt another
child, or it can be motivated by a particular goal, like getting a
desired toy from another child.
Some theorists suggest that there are more instances of
aggression within a new group of
peers at these ages, though eventually a social hierarchy is
established and the rate of aggres-
sion decreases (Strayer, 1980). Often, in a group play setting a
dominant child will emerge
and control play situations. Other peers are typically quick to
allow the dominant child to take
over and follow that child’s lead. The tendency for some
children to take over and for others
to follow their lead willingly is referred to as social dominance
(Pellegrini et al., 2007).

We went through a few weeks in the beginning where Amanda
was biting some
of the boys. It was only outside and only the boys. There was no
real aggression
toward the other girls. We tried to pay close attention to the
situations, and
it didn’t seem to be toy motivated. After a few days of it we
asked her mother.
Turns out she has two brothers at home who may be a little
bossy or rough
at times. So, we paid closer attention to the boys’ behavior, too,
and really
encouraged turn-taking, sharing, and other mutually respectful
activities to
help Amanda feel more confident around them and to build their
relationships.
—Assistant teacher
This is also the time when morality begins to develop. Children
ages 4 and 5 years are eager to
please adults in roles of importance, like parents and caregivers.
Children begin to show true
guilt for questionable actions and sincere concern for others.
These are the seeds of moral
development, which continues through late early childhood (see
Chapter 8).
Although 4 and 5 year olds are excited to form social circles,
they may also have a fear of the
unknown. Most children at this age have formed strong
attachments to their primary caregiv-
ers and experience a considerable amount of fear if that person
leaves. Children may also be
wary of places and situations with which they are not familiar.
It is important for caregivers to support children at this age to

overcome fears, build a solid
moral foundation, and learn social appropriateness. Children
need positive feedback from
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 157 4/24/14 12:53 PM
trusted adults to tell them when they are on the right track, in
turn building positive self-
esteem. They also need a structured and safe environment in
which to explore social and
emotional situations while exercising some newfound
independence. Children at all ages
need discipline, but it is important to understand that discipline
is not punishment (see Chap-
ter 8 for a definition of punishment and discipline). Good
discipline is guidance and is espe-
cially important in the context of social-emotional development
at ages 4 and 5 years.
Over the past two decades, preschool classrooms that teach
children with special needs along-
side typically developing children have become increasingly
commonplace. These integrated
preschool classrooms are called inclusive programs. Children
who appear different or act dif-
ferently from the typical child may create wariness, yet
inclusive programs have many benefits
to all of the students involved. Typically developing peers get
to practice skills while guiding
other children. Confidence and empathy are improved. Children
with special needs can observe
and learn to imitate typically developing peers. However,

regardless of the setting, preschoolers
with disabilities engage in fewer social interactions, group play,
and conversations than typi-
cally developing children, offering far fewer opportunities to
develop social skills. In addition,
their social skills are lost faster than those of children without
disabilities if the skills are not
used, acknowledged, and appreciated by others (Kennedy,
2013). Caregivers can help sustain
social-emotional progress in children with and without
disabilities by acknowledging and
encouraging positive social interactions between peers
whenever possible.
TIPS ON SUPPORTING STRONG SOCIAL-
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Caregivers create supportive social-emotional environments
when they . . .
• Design learning centers that create small-group social
environments
• Be socially competent play partners, modeling what play
conversations sound like
• Model play that includes children with special needs
• Provide open-ended materials (e.g., blocks, clothing for
dramatic play, and natural
materials such as rocks, seashells, sand, and water) that
stimulate conversation
• Encourage children to engage with each other and ask
questions
• Keep a strong presence during center time, offering problem-
solving assistance as
necessary
• Assist with children’s diverse ways of initiating play with one

another
• Incorporate activities that allow children in inclusive
classrooms to get to know each
other, for example, with circle-time songs and activities that
emphasize friendship,
children’s names, and their similarities and differences
Caregivers should use observation to determine . . .
• Each child’s current social skills
• Areas of strength and growth for all children
• Children’s individual interests
• Times when each child is most likely to interact with peers
• The level of inclusion for each child during play, especially
the inclusion of children
with special needs
• Each child’s ability to initiate interactions and to respond to
the initiations of others
• Where and when conflicts occur most frequently
• Whether any child is being socially rejected
Source: From Kennedy, A. S. (2013). Supporting peer
relationships and social competence in inclusive preschool
programs.
Young Children, 68(5), 18–25. Copyright © 2013 Nation
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Reprinted by permission.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 158 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Children ages 4 and 5 are typically much more independent than
toddlers. They are able to
do the majority of self-help tasks with supervision and some
assistance from adults. Chil-
dren at this age can feed themselves with the proper utensils,
dress themselves if the clothing
does not involve complicated layers or fasteners, eliminate
without much assistance, brush
their own teeth, and clean their bodies with supervision.
Allowing children to do much of the
self-help tasks independently at this age helps to build
confidence, improve problem-solving
skills, and enhance motor development.
Sleeping
By 4 years of age, some children still take one nap in the
afternoon for approximately
1–2 hours. Napping is typically phased out around this time,
although children should con-
tinue a napping routine if they get very tired or cranky in the
late afternoon. Children who do
not need an afternoon nap may still benefit from quiet time.
At nighttime, 4 and 5 year olds should get
11–13 hours of sleep (National Sleep Foun-
dation, 2013a). However, getting enough
high-quality sleep can be a challenge for
some children this age who are energetic
and always active. Many parents find it dif-
ficult to get their 4- or 5-year-old child to go
to sleep at a reasonable time at night, and
some find it just as difficult to keep them
sleeping through the early hours of the
morning. To complicate matters, an over-
tired and cranky child is harder to convince

to go to bed. Consistent sleep times and bed-
time routines can help children mentally
and physically prepare for sleep and get
better sleep throughout the night. Adequate
sleep is critical for optimal development
at this age. Studies indicate a connection
between inadequate sleep in preschool-
ers and behavior issues in the classroom.
One study in particular found a link between parental-reported
sleep routine disturbances
and teacher-reported negative behaviors in the classroom
(Bates, Viken, Alexander, Beyers,
& Stockton, 2003). Behavior issues caused by inadequate sleep
can inhibit social experiences
and other learning opportunities. Overcoming these early
bedtime challenges is critical for
optimal development.
Feeding and Eating
Progress in a child’s motor, cognitive, and physical
development allows for independence at
mealtimes. Children at this age are able to use everyday utensils
to feed themselves. They
know the proper use for bowls, plates, cups, forks, knives,
spoons, and straws. Although some
children may be able to prepare themselves simple meals like
pouring a bowl of cereal, they
Fuse/Thinkstock
▶ Preschoolers should get 11–13 hours of sleep
during the night.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 159 4/24/14 12:53 PM

Section 7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
should still be supervised and supported at this age. In
particular, caregivers need to provide
children with nutritious food.
Forming healthy eating habits in early childhood and getting
balanced daily nutrition are key
components to warding off obesity and malnutrition in
childhood and throughout adult life.
All adults who interact with children on a daily basis can help
by setting a good example with
food selection and portions, helping children to select a variety
of nutritious foods, and fol-
lowing eating schedules. According to a U.S. Department of
Agriculture Economic Research
Service report, 21 percent of U.S. households with children do
not have a secure food supply,
putting the children at risk of being undernourished (Coleman-
Jensen, Nord, & Singh, 2013).
When families use starchy foods low in nutrients to make
financial ends meet, children may
become either obese or undernourished. Preschool programs
have the opportunity to edu-
cate children and their families about good nutrition (Center for
the Study of Social Policy,
2013). See more on childhood obesity in Chapter 8.
Food safety is also important to minimize children’s illnesses.
Proper storage, washing, and
cooking of food can help to keep unwanted germs at bay.
Elimination
Toileting should be mastered at this age, although occasional
bedwetting may occur and is not

necessarily a cause for concern. If bedwetting is frequent or
accompanied regularly by night-
mares, it may be indicative of a deeper issue. A pediatrician or
perhaps a specialist should be
consulted.
Hygiene
Oral hygiene is important to teach as children ages 4 and 5 learn
daily routines and take a
more active role in cleaning themselves. Children should be
taught to brush teeth at least
twice a day, in the morning and before bed, and to floss at least
once per day. Children should
also have an established routine of visiting a dentist every 6
months.
As children ages 4 and 5 become more social beings, they
interact with adults and peers more
and more. Playing with toys in groups, reading books with
caregivers, and learning to share
with other children all bring opportunities to swap germs.
Because children this age are still
developing their immune systems, they are susceptible to
common viruses. Teaching proper
cleaning routines, like washing hands after going to the
bathroom, can help.
TIPS ON PROPER FOOD SAFETY
• Clean. Wash hands and surfaces often.
• Separate. Don’t cross-contaminate. For example, after cutting
meat, wash the
knife before using it to cut vegetables.
• Cook. Cook to proper temperature using a food thermometer.
• Chill. Refrigerate properly.

Source: ChooseMyPlate.gov. (n.d.). Food safety: Preschoolers’
immune systems are still developing. Retrieved from
ht tp://w w w.choosemyplate.gov/preschoolers/food-safet
y.html.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 160 4/24/14 12:53 PM
http://www.choosemyplate.gov/preschoolers/food-safety.html
Section 7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Regular bathing should also be part of the routine. Making
bathtime fun and allowing enough
time to play can be crucial for keeping it a pleasant par t of the
day.
Paul has made such great progress with his morning and evening
routines! It
used to be such a struggle just to get him to brush his teeth. He
would do what-
ever he could to get out of it. It took a long time, but trying to
make it fun rather
than a chore and being persistent with the routine has really
paid off. We sing a
little song together while we get the toothbrush ready, and after
we are done we
finish the song. It’s much more bearable for both of us!—Brian
(father)
Dressing
Children ages 4 and 5 can mostly dress themselves and should
be given the opportunity to do
so, as long as they are safe and supervised. As fine motor skills
continue to develop, children
may still need assistance with small snaps, buttons, and zippers,

but allowing them to try for
themselves will help to develop these skills.
Caregivers can offer alternative methods to
help put on coats, shoes, and other cloth-
ing if a child needs some assistance. Inde-
pendence is important for developing skills
related to these tasks, but support should
be given when the task gets too frustrat-
ing. A particular teaching strategy has the
caregiver take the task to the final step and
then the child completes it. This technique
is called backward chaining. For example,
a child learning to button can have the adult
line up the button with the hole and push
it partly through. Then the child pulls it the
rest of the way. Next time the child can be
encouraged to push and pull the button
through the hole. After several successes,
the child learns to do all steps in buttoning,
including aligning the button with the hole, pushing, and finally
pulling it through. This is an
alternative to forward chaining, in which a child is taught the
first step in a task, with each
successive step taught in the correct sequence. Learning can
also take place by observing
peers or an adult complete a task, and can also be encouraged
with the use of prompting
(verbal or physical) from step to step (Shrestha, Anderson, &
Moore, 2013). The technique
selected must be individualized to the child’s unique strengths
and needs.
By age 4, a typically developing child should have achieved

multiple milestones in all of the
developmental domains. Red flags may be more apparent to a
parent, teacher, or caregiver
during this time than previously. Because the earliest
interventions hold the most promise for
addressing developmental concerns, it is important to recognize
developmental red flags as
early as possible. Table 7.4 describes some observable red flags
in various domains.
© monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
▶ Preschoolers increasingly have the ability to
dress themselves but may still need assistance
from adults for buttons, buckles, snaps, or zippers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 161 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Table 7.4: Developmental red flags in children ages 4 and 5
Domain Red Flag
Motor Movements seem shaky or stiff
Arms and hands seem very weak
Not able to cut along a straight line
Not holding crayons or pencils with thumb and fingers
Not able to draw a circle, square, and cross

Not able to put on own shirts, pants, socks, and shoes (with
some help
with fasteners)
Not able to feed self well with a spoon and fork
Cognitive Not able to name the basic colors and shapes
Does not understand the concept of past, present, and future
Not interested in pretend play
Constantly moves from one activity to another and can stay with
an activity only
for brief periods
Not able to understand the rules of a basic game, such as
memory or other
preschool games
Not able to tell basic facts about self (e.g., full name, age, city
in which the child
lives, street name)
Not able to count five objects
Does not recognize name when seeing it printed
Communication Not easily understood by others
Has difficulty putting sentences together
Has lots of grammatical difficulties in sentences
Has difficulties with concepts such as prepositions (position
words such as

behind, beside, etc.), colors, size, categories
Does not ask questions
Does not follow verbal directions
Social-emotional Not interested in playing with other children
Not able to share or take turns with other children
Wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything
Extremely “rigid” about routines; becomes extremely upset
when things are
changed
Has extreme difficulty separating from primary caregiver
Is too passive or fearful, and does not want to try things other
children the same
age are doing
Has extreme fears that interfere with daily activities
If any of these red flags are observed, parents should be advised
to consult with the child’s
doctor or a developmental specialist.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 162 4/24/14 12:53 PM
backward chaining A particular teaching
technique in which the caregiver takes a

task to the last stage and allows the child to
complete it.
early literacy A set of skills developed in
early childhood that form the foundation for
later reading and writing.
enunciation Speaking in a clear and com-
prehendible manner.
gender typing Mentally assigning specific
characteristics to males and other specific
characteristics to females.
grammar A set of rules for a spoken and
written language.
inclusive programs A classroom or pro-
gram that integrates children with special
needs and challenges with typically develop-
ing children.
social dominance The tendency for some
children to take over and for others to will-
ingly follow their lead.
stuttering Involuntarily repeating a syllable
or the first consonant of a word.
Children ages 4 and 5 years are typically joyful and driven by
their newfound curiosity. Skills
across domains work together to help children at this age
explore their world and become
social creatures. Increased fine motor skills allow children to
engage in crafts and play games

together while communication helps children convey their ideas
and talk about their emo-
tions. Imagination begins to filter through much of their play
and adds a tinge of drama to
their actions. Children at this age are beginning to understand
the rules and properties of the
world around them. Night versus day, summer versus winter,
right versus wrong, and likes
versus dislikes all begin to emerge in children’s minds.
Children ages 4 and 5 are also energetic and ready to learn.
They are eager to try out their
new skills and have an urge for independence, but they still
need considerable support to stay
safe and navigate the world around them. Their caregivers play
a large role in showing them
how to interact with others, how the day should be structured,
how to show caring and com-
passion, and how to solve problems. Simple conversations with
4 and 5 year olds can have
significant positive impacts on their cognitive, communication,
and social-emotional devel-
opment. Children at this age can be great conversationalists and
will usually continue to ask
questions as long as they are receiving age-appropriate answers.
At this age, children have the cognitive ability and physical
coordination to take care of many
of their daily needs. They can feed themselves, sleep regularly,
clean and dress themselves,
and use a toilet. Although these tasks are completed with little
support, children at this age
still need help knowing when it is time for a nap, when to have
a healthy snack, and when to
practice their cleaning routines.

Key Terms and Concepts
Discussion Questions
1. Discuss ways that caregivers can support a 4 or 5 year old’s
development of auton-
omy and independence while still maintaining necessary
boundaries. What strate-
gies could be used?
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 163 4/24/14 12:53 PM
2. Imagine a group of children ages 4 and 5 years playing a
game of duck, duck, goose.
What domains of child development are at play during this
game? Considering this
example, discuss the importance of play for a child’s
developmental progress.
3. Why is discussing everyday events important for a 4 or 5 year
old’s cognitive devel-
opment? How does this strategy compare with the more
structured teaching of
academic-related topics during these years?
4. What are some possible benefits and some possible
challenges of caring for children
in an inclusive classroom?
5. Why is it important to consult with a doctor or developmental
specialist as early as
possible if there are concerns with a child’s development? What

might be the conse-
quences if concerns are not addressed?
6. What are some ways caregivers can support a 4 or 5 year
old’s efforts to make
friends and interact with them?
7. In what ways are children at ages 4 and 5 years very different
from toddlers? In what
ways are they similar?
Observational Activities
The following activities encourage opportunities to see child
development in action. Arrang-
ing occasions to observe or interact with children of various
ages creates critical moments to
synthesize the learning in this text.
1. Witnessing fine motor advancements; bon appetit. Improving
fine motor skills
allows children ages 4 and 5 years to perform new activities.
One endeavor that
children tend to enjoy is assisting with cooking. Even greater
pride is seen when
they get to take the lead. With the parent’s permission, arrange
a time to don your
chef ’s hat with a child. Making “ants on a log” is an excellent
adventure in fine motor
skills. Coach the child through the cutting in half (in a sawing
motion) of a washed
celery stalk using a small knife. Instruct the child to spread
peanut butter or cream
cheese along the inside of the celery. Finalize the concoction by
having the child
place raisins along the peanut butter or cream cheese. This may

be the child’s first
opportunity to demonstrate these particular skills. Watch the
child’s dexterity and
adjustments as he or she maneuvers this task.
2. Witnessing language progression; rhyme time. Many children
are quite used to
hearing nursery rhymes or stories that have a rhyming pattern.
Making up their own
rhyme words can be even more fun. With a child age 4 or 5,
recite the first lines of a
nursery rhyme, but when you come to the point in the second
line pause and have
the child say aloud the rhyming word (e.g., Hickory dickory
dock, the mouse ran up
the ______ ). After going through the standard responses,
encourage the child to think
of other words that rhyme. Children commonly make up some
inventive words,
which is fine, but more important is their grasping of the
rhyming concept. Notice
how many rhyming words the child can insert.
3. Witnessing social development; tea for two. Children age 4
or 5 will start to display new
patterns in play. At this age they will gain the skills needed for
interactive or coopera-
tive play versus their prior parallel-play skills. Further
emerging is the development
of their imagination, which makes dramatic play like dress-up
or tea parties a good
way to practice these new skills. Schedule a time to partake in
either of these activi-
ties with a child of this age and ask the parents if they have
dress-up clothes or child
tea sets (substitute plastic or unbreakable cups, if needed). Note

the child’s ability
to take turns with you and ask you questions (e.g., asking you if
you would like more
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 164 4/24/14 12:53 PM
tea). Although children at this age are often egocentric, this
game often elicits their
directed interactions with you. This is also a wonderful time to
role-play and practice
manners; don’t forget to say “please” and “thank you.”
Web Resources
Fred Rogers Center Early Learning Environment
http://ele.fredrogerscenter.org/
This website provides resources for understanding early literacy
and activities for adults to
do with children to promote early literacy skills.
National Sleep Foundation
http://www.sleepforkids.org/html/tips.html
This website offers tips for healthy sleep habits for kids.
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm
This government website provides information on the
inheritance, symptoms, and treatment
of autism.

Center for Early Literacy Learning
http://www.earlyliteracylearning.org/
This organization promotes the use of evidence-based early
literacy learning practices.
The website includes resources for early childhood intervention
practitioners, parents, and
caregivers.
Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early
Learning
http://csefel.vanderbil t.edu/
The center aims to support and improve young children’s social -
emotional outcomes. The
website includes extensive resources for states, trainers,
families, teachers, and caregivers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 165 4/24/14 12:53 PM
http://ele.fredrogerscenter.org/
http://www.sleepforkids.org/html/tips.html
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm
http://www.earlyliteracylearning.org/
http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 166 4/24/14 12:53 PM
8Early Childhood Development (6–8 years)
Creatas Images/Creatas/Thinkstock

“Be who you are and say what you feel. Because those who
mind don’t
matter and those who matter don’t mind.”
Dr. Seuss
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
ሁ Summarize why the age range of 6–8 years has been referred
to as “the age of reason.”
ሁ Explain how the combination of emerging motor and social -
emotional skills, along with growth
patterns at this age, enhance children’s participation in team
sports.
ሁ Explain why new contexts like school, sports, and
friendships at this age make it important
that children have better concentration, attention, short-term
memory, and other executive
functioning skills.
ሁ Describe the differences among self-concept, self-esteem,
and self-efficacy.
ሁ Compare and contrast Erikson’s description of this stage of
development with Freud’s
latency period.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 167 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Chapter Outline

Chapter Overview
8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Chapter Overview
Typically children in this stage of early childhood, ages 6–8,
are faced with many challenges
that were not apparent earlier, but they have many more
sophisticated skills to deal with these
challenges. The opening quotation, widely attributed to Dr.
Seuss, is complex but meaningful.
By the end of this early childhood period, 8 year olds
demonstrate the complex thinking and
communication skills needed to understand the “tricky” wording
in the quotation and typi-
cally would be able to discuss and debate what this quote
means. Better grounded self-esteem
and an increased vocabulary help children ages 6–8 to “[b]e
who [they] are and say what
[they] feel.” In particular, the importance of friendships and
being selective about which peers
are better friends starts to dominate the 8-year-old child’s social
world, giving real meaning
to the idea that “those who mind don’t matter and those who

matter don’t mind.” This aware-
ness of peers, developing friendships, and a desire to be part of
a social group becomes more
important at this stage, as does moral development. In some
cultures, including U.S. culture,
school becomes the central context for development, and for
some children, sports play a
large role in developing self-esteem and confidence.
Erickson was one of the few major theorists who recognized the
importance of this stage of
development. He thought that children should attain a “sense of
industry” at this time and
that, if they did not develop the necessary skills for their new
contexts of school, friendships,
and sports, they would develop a “sense of inferiority” (Eccles,
1999). Other theorists, includ-
ing Freud and Piaget, saw development at this age as a time of
latency or stability, a time of
little change and a time primarily for waiting to make more
substantial changes during ado-
lescence, the next developmental stage (Eccles, 1999).
Developmental skills of children ages 6–8 allow them to be
more independent than before and
responsible for their actions. They are in a stage that should be
helping them to prepare for
adulthood rather than just waiting for adolescence. However,
they begin to look and behave
more like adolescents. They can reflect on their own thoughts
and develop ideas. They make
significant progress in academic skills, such as reading and
math, that are necessary later in
life. Because of these advances, caregiver expectations for this
age group must be appropriate.
Caregivers and educators need to recognize the challenges and

responsibilities in their daily
interactions with these children, since this is a time when adults
can have lifelong influences
on the children in their care. Caregivers and educators can have
a positive effect on children’s
attitudes toward future learning and can provide healthy
encouragement and examples for
children’s participation in their own health and advancement.
Chapter Overview
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 168 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8
Year Olds
At this age, children are more independent in formulating goals
and in completing tasks. They
want to adhere to social norms and are able to demonstrate
behaviors that adults value, such
as patience, cooperation, respect, compassion, and empathy for
others, and they are becom-
ing morally responsible. This is part of the reason why
historically this age was referred to as
the “age of reason.” They have some ability to reflect, reason,
and use logic, and rather than
behaving positively so that they are not caught being “bad,”
children are beginning to show
signs of a conscience. Thus they are capable of taking
responsibility for their own actions.
This stage of early childhood is a significant time for children
to hone the skills that build
healthy social relationships. Physically they are bigger,

stronger, and more agile than before.
Cognitively they begin to understand that the world around
them matters and affects them.
They can use language to converse, to entertain, and to
communicate complex ideas and
thoughts. Developmentally they are also able to take care of
themselves with more advanced
daily living skills in bathing, eating, and dressing.
8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development
in 6–8 Year Olds
Significant change can be observed in the realms of physical
growth and motor development
during ages 6–8. Noticeable differences can be seen in a child’s
overall body structure, weight,
height, and head circumference. This physical growth links to
children’s motor development
and skills, which continue to advance and become more refined
at this time.
Physical Growth
At this age children’s bodies change noticeably in size, shape,
and proportion. By the time they
are 6 years old, they are about 47 inches tall and weigh 50
pounds (Centers for Disease Con-
trol and Prevention, 2012). Their skeletal structure is maturing,
as is apparent in the length-
ening of the legs and trunk, thereby fitting what had been the
proportionately larger head of
the younger child. Large muscles of the arms and legs are
becoming more developed, allowing
children to do better in athletics and team sports. Additionally,
this is a time of large variances
between the size and capabilities of children, which feeds into
their developing self-concept.

Gender differences can play into this, with girls being slightly
shorter and lighter than boys.
Although it is recognized that both heredity and environment
account for differences in body
size, obesity is more common at this time than it was during
ages 4 and 5 and should be moni-
tored carefully. Nutrition, activity, and experiences continue to
influence the development of
children ages 6–8. For instance, children begin to develop
dental cavities and other problems
if their nutrition and dental hygiene are not adequate. They lose
their deciduous, or “baby,”
teeth (see Chapter 6), and adult teeth emerge. Also, the brain is
continuing to develop through
myelination (building a sheath around the axons of neurons) and
by the pruning of synapses
that are not being stimulated.
Weight
At ages 6–8, weight gain is typically steady, at about 6.5
pounds per year for both boys and
girls (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013b). Although
nurture (the quantity and quality of
food available) and nature (genetics) continue to have an
influence on children’s growth and
weight gain (Charlesworth, Wood, & Viggiani, 2011), their
bodies change considerably due to
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 169 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Year Olds

an increase in fat tissue. Weight gain and its rate are argued to
be more accurate when mea-
suring body mass index (BMI). Body mass index is the ratio of
weight to height (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). A BMI over the 95th percentile
for age and sex is considered
obese; a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles is
considered overweight. See Table 8.1
for facts on childhood obesity.
Table 8.1: Childhood obesity facts in the United States
• The childhood obesity rate has more than doubled in children
and tripled in adolescents in the past 30 years.
• The percentage of children ages 6–11 years who were obese
increased from 7 percent in 1980 to nearly
18 percent in 2010. Similarly, the percentage of adolescents
ages 12–19 years who were obese increased
from 5 percent to 18 percent over the same period.
• In 2010, more than one third of children and adolescents were
overweight or obese.
• Overweight is defined as having excess body weight for a
particular height from fat, muscle, bone, water,
or a combination of these factors. Obesity is defined as having
excess body fat.
• Overweight and obesity are the result of “caloric imbalance”—
too few calories expended for the amount
of calories consumed—and they are affected by various genetic,
behavioral, and environmental factors.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.).

Overweight and obesity: Data and statistics. Retrieved from
http://
www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html.
Health and nutrition are important to healthy outcomes for
children at all ages. Yet the period
from ages 6 to 8 is considered to be about the healthiest in a
person’s life. At that time, immu-
nities are present and generally an active lifestyle is emerging
but, in most cases, unhealthy
habits have not yet been adopted. Therefore, it is a good time to
target prevention of risky
health behaviors through direct instruction and modeling of
healthy behaviors.
Height and Head Circumference
Height differences among children ages 6–8 can be as much as
4–5 inches, but most children
typically grow about 2–3 inches each year (American Academy
of Pediatrics, 2013b). Most
children have periods of rapid growth spurts and then times of
little growth. Bone age is the
most useful indicator of physical maturation. For example,
lower-income status correlates
with delays in bone age, and girls demonstrate a faster rate of
growth than boys. Body shapes
at this time generally look more mature because of longer arms
and legs and because posture
is typically more erect. Head circumference continues to enlarge
until sometime soon after
this period, at about age 10, when it reaches 96 percent of adult
size.
Motor Development
Motor development at this age is characterized by growth

spurts, weight gain, and improve-
ments in athletic abilities. Children at ages 6–8 can run faster
and have better balance than
when they were younger, so they can kick and catch a ball using
the new skills they have. They
can also learn to a ride bike and to skate. Yet gender differences
exist by this age. Typically,
girls are more agile and have better fine motor skills, whereas
boys are bigger and more pow-
erful with greater muscle mass (Green, 2010). Green (2010)
posits that these differences are
likely influenced by the amount of participation and practice
within gender-typical activities.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 170 4/24/14 12:54 PM
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html
Year Olds
Regardless of the gender differences in development, this is a
time when children often enjoy
competitive and physically challenging team games like soccer
and basketball. It is a good
time to encourage active participation in sports for health and
wellness reasons as well as
for social development. Good sportsmanship and fair play can
be taught at this time because
of timely advances in social-emotional and moral development,
as well as the need for good
peer relationships.
Some concerns are associated with this period of social and

physical integration of new skills
and aspirations. For instance, there has been much controversy
over the physical dangers,
especially for head trauma, in sports like football. It has been
reported that 7 year olds can
sustain hits of the same force that adult players do (Eldred,
2013). Yet even with these con-
cerns, children continue to play football and other contact
sports. This should serve as a
reminder to educators, caregivers, and parents that most team
sports and other physical
activities involve some level of risk, so special precautions
should be taken. Those precau-
tions include the use of better helmets and less hitting for sports
like football. However, care-
givers must also consider that even physical activities with less
direct contact (like bicycle
riding) require safety equipment such as helmets and elbow and
knee pads.
TIPS ON KIDS AND BICYCLE SAFETY
Safe Riding Tips
• Wear a properly fitted bicycle helmet.
• Adjust your bicycle to fit.
• Check your equipment, especially handlebars, tires, and
brakes.
• See and be seen by wearing neon or other bright colors.
• Control your bicycle by keeping at least one hand on the
handlebars.
• Watch for and avoid road hazards such as potholes, broken
glass, gravel, puddles,
leaves, and dogs.
• Avoid riding at night.

Rules of the Road—Bicycling on the Road
• Go with the traffic flow.
• Obey all traffic laws.
• Yield to traffic when appropriate.
• Be predictable by riding in a straight line and signaling your
moves to others.
• Stay alert at all times.
• Look before turning.
• Watch for parked cars.
Sidewalk Versus Street Riding
• Children less than 10 years old are better off riding on the
sidewalk.
• For anyone riding on a sidewalk:
Check the law in your state or jurisdiction to make sure
sidewalk riding is allowed.
Watch for vehicles coming out of or turning into driveways.
Stop at corners of sidewalks and streets to look for cars and to
make sure the drivers see
you before crossing.
• Enter a street at a corner and not between parked cars. Alert
pedestrians that you are
near by saying, “Excuse me,” or, “Passing on your left,” or use
a bell or horn.
Source: Adapted from National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration. (2006). Kids and bicycle safety. Retrieved from
www.nhtsa.dot.gov.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 171 4/24/14 12:54 PM
www.nhtsa.dot.gov

Section 8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8
Year Olds
Some children naturally prefer using their newfound physical
skills for more individual-
oriented athletic activities like bike riding, martial arts,
dancing, swimming, track, or tennis.
These sports often involve a level of “team” spirit but allow the
child to focus on individual
abilities in a different way than do conventional team sports.
Overall, both types of sports can
provide children the feeling of belonging to a community of
athletes and peers. The choice is
based on the child’s comfort level, but adults should be mindful
that the support provided by
parents and caregivers plays an important role in the child’s
growing self-esteem.
In understanding the fine motor improvements in children ages
6–8, awareness of the inte-
gration among all developmental domains and progress in each
is important. For example,
because children are assisted by enhanced concentration and
patience (see sections on cog-
nitive and social-emotional development), their fine motor
skills become more refined. They
can complete more details in their drawings and cut more
accurately with scissors. At this
age, children typically can write even smaller and with more
precision, within lines and with
more consistent spacing and placement. This skill is improved
even further because hand
preference is now established, and children use either the left or
the right hand for writing.
8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development

in 6–8 Year Olds
During the ages of 6–8, cognitive development is continuing, as
is growth and development of
the brain. This development is demonstrated by skills that build
on what has occurred during
previous stages, with characteristic advancements particular to
these years.
Brain Growth
The later years of early childhood bring about the continuation
of specific brain functioning
that helps to advance the cognitive processes. As described in
Chapters 6 and 7, many of the
neurons are connected and significant pruning has occurred by
the end of age 5. However,
the brain continues to advance through further pruning and by
continuing to add a fatty coat-
ing on the axons. This coating, called myelination, is necessary
for more efficient sending of
signals between the neurons. Young brains continuously refine
the way information is pro-
cessed, and myelination, in fact, continues throughout life.
Specifically, myelination focuses on the frontal cortex during
this time. Synaptic pruning con-
tinues, especially in the frontal and prefrontal cortices. This
process decreases the density
of synapses, leaving the remaining neurons more stable (Sowell,
Thompson, & Toga, 2007).
Additionally, brain activity changes its patterns at about this
time. These activities are mea-
sured by an EEG (electroencephalogram), and findings indicate
that up to about preschool
age, children have more brain activity that is characteristic of
sleep states even when they

are awake. Gradually these activities, known as theta activity,
settle to approximately the
same quantity as the alpha activity. Alpha activity provides the
ability to sustain attention. By
around age 7 or 8 years, alpha activity takes over and dominates
these brain activity patterns.
These changes suggest that children are now able to think in a
more complex manner, help-
ing them to solve problems, plan ahead, set goals, control their
attention, and inhibit some
impulses. These behaviors are generally different from what is
observed in the preschool
years, demonstrating the link between brain development and
behavior.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 172 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8
Year Olds
Cognitive Development
Cognitive abilities increasingly improve and become more
developed at this age. With regard
to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, this is the period in
which children transition
from the preoperational stage (ages 2–7 years) into the concrete
operational stage (ages
7–11 years). The preoperational stage is based on the child’s
understanding of basic sym-
bolic representations, in which something can stand for
something else. Egocentrism is also
characteristic of the preoperational stage, in which children can
understand things only from

CSCE 1030 Project 2 Due 1159 PM on Sunday, March 28, 2021

CSCE 1030 Project 2 Due 1159 PM on Sunday, March 28, 2021

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CSCE 1030 Project 2 Due 1159 PM on Sunday, March 28, 2021