A Functional Analysis Of Southeast Asian - Pacific Island Flaked Stone Tools

2
A Functional Analysis of Southeast Asian -
Pacific Island Flaked Stone Tools
Daniel R. Davenport
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of the degree of Archaeology
Honours, in the School of Archaeology and
Anthropology, Faculty of Arts, Australian
National University.
January 2003

3
Reference Information
Title: A functional analysis of Southeast Asian - Pacific Island flaked stone tools.
Author: Davenport, D. R.
Subject: functional analysis, use-wear analysis.
Keywords: functional analysis, use-wear, use wear, usewear, archaeology, residue analysis,
Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, stone tools, Timor, replicative experiments.
This thesis represents my own work containing, to the best of my knowledge and belief, no
material published or written by another person except as referred to in the text. This thesis
has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any other institution.
Daniel R. Davenport

iii
Abstract
The study of flaked stone assemblages from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands has
contributed little to the understanding of the region’s prehistory. The primary reason for this
is that few formally shaped stone tool types have been identified from the region.
Archaeologists commonly describe these excavated stone artefact assemblages as
‘amorphous’, ‘opportunistic’ or ‘monotonous and unimaginative’.
To overcome the interpretive problems posed by these assemblages, Johan Kamminga
conducted an extensive experimental program of stone tool-use in the Philippines. This
provided a reference collection of stone tools, with use-wear patterns and residues from a
wide range of activities, relevant to both prehistoric hunter-gatherer and farming peoples
from the region. These activities include working bamboo, rattan, pandanus and reed, in
addition to more complex functions including the manufacture of multi-component bows
and arrows. Rice harvesting was also investigated, including upland and paddy varieties.
The wear patterns associated with these activities are studied by the author using microscopic
analysis, including low-power optical and scanning electron microscopy. A preliminary
investigation of residues is also conducted. The results of the experimental program and
preliminary microscopic study are then applied to a collection of archaeological stone tools
from caves in East Timor, excavated by Ian Glover in 1966-7. This analysis identifies a
number of ‘glossed flakes’ as rattan processing tools, which formed a major component of
the cave assemblages for over 10,000 years, until the introduction of metal. Other activities
are also identified, such as working wood and possibly bamboo.
A comparison of these results with previous reports, demonstrates that rattan processing was
probably also an important activity at Leang Burung in Sulawesi. The importance of this
activity to different prehistoric peoples, over great distances in time and space, attests to the
overall utility of rattan as a manufacturing material. The utility of rattan and bamboo, and
their demonstrated ability to be successfully worked with a simple, non-standardised stone
technology, can account for the apparent ‘amorphous’ nature of assemblages from the
region. Moreover, the results of this research demonstrate that the lack of formal shaping
need no longer be an obstacle to the study of Southeast Asian – Pacific Island stone tools, as
functional analysis can overcome the interpretive problems this may otherwise pose.

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Contents
Volume I
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................III
LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................................................VII
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... XIV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................................... XVI
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................................................ XIX
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................1
AIMS...................................................................................................................................1
SCOPE .................................................................................................................................1
REASONS FOR STUDY .........................................................................................................5
REGIONAL BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................6
GEOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................6
ARCHAEOLOGY..................................................................................................................6
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS..........................................................................................................................10
OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................10
STONE TOOL LIFE CYCLE.................................................................................................11
USE-WEAR........................................................................................................................14
RESIDUES..........................................................................................................................24
CONTROLLED HEATING ..................................................................................................25
MICROBLADES..................................................................................................................25
ETHNOBOTANY, MATERIAL CULTURE & ACTIVITIES .................................................................26
PALMS ..............................................................................................................................26
PALMS - RATTAN .............................................................................................................27
PANDANUS.......................................................................................................................30
BAMBOO...........................................................................................................................32
RICE..................................................................................................................................35
REED.................................................................................................................................37
NARRA .............................................................................................................................37
BOW & ARROWS ..............................................................................................................38
BETEL................................................................................................................................39
TRANSPORTATION OF TOOLS ..........................................................................................40
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................41
EQUIPMENT......................................................................................................................41
VARIABLES .......................................................................................................................41
LOCATIONS & WORKERS.................................................................................................45
ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................46
EQUIPMENT......................................................................................................................46
VARIABLES .......................................................................................................................47
CLEANING........................................................................................................................48

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IMAGES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ..........................................................................................49
DATA ANALYSIS ..............................................................................................................50
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION ........................................................................................51
PALMWOOD .....................................................................................................................51
RATTAN............................................................................................................................55
PANDANUS.......................................................................................................................64
BAMBOO...........................................................................................................................66
RICE..................................................................................................................................74
REED.................................................................................................................................80
NARRA .............................................................................................................................82
ARROW MAKING .............................................................................................................82
BETEL................................................................................................................................84
TRANSPORTATION OF TOOLKIT.......................................................................................85
RESIDUES..........................................................................................................................86
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION..................................................................................89
ANALYSES ........................................................................................................................89
RESULTS & DISCUSSION...................................................................................................89
CURATION......................................................................................................................106
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS......................................................................................................107
TIMOR.............................................................................................................................107
SULAWESI.......................................................................................................................107
RESIDUES........................................................................................................................107
SEM ...............................................................................................................................107
BAMBOO.........................................................................................................................107
RICE................................................................................................................................108
RETOUCH .......................................................................................................................108
WORKED MATERIALS ....................................................................................................108
CONCLUSIONS ..........................................................................................................................................110
EXPERIMENTAL USE-WEAR...........................................................................................110
GENERAL EXPERIMENTAL CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................112
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS ...............................................................................115
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................117
INDEX...........................................................................................................................................................132
Volume II - Appendices
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................III
LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................................................V
PART I EXPERIMENTS...............................................................................................................................1
EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTIONS ..............................................................................................2
Workers ................................................................................................................................2
Palmwood ............................................................................................................................8
Rattan..................................................................................................................................11
Pandanus............................................................................................................................14

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Bamboo...............................................................................................................................16
Rice......................................................................................................................................20
Reed ....................................................................................................................................22
Arrow Making...................................................................................................................24
Transportation of Toolkit.................................................................................................29
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .................................................................................................30
Palmwood ..........................................................................................................................33
Rattan..................................................................................................................................42
Pandanus............................................................................................................................67
Bamboo...............................................................................................................................76
Rice......................................................................................................................................85
Reed ..................................................................................................................................100
Arrow Making.................................................................................................................106
Transportation of Toolkit...............................................................................................110
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS.............................................................................................111
Palmwood ........................................................................................................................111
Rattan................................................................................................................................115
Pandanus..........................................................................................................................122
Bamboo.............................................................................................................................124
Rice....................................................................................................................................129
Reed ..................................................................................................................................146
Transportation of Toolkit...............................................................................................149
PART II ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSEMBLAGES.................................................................................150
TIMOR.............................................................................................................................151
General analysis ..............................................................................................................151
Gloss dimensions ............................................................................................................215
PART III MISCELLANEOUS ..................................................................................................................217
MICROSCOPY..................................................................................................................218
Optical (low power)........................................................................................................218
Scanning Electron............................................................................................................219
Comparison Optical/Scanning Electron Microscopy.................................................222
BRIEF PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL STONE TOOL MATERIALS..225
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PADDY RICE FROM STONE TOOL EXPERIMENTS ..................227
EXPERIMENTAL STONE MATERIALS - PROVENANCE ....................................................228
ENDNOTES......................................................................................................................230

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List of Figures
FIGURE 1 YONG PABLO (AGTA GROUP) WHO ASSISTED WITH RECORDING DATA............... I-XVIII
FIGURE 2 STUDY REGION; SHOWING HUXLEY’S LINE AND PROVENANCE OF STONE TOOL
ASSEMBLAGES DISCUSSED......................................................................................................I-1
FIGURE 3 STONE TOOL LIFE CYCLE..............................................................................................I-12
FIGURE 4 INFERENCE SYSTEM USED IN FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS. ..............................................I-13
FIGURE 5 BENDING INITIATED FRACTURES: CROSS-SECTION (LEFT) AND SEM (SE) OF PLAN
VIEW (RIGHT)........................................................................................................................I-15
FIGURE 6 SNAP FRACTURES: CROSS-SECTION (LEFT) AND PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF PLAN VIEW
(RIGHT)..................................................................................................................................I-15
FIGURE 7 HERTZIAN INITIATED FRACTURES: TOP LEFT – CROSS-SECTION OF FEATHER
TERMINATION, BOTTOM LEFT – CROSS-SECTION OF STEP TERMINATION, RIGHT –
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF STEP TERMINATED FLAKE IN PLAN VIEW. ..................................I-16
FIGURE 8 SLEEK STRIATIONS WITHIN A POLISHED AREA ON CHERT TOOL #A68, USED FOR
PROCESSING RATTAN. ..........................................................................................................I-16
FIGURE 9 UNDULATIONS ON CHERT PANDANUS PROCESSING TOOL #A35..............................I-16
FIGURE 10 PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FURROW STRIATIONS ON AN OCHRE TABLET
(R.50.196.8.C1) FROM MAGO, FIJI.......................................................................................I-17
FIGURE 11 POLISH ON THE EDGE OF #A98, A CHERT TOOL USED TO PROCESS RATTAN. THE
ARROWS DENOTE THE MOST HEAVILY POLISHED AREAS, WHICH WERE CREATED AS THE
WORKER SHIFTED THE POSITION OF THE TOOL, AS A RESPONSE TO EDGE DULLING. .......I-17
FIGURE 12 REFLECTIVE FOSSILS WITHIN CHERT CORE FROM FIJI. .............................................I-18
FIGURE 13 EDGE ROUNDING ON THE POLISHED SURFACE OF #A98, A CHERT TOOL USED FOR
FIGURE 14 SUSPECTED ROLLING PRESSURE RETOUCH ON A CHERT FLAKE FROM FIJI..............I-21
FIGURE 15 SIGNS OF HEATING ON CHERT FLAKE FROM FIJI. .....................................................I-25
FIGURE 16 CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF RATTAN CANE..............................................................I-27
FIGURE 17 LARGE RATTAN FISHTRAP ON A RIVER BANK NEAR SANDAKAN, SABAH
(DAVENPORT 2001)..............................................................................................................I-29
FIGURE 18 WICKER BACKPACK. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF PREHISTORY, TAIWAN (DAVENPORT
2002). ....................................................................................................................................I-29
FIGURE 19 FINE RATTAN BASKET, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF PREHISTORY, TAIWAN (DAVENPORT
2002). ....................................................................................................................................I-29
FIGURE 20 PANDANUS PLANT, GARDEN OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL SCIENCE,
TAIWAN (DAVENPORT 2002). .............................................................................................I-30
FIGURE 21 FOLDED PANDANUS MAT MADE IN EXPERIMENTS...................................................I-31
FIGURE 22 STRUCTURE OF A BAMBOO CULM, SHOWN IN X-SECTION (RIGHT)..........................I-32

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FIGURE 23 TESTING BAMBOO BLOWPIPE, NEGRITO VILLAGE, NORTHWEST PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA (BIN NORDIN 2001).....................................................................................I-34
FIGURE 24 BAMBOO QUIVER FROM EXPERIMENT #A203............................................................I-35
FIGURE 25 TERRACED RICE PADDIES, NORTH-EASTERN TAIWAN (DAVENPORT 2002). ..........I-36
FIGURE 26 AGTA MAN WITH BOW AND ARROW, MADE IN THE EXPERIMENTS........................I-38
FIGURE 27 YOUNG AGTA MAN WEARING A BARK SUPUT (BOUND TO HIS BACK WITH A
WAISTBAND).........................................................................................................................I-40
FIGURE 28 BASALT. ......................................................................................................................I-42
FIGURE 29 CHALCEDONY FROM FIJI. ..........................................................................................I-42
FIGURE 30 THE PHILIPPINES........................................................................................................I-45
FIGURE 31 LUZON........................................................................................................................I-45
FIGURE 32 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE USED FOR ANALYSIS, MOUNTED ON TOP PLATE OF
VIBRATION-FREE TABLE........................................................................................................I-46
FIGURE 33 THE SPECIFIC EDGE ANGLE α, OF A STONE TOOL (SHOWN IN CROSS SECTION,
VENTRAL FACE DOWN). .......................................................................................................I-47
FIGURE 34 CHOPPING PALM TREE WITH A BASALT CHOPPER, EXPERIMENT #A115.................I-51
FIGURE 35 ADZING PALMWOOD WITH CHERT TOOL. ................................................................I-53
FIGURE 36 WEDGING RATTAN CANE WITH CHERT TOOL. .........................................................I-55
FIGURE 37 TYPICAL FORM OF GLOSS ON RATTAN THINNING TOOLS. .......................................I-56
FIGURE 38 MORPHOLOGY OF GLOSS ON A SECTION OF THE DORSAL SURFACE OF A TYPICAL
RATTAN PROCESSING TOOL. THE EXEMPLARY SECTION SHOWS THE INTENSE AND DIFFUSE
CRESCENT SHAPED GLOSS, LINEATION OF GLOSS AND PATCHES OF DIFFUSE GLOSS ON
RIDGES, WELL AWAY FROM THE WORKING EDGE. NOTE THE POLISH IS SKEWED TOWARDS
THE LEFT, POSSIBLY CAUSED BY THE HANDEDNESS OF THE WORKER. ..............................I-57
FIGURE 39 GLOSS ON THE UPPER SURFACE OF CHERT RATTAN PROCESSING TOOL #A68. THE
AREA OF INTENSE GLOSS IS MARKED BY THE THIN BLUE LINE; WHILST THE RED LINE
MARKS THE EXTENT OF THE DIFFUSE GLOSS. ......................................................................I-57
FIGURE 40 AREA OF DIFFUSE GLOSS ON THE VENTRAL SURFACE OF RATTAN PROCESSING TOOL
#A70. THE GLOSS FORMS PREFERENTIALLY OVER THE HIGH TOPS OF LANCES. ..............I-58
FIGURE 41 THINNING RATTAN VECTOR DIAGRAM, THE RED AND BLUE TANGENTS
DEMONSTRATE HOW THE RATTAN CANE HAS BEEN BENT OVER THE TOP OF THE TOOL; THE
ARROWS REPRESENT FORCE VECTORS. THE ORANGE AND GREEN LINES REPRESENT THE
EXTENT OF THE INTENSE AND DIFFUSE AREAS OF GLOSS RESPECTIVELY. .........................I-59
FIGURE 42 POLISH FORMATION ON RATTAN THINNING TOOL (TOOL SHOWN IN CROSS-
SECTION). A LOWER WORKING ANGLE (RIGHT) INCREASES THE AREA OF CONTACT WITH
THE RATTAN CANE ON BOTTOM (USUALLY THE VENTRAL SURFACE), BUT THE AREA OF
CONTACT ON THE TOP (DORSAL SURFACE) IS APPROXIMATELY THE SAME REGARDLESS OF
THE WORKING ANGLE..........................................................................................................I-60
FIGURE 43 OVER-EXPOSED PHOTOMICROGRAPH SHOWING CRESCENT POLISH ON THE TOP
SURFACE OF FLAKE #A63, A CHERT TOOL USED FOR PROCESSING FRESH RATTAN. THE
ARROWS INDICATE MINUTE SNAP FRACTURES...................................................................I-60

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FIGURE 44 SEM (SE) OF POLISHED AREA ON BOTTOM OF EXPERIMENTAL TOOL #A118, USED TO
THIN RATTAN. THE POLISH APPEARS AS A LIGHTER SHADE.............................................I-61
FIGURE 45 SEM (MIXED) OF POLISHED AREA ON TOP OF EXPERIMENTAL TOOL #A118, USED TO
THIN RATTAN. THE POLISH APPEARS AS A DARKER SHADE..............................................I-61
FIGURE 46 SPECTRUMS FROM UNCALIBRATED EDAX OF RATTAN NEEDLE FROM EXPERIMENT
#A225. THE LEFT SPECTRUM REPRESENTS THE COMPOSITION OF THE RATTAN EPIDERMIS,
THE RIGHT REPRESENTS INTERIOR FIBRES. THE VERTICAL SCALES OF THE TWO SPECTRUMS
ARE NOT EQUAL. ..................................................................................................................I-62
FIGURE 47 SMALL RATTAN FISHTRAP WITH BAMBOO FRAME, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF
PREHISTORY,.........................................................................................................................I-63
FIGURE 48 DIVIDING PANDANUS LEAF WITH CHERT TOOL, #A78. ...........................................I-64
FIGURE 49 UNCALIBRATED EDAX SPECTRUM FOR PANDANUS STRIP, PRODUCED IN
EXPERIMENT #A23................................................................................................................I-65
FIGURE 50 PROCURING BAMBOO WITHOUT STONE TOOLS........................................................I-66
FIGURE 51 SMASHING END OF BAMBOO CULM WITH A RIVER COBBLE, TO INITIATE A SPLIT FOR
PROCESSING..........................................................................................................................I-66
FIGURE 52 SEM (MIXED) OF EDGE ROUNDING, SNAP FRACTURING AND RESIDUE ON A
CHALCEDONY TOOL (#A263) USED TO SAW BAMBOO. RED ARROWS INDICATE THE
POSITION OF 3 MAJOR SNAP FRACTURES WHICH GIVE A DENTICULATE APPEARANCE;
WHILST THE STRIPED ARROW POINTS TO AN EDGE THAT IS NOTABLY ROUNDED. BELOW
RIGHT IS AN SEM (MIXED) AT THE SAME SCALE, OF AN UNWORKED EDGE ON THE SAME
TOOL, FOR COMPARISON......................................................................................................I-68
FIGURE 53 EDAX SPECTRUM FOR INSIDE OF BAMBOO SLITHER................................................I-70
FIGURE 54 EDAX SPECTRUM FOR EPIDERMIS OF BAMBOO SLITHER..........................................I-70
FIGURE 55 EDAX SPECTRUM FOR BAMBOO RESIDUE ON TOOL #A263.....................................I-71
FIGURE 56 BASELINE EDAX SPECTRUM FOR STONE MATERIAL ON TOOL #A263....................I-71
FIGURE 57 SEM (MIXED) OF BAMBOO RESIDUE ON TOOL #A263. THE DARK RESIDUE PATCHES
APPEAR SOMEWHAT SMOOTH AND WAXY, WITH IRREGULAR BOUNDARIES. ...................I-72
FIGURE 58 SEM (MIXED) OF BAMBOO RESIDUE ON TOOL #A265, SHOWING ELONGATED
FIBROUS, PRISMATIC STRUCTURES.......................................................................................I-72
FIGURE 59 SNAP FRACTURE FORMATION ON SAWING TOOL. THE ARROWS REPRESENT FORCE
VECTORS................................................................................................................................I-73
FIGURE 60 HARVESTING PADDY RICE. ........................................................................................I-74
FIGURE 61 SCATTER PLOT SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND
EFFICIENCY OF STONE TOOLS USED TO HARVEST PADDY RICE. LINE OF BEST FIT ADDED. ..I-
74
FIGURE 62 BOX PLOT COMPARING EFFICIENCY OF PADDY RICE HARVESTING TOOLS...............I-75
FIGURE 63 HARVESTING UPLAND RICE.......................................................................................I-75
FIGURE 64 FORMATION OF POLISH ON PADDY RICE HARVESTING TOOL, SHOWN IN X-SECTION.
...............................................................................................................................................I-76

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FIGURE 65 CHERT TOOLS IN X-SECTION SHOWING A COMPARISON OF DEGREES OF EDGE
ROUNDING. TOP IS AN UNUSED EDGE. MIDDLE IS A HIGHLY ROUNDED EDGE, SUCH AS ON
BAMBOO TOOLS. BOTTOM IS THE SLIGHT EDGE ROUNDING FOUND ON PADDY RICE OR
RATTAN TOOLS.....................................................................................................................I-76
FIGURE 66 EXTENSIVE EDGE ROUNDING (BOTTOM) ON FINE BASALT TOOL #53, USED TO
HARVEST DRY RICE. AN UN-POLISHED SECTION FROM THE BACK OF THE TOOL IS SHOWN
AT TOP FOR COMPARISON....................................................................................................I-77
FIGURE 67 SNAIL AND EGGS FOUND ON PADDY RICE CULM. ....................................................I-78
FIGURE 68 RICE RESIDUE ON COARSE BASALT TOOL #21 (COURTESY J. KAMMINGA)..............I-78
FIGURE 69 HARVESTED BUNCH OF PADDY RICE CULMS. ...........................................................I-79
FIGURE 70 RESIDUE ON RED OBSIDIAN TOOL #52, USED TO HARVEST DRY RICE (COURTESY J.
KAMMINGA). A FILM OF GLOSSY RESIDUE HAS LINEATIONS MOSTLY ORIENTED NORMAL
TO THE WORKING EDGE (RIGHT). PARTICLES OF RICE CULM APPEAR LEFT. THE RESIDUE
APPEARS NOT TO BE BONDED WELL TO THE STONE SURFACE, COMPARE FIGURE 68. ......I-79
FIGURE 71 SEM (MIX) OF CHERT TOOL #A13, USED TO PROCURE MISCANTHUS. TWO BANDS
OF RESIDUE ARE SHOWN. THE BAND AT THE TOP OF THE PICTURE RUNS PARALLEL ALONG
THE WORKING EDGE. THE BAND AT THE BOTTOM OF THE IMAGE HAS DEVIATED FROM ITS
ALIGNMENT PARALLEL TO THE EDGE, AND HERE MERGES WITH THE UPPER BAND. .......I-80
FIGURE 72 CUTTING REED. THE MAJORITY OF RESIDUE IS DEPOSITED IN TWO BANDS
(REPRESENTED IN BROWN), CORRESPONDING TO THE TOP AND BOTTOM REED WALLS.
FORCE VECTORS ARE REPRESENTED BY RED ARROWS. .......................................................I-81
FIGURE 73 UNCALIBRATED EDAX SPECTRUM FROM THE RESIDUE APPEARING ON TOOL #A13.
...............................................................................................................................................I-81
FIGURE 74 SEM (SE) OF NARRA RESIDUE ON CHALCEDONY TOOL #A252, USED FOR ARROW
ASSEMBLY. ............................................................................................................................I-82
FIGURE 75 ROUGHENING THE END OF AN ARROW FOR GLUING FLIGHTS. BAMBOO CONTAINER
WITH NARRA RESIN (RIGHT). ...............................................................................................I-83
FIGURE 76 NARRA AND ASH RESIDUE ON CHALCEDONY TOOL USED FOR MAKING ARROW. .I-84
FIGURE 77 BETEL RESIDUE ON #A63, A CHERT TOOL USED FOR PROCESSING RATTAN (WIDTH OF
FIELD 2 MM). .........................................................................................................................I-84
FIGURE 78 SEM (BS) OF RESIDUE ON RATTAN TOOL #A70. THE RESIDUE IS ‘EXPLODING’ UNDER
LOW PRESSURE, THE LEFT ‘LEG’ HAS MOSTLY FLAKED AWAY, WHILST THE RIGHT IS IN THE
PROCESS OF DOING SO..........................................................................................................I-86
FIGURE 79 SEM (SE) OF FINGER-GREASE RESIDUE ON #A42, A CHERT TOOL USED FOR
FIGURE 80 FINGERPRINT IN PANDANUS RESIDUE ON FINE BASALT TOOL #A74 (COURTESY J.
KAMMINGA).........................................................................................................................I-87
FIGURE 81 OPTICAL AND SEM (BS) OF RESIDUE ON RATTAN TOOL #A70. UNDER THE OPTICAL
MICROSCOPE THE RESIDUE APPEARS AS A STREAKY GLOSS (LEFT), INDISTINGUISHABLE
FROM A DIFFUSE, LINEAR POLISH. THE SEM READILY DISTINGUISHES THIS LINEATION AS
DEPOSITED MATERIAL OR RESIDUE (RIGHT), RATHER THAN A TRUE POLISH....................I-88

xi
FIGURE 82 CRESCENT SHAPED GLOSS ON THE DORSAL SURFACE OF TOOL #T102 FROM TIMOR,
USED TO PROCESS RATTAN...................................................................................................I-91
FIGURE 83 TWO ADJACENT AREAS OF CRESCENT SHAPED GLOSS ON TOOL #T82 FROM TIMOR,
USED TO PROCESS RATTAN. GLOSS IS OUTLINED IN BLUE AND THE BOTTOM RIGHT
CORNER OF THE PICTURE IS COLOURED TO CORRECT POOR CONTRAST. COMPARE WITH
MULTIPLE GLOSSED AREA ON EXPERIMENTAL RATTAN PROCESSING TOOL FIGURE 11:I-17.
...............................................................................................................................................I-92
FIGURE 84 EXTENSIVE BACKING RETOUCH ON TOOL #T105 FROM TIMOR, USED FOR
FIGURE 85 IDENTIFICATION OF RATTAN PROCESSING TOOLS IN THE TIMOR COLLECTION
(COMPARE FIGURE 4:I-13)....................................................................................................I-93
FIGURE 86 BOX PLOTS SHOWING THE MEAN AND 1 STANDARD DEVIATION RANGE FOR
ATTRIBUTES OF THE TIMOR LITHICS IN THE ANALYSIS. EACH GRAPH COMPARES AN
ATTRIBUTE OF THE RATTAN PROCESSING TOOLS WITH THE REST OF THE COLLECTION.
(TOP LEFT) EDGE ANGLE, (TOP RIGHT) LENGTH, (BOTTOM LEFT) WIDTH, (BOTTOM RIGHT)
THICKNESS. THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE ATTRIBUTES FOR THE
RATTAN PROCESSING TOOLS AND THE OTHER LITHICS EXAMINED. .................................I-94
FIGURE 87 HISTOGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF EDGE ANGLES FOR EDGES USED TO
PROCESS RATTAN (NORMAL LINE DRAWN). .......................................................................I-95
FIGURE 88 FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM FOR THE NUMBER OF POLISHED AREAS ON RATTAN
PROCESSING TOOLS FROM TIMOR........................................................................................I-95
FIGURE 89 LEAST-SQUARES TREND LINE FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDGE ANGLE AND
DEPTH OF POLISH. ................................................................................................................I-96
FIGURE 90 (LEFT) THE DEPTH OF POLISH ON THE TOP OF TOOLS ARE NOT CORRELATED WITH
THE TOOL LENGTH. (RIGHT) THE DEPTH OF POLISH ON THE BOTTOM OF EACH TOOL
COMPARED WITH THE TOOL LENGTH. LENGTH IS ONLY CORRELATED WITH POLISH DEPTH
ON THE BOTTOM, HENCE THE TREND LINE.........................................................................I-97
FIGURE 91 LEAST-SQUARES TREND LINE FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE WIDTH AND
DEPTH OF POLISH. ................................................................................................................I-97
FIGURE 92 A SELECTION OF MICROBLADES FROM TIMOR........................................................I-101
FIGURE 93 #T163 GRAVER..........................................................................................................I-102
FIGURE 94 #T210 SCRAPER WITH EDGE REJUVENATION DOWN EACH LATERAL EDGE..........I-102
FIGURE 95 BACKING RETOUCH ON TOOL #T96 FROM TIMOR..................................................I-103
FIGURE 96 THEORETICAL HOLD FOR THE RETOUCHED KNIVES. .............................................I-104
FIGURE 97 RETOUCHED KNIVES, FROM TOP TO BOTTOM: #T158, #T208, #T170, #T199, #T171,
T214 AND #T202, GIVEN A FUNCTIONAL ORIENTATION (THE PLATFORM IS NOT ORIENTED
TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE, BUT INSTEAD THE CUTTING EDGE FACES DOWN). EDGES WITH
USE DAMAGE ARE INDICATED BY UNBROKEN ORANGE LINES; THOSE WITH RETOUCH ARE
DELINEATED WITH BROKEN GREEN LINES. THE BOTTOM TOOL IS THE BROKEN BUTT
PORTION OF A RETOUCHED KNIFE. THE SECOND FROM THE BOTTOM IS PROBABLY AN
UNUSED RETOUCHED KNIFE OR PREFORM........................................................................I-105
FIGURE 98 USEFUL PLANT MATERIALS NOT TESTED. ...............................................................I-109

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FIGURE 99 CHOPPING PALM TREE WITH A NATURALLY BROKEN COBBLE.................................II-8
FIGURE 100 ADZING BOW BLANK ................................................................................................II-9
FIGURE 101 WEDGING WOOD FOR BOW STAVE.........................................................................II-10
FIGURE 102 ADZING BOW WITH TOOL #A105 (AN UNUSUALLY HIGH WORKING ANGLE IS USED
HERE). ..................................................................................................................................II-10
FIGURE 103 SCRAPING BOW STAVE............................................................................................II-10
FIGURE 104 SPLITTING THICK RATTAN BY HAND......................................................................II-11
FIGURE 105 CROSS-SECTION OF RATTAN CANE, SHOWING REMOVAL OF CORE FROM PEEL
SEGMENT, WHICH WILL NEXT BE THINNED........................................................................II-12
FIGURE 106 SPLITTING RATTAN WITH A WEDGING ACTION.....................................................II-12
FIGURE 107 THINNING RATTAN. NOTE THE WORKER’S FINGERS ARE BOUND WITH BARKCLOTH
FOR PROTECTION.................................................................................................................II-13
FIGURE 108 PROCURING PANDANUS FRONDS...........................................................................II-14
FIGURE 109 DETHORNING A PANDANUS LEAF. ........................................................................II-15
FIGURE 110 DIVIDING A PANDANUS LEAF. ...............................................................................II-15
FIGURE 111 BREAKING BAMBOO CULM WITH RIVER COBBLE AND ANVIL. ..............................II-16
FIGURE 112 POUNDING END OF BAMBOO CULM.......................................................................II-17
FIGURE 113 WHITTLING BAMBOO..............................................................................................II-18
FIGURE 114 EXPERIMENTAL BAMBOO KNIVES...........................................................................II-19
FIGURE 115 HARVESTING PADDY RICE. .....................................................................................II-20
FIGURE 116 HARVESTING PADDY RICE – CLOSE UPS.................................................................II-20
FIGURE 117 HARVESTING UPLAND RICE....................................................................................II-21
FIGURE 118 HARVESTING INDIVIDUAL STEM OF UPLAND RICE................................................II-21
FIGURE 119 PROCURING REED – INITIAL TRIMMING.................................................................II-22
FIGURE 120 SHAVING NODE OFF TREATED REED. .....................................................................II-23
FIGURE 121 SHAVING FEATHER SPINE. ......................................................................................II-24
FIGURE 122 ROUGHENING SURFACE TO ACCOMMODATE FLETCHINGS. .................................II-25
FIGURE 123 GLUING FLIGHTS.....................................................................................................II-25
FIGURE 124 BINDING FEATHERS.................................................................................................II-26
FIGURE 125 ACTIVATING NARRA GLUE WITH ASH. ..................................................................II-26
FIGURE 126 SPLITTING PROXIMAL END OF ARROW FOR HAFTING THE POINT.........................II-27
FIGURE 127 TRIMMING FEATHERS..............................................................................................II-28
FIGURE 128 NOTCHING ARROW.................................................................................................II-28
FIGURE 129 FLAKES TO BE WRAPPED IN A LEAF AND CARRIED IN A BARK SUPUT. ALL FOUR
CHERT FLAKES ARE RESTING ON A GRANITE BOULDER.....................................................II-29

xiii
FIGURE 130 SUMMARY OF ALL FIELD TOOL-USE EXPERIMENTS, BY WORKED AND STONE
MATERIALS...........................................................................................................................II-31
FIGURE 131 SUMMARY OF STONE MATERIALS USED IN TOOL-USE EXPERIMENTS. ..................II-32
FIGURE 132 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE CONFIGURATION ............................................................II-218
FIGURE 133 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE CONFIGURATION (AFTER ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE UNIT 2001:3) ..............................................................................................II-219
FIGURE 134 BAMBOO RESIDUE APPEARING WHITE DUE TO EDGE EFFECT. SEM (SE) OF #A265, A
CHERT TOOL USED FOR SAWING BAMBOO .......................................................................II-220
FIGURE 135 TWO SAMPLES IN AN SEM. THE RIGHT SAMPLE IS FLAT, HENCE SECONDARY
EMITTED ELECTRONS CAN ONLY ESCAPE FROM THE TOP SURFACE. THE LEFT SAMPLE IS
ROUND, ALLOWING SECONDARY EMITTED ELECTRONS TO ESCAPE FROM A MUCH LARGER
AREA. THE ROUND SECTION WILL APPEAR BRIGHT IN COMPARISON............................II-221
FIGURE 136 COMPARISON OF TYPICAL WAVELENGTHS FOR ELECTRONS AND PHOTONS (NOT TO
SCALE). HAVING A SMALLER WAVELENGTH, THE ELECTRON BEAM COVERS A SMALLER
SECTION OF THE SAMPLE SURFACE, GIVING A HIGHER RESOLUTION.............................II-223

xiv
List of Tables
TABLE 1 MEAN ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS FOR RATTAN CANE (CALAMUS ZOLLINGERI)
AFTER SIEBERT (2001: 362)...................................................................................................I-28
TABLE 2 TECHNICAL FIELD EQUIPMENT.....................................................................................I-41
TABLE 3 EQUIPMENT FOR OPTICAL MICROSCOPY. .....................................................................I-47
TABLE 4 SOFTWARE USED FOR DATA ANALYSIS.........................................................................I-50
TABLE 5 JAHREN (ET AL. 1997:249) COMPOSITION OF BAMBOO RESIDUES. “X” INDICATES THAT
THE DESIGNATED ELEMENT WAS PRESENT IN THE SPECIFIED SAMPLE..............................I-70
TABLE 6 TOOL TYPES RECOGNISED IN THE TIMOR COLLECTION...............................................I-90
TABLE 7 COMPARISON OF MORPHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF THOSE RATTAN PROCESSING
TOOLS WITH SINGLE AND MULTIPLE AREAS OR POLISH.....................................................I-96
TABLE 8 COMPARISON OF DATA COLLECTED FOR GLOSSED FLAKES FROM TIMOR AND LEANG
BURUNG 1 (AFTER CHAPMAN 1981:73-74). THOSE MEANS HIGHLIGHTED SHOW NO
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE....................................................................................................I-98
TABLE 9 WORKERS FROM TOOL-USE EXPERIMENTS....................................................................II-4
TABLE 10 DESCRIPTION OF WORKED MATERIALS USED IN EXPERIMENTS..................................II-6
TABLE 11 ACTIONS USED IN EXPERIMENTS..................................................................................II-7
TABLE 12 SUMMARY OF TOOL-USE EXPERIMENTS, BY WORKED AND STONE MATERIALS.......II-30
TABLE 13 PALMWOOD EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY. ..................................................................II-33
TABLE 14 AVERAGE TIMES FOR PALMWOOD EXPERIMENTS (MIN)...........................................II-33
TABLE 15 RATTAN EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY..........................................................................II-42
TABLE 16 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY OF RATTAN EXPERIMENTS.....................................................II-42
TABLE 17 AVERAGE TIMES FOR RATTAN EXPERIMENTS............................................................II-43
TABLE 18 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY OF RATTAN EXPERIMENTS IN M/MIN BY SEX OF WORKER....II-43
TABLE 19 PANDANUS EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY.....................................................................II-67
TABLE 20 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY FOR PANDANUS EXPERIMENTS.............................................II-67
TABLE 21 BAMBOO EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY. ........................................................................II-76
TABLE 22 AD HOC BAMBOO EXPERIMENTS.................................................................................II-76
TABLE 23 OUTPUT OF BAMBOO EXPERIMENTS. ..........................................................................II-76
TABLE 24 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY OF BAMBOO WORKING TOOLS. .............................................II-76
TABLE 25 RICE EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY. ...............................................................................II-85
TABLE 26 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY FOR RICE HARVESTING EXPERIMENTS. .................................II-85
TABLE 27 COUNT OF REED EXPERIMENTS................................................................................II-100
TABLE 28 COUNT OF ARROW MAKING EXPERIMENTS.............................................................II-106
TABLE 29 AVERAGE EFFICIENCY FOR ARROW MAKING EXPERIMENTS...................................II-106

xv
TABLE 30 TRANSPORTATION EXPERIMENTS – SUMMARY. ......................................................II-110
TABLE 31 TRANSPORTATION EXPERIMENTS – ANALYSIS........................................................II-149
TABLE 32 NUMBER OF ARTEFACTS EXAMINED FROM TIMOR BY SITE AND SPIT.....................II-151
TABLE 33 STONE MATERIALS FROM TIMOR SITES....................................................................II-151
TABLE 34 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR RATTAN PROCESSING TOOLS (ALL 3 SITES).............II-152
TABLE 35 TOOL TYPES FROM TIMOR; BY SITE AND HORIZON. ................................................II-155
TABLE 36 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR KAMMINGA’S UAI BOBO I, FLAKES WITH GLOSS DATA.
............................................................................................................................................II-215
TABLE 37 ANALYSIS OF RICE SAMPLES.....................................................................................II-227
TABLE 38 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STONE MATERIALS USED IN EXPERIMENTS.....................II-229

xvi
Acknowledgements
My two supervisors, Mr Ian Farrington and Dr Johan Kamminga have both provided me
with tireless support and access to various materials over the life of this research. Ian has
always been available with pertinent advice and his considerable editing skills. Jo kindly
provided a wealth of materials relevant to his unpublished tool-use experiments in the
Philippines. These included the experimental stone tools and worked materials, various
ethnographically collected artefacts, hand-written field notes, assorted reports (both
published and unpublished), and a wealth of photographs and slides. Since the background
material to the experiments had not been published before, there was a need to collate and
summarise it in this thesis.
Johan Kamminga’s work thus forms a substantial part of the data I have relied upon for my
research. Except where otherwise stated within the thesis, I acknowledge and thank Jo for
all pictures taken in the field. Similarly, all observations and direct results from the tool-use
experiments are the work of Johan Kamminga. This includes observations on the
performance of the experiments and the development of use-wear and residues during tool-
use. Such information derives from Jo’s field notes. Some results from the tool-use
experiments were deduced by myself, on the basis of studying the notes and field
photographs, or by researching supplementary materials such as botanical lists. My own
original work in this thesis is the analysis of the materials from the tool-use experiments and
the application of these results to prehistoric archaeological assemblages.
I am especially grateful to Dr Ian Kaplin, Professor Simon Ringer and Mr Tom Joyce of the
Electron Microscope Unit (EMU) at the University of Sydney, for providing access, training
and continuing support on their electron microscopes. I also thank Dr. Mike Barbetti for
facilitating my relationship with the EMU and for offering his insight into various aspects
of my research.
For access to the Timor lithics collection, I would like to thank Dr Leanne Brass of the
Australian Museum and Dr Peter Hiscock and Dr Sue O’Connor from the Australian
National University. Dr Hiscock was also helpful in other areas, offering various assistance
as coordinator of the honours program, and his considered thoughts on aspects of lithic
technology, most notably backing. Similarly, I am grateful to Dr Mountain of the A.N.U.,
for her support in various aspects of the planning and development of this thesis.
Professor Peter Bellwood kindly gave his advice and assistance at various phases in the
development of this thesis, also providing me with access to artefacts from Golo that
provided background to the research, the results of which will be presented elsewhere. Dr
Ian Glover from the United Kingdom, kindly provided references and various comments,
based on his excavations in Timor and subsequent work in Southeast Asia.

xvii
Dr Karin Sowada of the Nicholson Museum at the University of Sydney, kindly provided
access to a collection of Middle Eastern sickle blades, in order that I could make comparisons
with the polished flakes from Timor. In addition, Dr Geoffrey Clarke, Professor Atholl
Anderson and Mr David Buckle kindly provided access to various lithic assemblages from
Fiji, for a different study which acted as background to this research.
During the early stages of my research, Dr Richard Fullagar provided generous assistance,
helpful discussions and access to assorted materials at the Australian Museum, for which I
am most grateful. I thank Dr Glenn Summerhayes and Mr Aubry Parkes for references to
background literature, also during the early stages of this work. Similarly, I appreciate the
help of Dr David Bulbeck, who contributed references and insight into issues such as backing
retouch. Kim Akerman similarly provided references and his personal observations on stone
and bamboo technology.
In 2001, on behalf of Dato Dr Adi Tajha, staff of the National Museum in Malaysia kindly
guided me around many of that country’s archaeological sites and indigenous communities.
Together with access to the museum and other resources, this has offered me greater insight
into Southeast Asian archaeology, for which I am most grateful.
I would like to extend my thanks to people associated with the University of Leiden, who
helped identify some unknown plant species relevant to the tool-use experiments. These
people include Dr Koen Kusters, Professor Ton Dietz, Dr Jan Van Der Ploeg, and Arnold
and Sammy from CVPED station in the Cagayan Valley, Philippines.
Ms Katherine Szabo applied her artistic skills, to provide some of the lithic illustrations
appearing within this thesis. Mr Warravut and Alisa Lawanyaporn from Thailand, kindly
offered miscellaneous software assistance. I would also like to thank Miss Sakawrat
Lawanyaporn, for her tireless support and skilful assistance with such tasks as illustrating
and measuring the stone tools.
I much appreciate the support of the Electron Microscopy Unit at the Research School of
Biological Sciences, The Australian National University. Particularly from that unit, Dr
Sally Stowe and Dr David Vowles kindly donated their time, to supervise my use of the
environmental scanning electron microscope.
Over the life of this thesis research, various staff from my own department have assisted me
in numerous small tasks that considered together, constitute a very considerable effort. I
would like to thank these people including Sue Fraser, Marian Robson and David McGregor,
for this and their ongoing support. Similarly, the support of my fellow honours students has
made a great difference to my research.

xviii
Finally, my parents Robert and Rita Davenport provided me with considerable support at all
stages of this research, including proof-reading the final draft; without their assistance, this
thesis would not have been possible.
Dr Kamminga's experimental work was funded by an ARC grant in 1986-1988. His project
was originally supported by the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Sydney
University, and subsequently by the Department of Prehistory (RSPacS) and the Department
of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Australian National University. The tool-use
experiments would not have been possible without the very generous support of the National
Museum of the Philippines, which provided Dr Kamminga with facilities and support staff
both in Manila and at all the field areas. In particular, Dr Kamminga extends thanks to Mr
Willie Ronquillo and Jesus Peralta. The International Rice Germplasm Centre, at the
International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, identified rice varieties and their silica
content. Jimmy Cabrera, entomologist at the National Museum of the Philippines, assisted
with advice on land crustaceans.
The Agta and lowland farmers who performed the tool-use experiments are named within
the text. I acknowledge their enormous contribution to the fieldwork and offer them my
sincere thanks for the opportunity their work has provided me.
Figure 1 Yong Pablo (Agta group) who assisted with recording data.

xix
Glossary
The size and scope of this research has necessitated an overhaul of the terminology currently
applied to functional analysis, which is both inconsistent and incomplete. Terms such as
activity, task and action have specific meanings applied herein, that are necessary to properly
differentiate and understand the human processes involved in use-wear formation (an area
that is often overlooked). The scope of some terms requires clarification, this is provided
within square brackets.
Term Definition
abrasive smoothing [Functional analysis] A smoothed tool surface; resulting from
abrasive contact with a worked material. Surfaces that have
undergone abrasive smoothing are not highly reflective and
are typically heavily striated.
action [Functional analysis] Also known as ‘Working Action’, is a
specific tool movement or ‘atomic’ mode of use; such as
cutting, slicing or scraping. Actions are usually repeated
when performing a task.
activity [Functional analysis] Tool using project that may involve more
than one specific task or worked materials.
adze A cutting/chopping tool that has an asymmetrical bevel when
viewed from the side.
adzing [Functional analysis] A regular, variable-angled, chopping-like
action, which impacts a worked material.
Agta An indigenous ‘Negrito’ group which exists in several, scattered
locations, throughout the Philippines. Since the end of World
War II, the traditional Agta hunting and gathering lifestyle has
been under threat, and is now preserved in isolated pockets or
as part of a more sedentary lifestyle (Griffin & Griffin 1997).
alluvial Pertaining to alluvium and fluvial processes.
alluvium Unconsolidated sedimentary deposit of gravel, sand, mud, or
combinations of these, formed by water flowing in channels.
Alluvium is commonly well sorted and stratified.
artefact An object manufactured by human device (contrast with tool).
autoabrasion [Lithic] The abrasion of minute flaked particles, on the stone
surface from which they have been removed.
backing, backing
retouch
Abrupt blunting retouch for the purpose of hafting or holding.
bag damage Damage caused to lithics during post-excavation storage, this
usually takes the form of microscopic, Hertzian initiated
flakes.

xx
Term Definition
bamboo A tall, erect, wooded grass, belonging to the tribe Bambuseae, of
the grass family Poaceae.
barkcloth Cloth made from processed bark, typically the inner bast.
basalt A dark igneous rock. Basalt originates from lava that has
extruded onto the surface of the Earth, cooling relatively
quickly and hence forming small crystals.
bending initiated
fracture
A fracture resulting from a bending load or force, applied away
from the point of initiation.
betel Or ‘betel nut’. The combination of lime, fruit from the Areca
cateca (or ‘betel nut’) and the leaves of the betel pepper (Piper
betele). When combined and chewed, betel has a stimulant
effect, and is notable for turning the user’s saliva red.
bevelling [Functional analysis] Asymmetric edge rounding.
bipolar core A core which has had flakes removed by bipolar percussion.
bipolar flake A flake formed by bipolar percussion.
bipolar percussion The process of removing flakes from a core by resting it on an
anvil (usually stone) and striking with a hammerstone or
indentor. This method may leave distinctive characteristics on
the flake, such as a wide striking platform, or a step fractured
distal end (due to the reflected compressive forces).
bolo Machete or bush knife, a type common to the Philippines.
bottom [Functional analysis] The surface of a tool that faces the worked
material. The bottom surface is only defined for tasks such as
scraping or shaving, where the working angle is < 90°.
BP Before present (nominally 1950 for radiometric dating reasons).
BS [SEM] Backscattered electron mode. This mode provides
contrast based on the atomic weight of the sample.
bulb (of percussion) The convexity appearing at the proximal end, of the ventral edge,
of a Hertzian initiated flake. The bulb is created by waves of
force from the hammer-strike which creates the flake (Cotterell
et al. 1985). A corresponding bulbar scar or negative bulb is
left on the core from which the Hertzian flake was removed.
Previously known as ‘bulb of force’.

xxi
Term Definition
chalcedony A compact variety of silica, formed of quartz crystallites, which
are often fibrous in form. Coloured varieties include carnelian
(yellow brown), sard (brown), agate (varicoloured) and jasper
(red). Chalcedony can form veins or can occur as
pseudomorphs, resulting from silica-charged solution
infiltrating voids or cavities in rock, sometimes by gradually
replacing decaying organic matter. Chalcedony has a
hardness around 7 on the Mohs scale and, like fine quality
chert, was a valued stone tool material in ancient times.
Chalcedony appears as very fine-grained to the naked eye and
can be translucent, banded or include a wide variety of
colours. This rock type often breaks by conchoidal fracture
and provides flakes that have sharp durable edges.
charging [SEM] An effect caused by the build-up of a static electrical
charge on the specimen. Areas of charging appear unusually
bright on a micrograph.
chert A highly silicious rock formed by the compaction and
precipitation of the silica skeletons of diatoms. Chert typically
contains a high percentage of cryptocrystalline quartz. This
rock type breaks by the process of conchoidal fracture and
provides flakes that have sharp durable edges.
coating [SEM] The process of covering a sample with a conducting
material, in order to prevent charging.
cobble Smooth, waterworn stones with a diameter roughly between that
of a tennis ball and basket ball (64 mm – 255 mm). Compare
pebble.
controlled heating The purposeful heating of stone, usually slowly, to improve its
flaking characteristics. Also known as ‘heat treatment’ or
‘thermal treatment’.
core [Lithic] A piece of stone material or nucleus, from which flakes
were removed.
[Rattan] The centre or pith of rattan cane, also known as wicker.
cortex [Lithic] The exposed (prior to tool formation), weathered surface
of a stone tool.
crazing Cracks on a stone material, resulting from heating.
culm The stem or haulm of a plant. A term particularly applied to
grasses, such as rice or bamboo.
cutting [Functional analysis] An action which moves the cutting edge of
a tool down through a worked material; as one would slice a
razor down through a sheet of paper.
depth [Gloss] The length of a glossed area on a stone tool measured (by
Euclidian distance) normal to the working edge (Chapman
1981:73).

xxii
Term Definition
diagenesis Changes that occur in the character and composition of material
within a sediment.
diameter The greatest Euclidian distance between any two points on the
surface of an object. The diameter is one simple metric that
may be used to describe a lithic or fractures.
diaphragm The ‘cross-wall’, that internally partitions a bamboo culm, at the
point of a node.
distal 1. [Lithic] The portion of a stone flake opposite the point of
initiation, along the fracture axis.
2. [Arrow] The flighted end, or that opposite the point.
dorsal surface The surface of a stone flake that is exterior at the time of removal
from the core.
dry [Rattan] More than 1 week old.
EDAX An analytical technique used in conjunction with a SEM, that
analyses the elemental composition of a material through x-
rays emanating from the sample.
edge effect [SEM] An effect which causes edges and small particles to
appear unusually bright when compared to flat surfaces
edge fracturing [Functional analysis] Breakage on an edge of a stone tool.
edge rounding [Functional analysis] Rounding on an edge of a stone tool.
euhedral A material that may form visible planar surfaces with straight
edges.
electron Particle (or more appropriately ‘wavepacket’) of electric charge.
epidermis [Botany] The true skin of a plant below the cuticle.
eraillure A characteristic scar that appears on the bulb of percussion of a
flake (Cotterell & Kamminga 1979:110).
feather termination [Functional analysis] Gentle, low angled termination to a
fracture.
finger knife A device used to harvest rice; it consists of a blade, harvested
normal to a narrow, hand-sized handle.
flake [Lithic] A non-particulate fragment of lithic material, that has
been detached from a core or nucleus by non-natural means.
flaked piece A piece or section of a flaked stone tool, which is missing an
initiation or termination point.
fresh [Rattan] Less than 2 days old.
function An intended application of a tool, its reason for manufacture.
functional analysis An examination into the properties and context of stone tools,
that are indicative of the use or intended function of those
tools.
furrow [Functional analysis] A striation with rough, irregular edges.

xxiii
Term Definition
gloss [Functional analysis] An area on a stone tool that appears bright
and smooth to the unaided eye or with the aid of optical
microscopy. Gloss is a neutral term that may apply to a
reflective residue or polished stone surface.
granite A coarse grained igneous rock containing the minerals mica,
quartz and feldspar. Granite forms from the solidification of
magma deep below the Earth's surface. The magma cools very
slowly, allowing the formation of large crystals.
graving [Functional analysis] An action that typically uses a point or
projection on a tool like a stylus; although a section of edge
may also be used.
hafted Mounting of a tool on a handle.
heating, heated [Lithic] A lithic which has been physically altered by heat.
heat treatment See controlled heating.
Hertzian initiation [Functional analysis] The initiation point for a Hertzian flake,
which is distinguished by the presence of a cone-shaped crack,
bulb of percussion with eraillure flake scar (sometimes
missing) and conchoidal fracture.
igneous Stone formed from magma that has cooled and solidified, either
at the Earth's surface (eg basalt) or deep below the Earth's
surface (eg granite).
initiation point [Lithic] The point at which the crack that formed a stone flake
began.
lance [Lithic] A thin, linear ridge, usually found in series, on the
surface of a stone flake. Lances are formed in the direction of
the fracture front and normal to undulations (Cotterell &
Kamminga 1979:110).
length [Lithic] The maximum Euclidian distance between the proximal
and distal ends of a stone flake, parallel to the fracture axis.
left edge [Lithic] Left margin of a flake, as it is orientated with the dorsal
face upwards and the platform down (Newcomer 1985:4).
lithic Stone material of the type used for tools.
metamorphic [Stone] That has changed after being subjected to heat and/or
pressure. For example limestone is a sedimentary rock which,
if subjected to heat and/or pressure, changes to marble. Slate
is a metamorphic rock derived from shale.
metric A distance measurement (specifically a non-negative function
that is stable under scalar multiplication and satisfies the
triangle inequality i.e. |-x|=|x|, |a.x| = a.|x} and |x+y| ≤ |x| +
|y| for scalar a, and vectors x and y).

xxiv
Term Definition
microblade A small elongated stone flake with roughly parallel edges and at
least one ridge along the length of its outside surface.
Ordinarily these are less than about 50 mm long. Technically,
their length is at least twice their width. This variety of flake is
detached from a microblade core. Inconsistencies in the stone
material may cause the blade edges to curve or not form
parallel. Microblades are also known as bladelets (Newcomer
1985:4,5).
microblade core A small core from which regularly shaped microblades have
been struck. Some microblade cores have only one or two
microblade facets; others have numerous facets emanating
from more than one initiation surface.
microdebitage Very small stone artefacts, typically with diameter < 1cm.
Microdebitage is usually the by-product of the stone tool
manufacturing process.
micropolish [Functional analysis] An area of polish that is too small to
resolve with the un-aided eye or low power microscopy. The
study of micropolish is typically associated with the Keeley-
high power approach, in which it is analysed to the exclusion
of other forms of use-wear. Hence, the term ‘micropolish’ is
not used in this analysis, although some areas of polish are
profitably examined at high magnification.
microwear Microscopic traces of mechanical wear on an artefact.
miscanthus An erect, gregarious reed, growing from 1 m to 4 m in height,
with tall, white flower clusters.
mixed [SEM] A combination of secondary emission (SE) and
backscattered (BS) imaging techniques.
Mohs scale of
hardness
A relative scale (ranging between 1 and 10) characterized by the
ability of one material to scratch another. Some pertinent
values on the scale are talc:1, fingernail:3.5, quartz:7 and
diamond:10, which is the hardest known mineral and hence
marks the maxima of the Mohs scale. A material that has a
low value on the Mohs scale is called ‘soft’, those at the higher
end of the scale are ‘hard’.
narra Pterocarpus indicus, a reddish hard wood, endemic to Southeast
Asia. The extract may be used as a resin for hafting tools, as a
fabric dye, or for medicine.
node [Botany] The joint that partitions a culm.
normal At 90°; a right angle.
obsidian A naturally occurring glass, formed by the rapid cooling of
granitic / rhyolitic magma, usually from contact with water.

xxv
Term Definition
opal, opaline silica Amorphous, hydrated silica SiO2.nH2O. Opal is isotropic, non-
crystalline and has a lower density than quartz or chalcedony
(Motomura et al. 2000:85; Jones et al. 1963:365).
pandanus Members of the family Pandanaceae, generally small trees with
spiny tufts of spiral leaves. Otherwise known as the ‘screw
pine’.
panicle The interflorescence, head or ear of a grass plant. The uppermost
portion of the plant which contains the seeds.
pebble A waterworn stone roughly smaller than a tennis ball (with
diameter < 64 mm).
peel [Rattan] Outside layer of rattan cane, also known as bark.
photomicrograph Photograph using optical microscopy.
photon Particle (or more appropriately wavepacket) of light.
phytoliths Minute bodies of silica derived from plant cells..
PIXE Proton-Induced X-ray Emission, a technique used to analyse the
composition of a material. Often used in conjunction with
PIGME (Proton-Induced Gamma-Ray Emission).
platform preparation [Lithic] The process of flaking the surface of a core (platform
faceting) and removing any overhanging edge (spur removal)
to create a suitable topography and geometry for flake,
particularly microblade, detachment
polish The physical – chemical wear of a material, which produces a
smooth, reflective surface (Cornish 1963).
polyhedral core A core with flake scars whose axes are oriented in different
directions.
potlid fracture A concave depression on a stone material, caused by expanding
fluids inside the rock during heating.
pressure flaking [Lithic] The process of removing a flake by applying a load
without percussion.
proximal 1. [Lithic] The part of a stone flake containing the initiation point;
where the flake was struck.
2. [Arrow] The point end.
quartz A hard, stable, mineral composed of crystalline silica (SiO2) with
a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale.
quartzite A hard, silica rich stone, formed from the recrystallisation of
sandstone by heat (metaquartzite) or the slow infilling of silica
in the voids between sand grains (orthoquartzite).
rattan Spiny, climbing members of the Lepidocaryoideae group of the
palm family. ‘Rattan’ is the anglicised version of the Malay
word ‘rotan’.

xxvi
Term Definition
residue [Lithic] Chemical material imparted on the surface of a stone
tool.
residue analysis The analysis of residues on lithics, including the investigation of
adhering phytoliths, antiserum tests and chemical analysis.
retouch The reworking of a stone tool. This reworking may take various
forms, including percussion and bipolar flaking, pressure
flaking, rolling pressure flaking, scraping along a rough stone
surface or even nibbling with the teeth.
rice – dry Rice that is not grown in a flooded field.
rice - wet Rice that is grown in a flooded field.
right edge Right margin of a flake, as it is orientated with the dorsal face
upwards and the platform down (Newcomer 1985:4).
ring crack [Lithic] The arc-shaped crack from which grows a Hertzian cone.
runting The process of removing the highly siliceous epidermis layer
from some rattans (the rattan species used in experiments did
not require runting).
sawing [Functional analysis] Cutting a material with a back and forth,
lateral motion.
scraping [Functional analysis] Drawing a stone tool along the surface of a
worked material, with little force directed into the surface of
that material.
SE [SEM] secondary emission mode. This mode forms an image by
examining secondary emitted electrons.
SEM 1. Scanning Electron Microscope
2. Scanning Electron Microscopy
semi-dry [Rattan] Between 2 and 7 days old.
shaving [Functional analysis] a similar action to scraping, that involves
longer, smoother strokes.
sheen [Lithic] A pervasive, dull, lustre or shine. Sheen is distinguished
from polish by its broad distribution (often over the entire tool
including recent fractures), and its low reflectivity compared
with a true polish. Elsewhere, the word sheen has sometimes
been used interchangeably with ‘polish’, and other times to
describe the result of natural phenomena. Here, sheen refers
to bright areas that are unrelated to use-wear, although they
may be due to some human process, e.g. controlled heating.
silica Silicon dioxide (SiO2.).
siliceous Being high in silica content.
sleek [Functional analysis] A striation with smooth, regular margins.
slicing ‘Cutting’ on thin worked materials.

xxvii
Term Definition
step termination [Functional analysis] An abrupt, right-angled termination to a
fracture.
striations [Functional analysis] Concave linear features on the surface of a
tool, that are not a natural feature of the stone or the result of
flake detachment.
study region The geographical region which is the focus of this study;
specifically Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands.
suput A traditional Agta carrying pouch or ‘bum-bag’.
tektite Small, glassy rocks whose creation relate to cosmic events
(probably meteorite impact). As a stone material, tektites may
be considered the analogue of obsidian.
termination point [Lithic] The point on a stone flake, opposite to the initiation
point, where the fracture that created it terminated.
thickness [Lithic] The maximum Euclidian distance between the dorsal
and ventral faces of a stone flake, measured normal to the
flaking axis.
thinning [Functional analysis] The action of scraping or shaving the
surface of a worked material, that is already reasonably
smooth.
tool An artefact used specifically as a device in some planned process,
involving a worked material. The chief distinction between
tools and artefacts when considering lithics is that some
artefacts are produced as the by-product of a particular human
process, but a tool is the focus of that process. For example,
the stone chips that are removed from a stone axe when
chopping a tree are artefacts but not tools, whilst the axe itself
is both.
top [Functional analysis] The surface of a tool that faces away from
the worked material. The top surface is only defined for tasks
such as scraping or shaving, where the working angle is < 90°.
torque Turning force. Torque is proportional to the magnitude of the
linear force applied to a body and the distance of the
application point from the axis of rotation.
trample damage Modification to a stone tool, particularly edge fracturing, caused
by trampling underfoot.
uncertainty A range which encompasses the difference between the true
value of a quantity and a measured approximation of it.
Uncertainty is inherent in all measurement of non-discreet
variables. When a measurement is expressed in the form a ± b,
the true value lies somewhere between a-b and a+b.

xxviii
Term Definition
undulations [Lithic] Ripples or force waves on the surface of a stone flake,
concentric to the initiation point. Undulations are a natural
wavering of the fracture front as it progresses on its path
through the stone material (Cotterell & Kamminga 1979:108)
use [Functional analysis] The direct and immediate application of a
tool. i.e. a pencil may be used as a weapon to stab; thus
stabbing is the use of the tool, although it is not the intended
function.
use life [Functional analysis] The period subsequent to initial creation of
a tool, until its eventual discard. A tool may be physically
altered during this period (eg by use or edge rejuvenation) and
it may have several use lives (e.g. if a tool is discarded then
later excavated and reused).
use-wear [Functional analysis] Wear on a stone tool that originates from
use.
utilized Having been used.
ventral surface [Lithic] The inside surface of a flake, or that which is interior at
the time of removal from the core.
weathering The destructive effects of air, wind, water or ice, by which stones
are changed in colour, texture, composition or form. Most
weathering occurs at the surface, but it may take place deep
under the surface as water and oxygen penetrate into the
stone.
wedging The action of splitting a worked material, particularly wood, by
inserting a tool or series of tools by indirect percussion.
whittling [Functional analysis] Shaping an object with short, forceful,
cutting actions.
width [Gloss] The length of an area of polish on a stone tool measured
(by Euclidian distance) parallel to the working edge (normal to
the depth) (Chapman 1981:73).
[Lithic] The maximum Euclidian distance between the lateral
margins of a stone flake, measured normal to the fracture axis.
worked material [Functional analysis] The material on which a stone tool is used;
also known as the contact material.
working action See Action.
working angle [Functional analysis] The angle at which a tool is held to the
worked material during use.
working edge [Functional analysis] Any edge of a tool that acts upon a worked
material. A tool may have zero, one or more than one working
edge.

1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
AIMS
This research seeks to establish through the analysis of experimental data, the major use-
wear patterns relevant to the interpretation of prehistoric Southeast Asian and Pacific Island
stone tools. The wear patterns are expected to be of value in the study of stone tools dating
from the Middle Palaeolithic until recent times, revealing tool uses in a region where flake
assemblages have typically been described as amorphous. The results of this experimental
study will then be tested against two archaeological assemblages, chosen from the study
region.
SCOPE
STUDY REGION
This study deals with the prehistoric technology of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands;
henceforth referred to as the ‘study region’ (Figure 2). It examines activities and raw
materials that are likely to have been important to prehistoric people within this region.
Figure 2 Study region; showing Huxley’s Line and provenance of stone tool assemblages discussed.1
Moreover, some of the results of this study may be applicable outside the study region.
Application of the results may extend to areas such as northern Australia, parts of Africa and
the Americas, where prehistoric peoples also had access to some of the raw materials
examined in this study.
Timor
Sierra Madre /
Cagayan
Sulawesi

2
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
In order to assess the use-wear patterns on stone tools from the study region Johan
Kamminga conducted an experimental program on stone tool-use. These experiments were
conducted in the Philippines during the years 1986-7; following a preliminary program in
1985. The tool-use experiments investigated activities based on stone materials, plants and
animals that are representative for the study region as a whole. These experiments remained
unanalysed until now. This thesis presents the original results from all of the tool-use
experiments, with analysis of those activities considered most pertinent to Southeast Asian
prehistory.
ETHNOBOTANY, MATERIAL CULTURE & ACTIVITIES
As noted, the worked materials were chosen to represent, what were found to be those most
common and important to prehistoric peoples within the study region. This evaluation was
partly based on an investigation of modern and ethnohistorical accounts, and partly on the
results of previous archaeological investigations.
Ethnohistorical accounts also provided the chief source of information on how stone tools
may be used to work certain materials; this manner of tool-use will be known as an ‘activity’.
It is recognised that patterns of prehistoric behaviour based on extrapolations of these
ethnohistorical accounts, may not necessarily be valid. Nor do such accounts form an
exhaustive list of prehistoric materials or activities. However, these accounts do provide a
basis for understanding the finite range of ways that certain materials may be worked with a
pre-industrial technology.
The utility of these extrapolations was tested with the tool-use experiments. The
experiments explored the practicalities associated with different prehistoric activities; they
are also the only reliable way to investigate replicative use-wear patterns. As recognised by
Unger-Hamilton (1988:29), such an experimental program must use materials and a general
ecological situation that is as close as possible to the one being studied. In the case of the
current study, this implied the experiments must be performed in a forested area, within
Southeast Asia or the Pacific Islands. However, a location within Southeast Asia was most
relevant, due to the greater diversity of plant materials available there.
WORKERS
The choice of workers to perform the experiments was also integral to this study. In order
to investigate the replicated prehistoric activities, a group of workers was sought who were
already familiar with them to some extent. The role of these workers was to conduct the
experimental procedures or activities, and report on innovations and results, all under the
direction of the archaeologist. This procedure contrasts with the ethnoarchaeological
approach, where the archaeologist has a more passive role, observing rather than directing
such activities (e.g. Hayden 1979). This is not to belie the input or cultural influence of the

3
workers on the experiments (particularly regarding relatively complex activities such as
arrow making), but the approach used was predominantly experimental, rather than
ethnoarchaeological.
SACRED VERSUS PROFANE FUNCTIONS
The use of stone tools is not always profane. It is recognised that stone tools may serve
sacred functions that are capable of leaving use-wear or residues on the tool (e.g. Ling
1962:208; Hampton 1996 I:305; II:431; Rambo 1979:117). For example, (Hampton
1996:I:305) notes the practice of rubbing pig fat on sacred stone tools in the highlands of
Irian Jaya. Whereas McCarthy (1976:65-67), describes how sacred Tjurinja stones from
central Australia, were polished and covered in residues by ritually rubbing with ochre,
charcoal or the bare hands. However, a thorough investigation of the sacred function of
stone tools is too broad a topic to include in this thesis, and did not form part of the
experimental program. This topic has been deferred for future research.
ANALYTICAL PROGRAM
The scope of the analytical program is to synthesize data from the original experiments and
consolidate this with an analysis of the experimental tools; thus providing a library of
information on the practicalities of several prehistoric activities and the use-wear patterns
associated with these.2 The value of this baseline information is then assessed through a
comparison with archaeological stone tool assemblages from within the study region.
Specifically, the background for the analytical program involves the compilation,
presentation and reconstruction of the original experiments, through use of interview and
original materials provided by Johan Kamminga (including handwritten field notes,
photographic slides and negatives, samples of the worked materials and the experimental
tools). Secondary sources, such as published botanical information and personal
correspondence, are also used to resolve outstanding issues relating to the experimental
program.
The body of the analytical program consists of two parts. The first part of the program seeks
to determine patterns of use-wear for a selection of activities from the experiments.3 The
second part applies these ‘baseline’ use-wear patterns, to a functional analysis of lithic
assemblages, from excavated sites on the island of Timor. Where applicable, ad hoc
experiments were conducted by the candidate, to resolve any outstanding issues that arose
from the analysis.

4
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Use-wear - field
Some preliminary analysis was conducted by Johan Kamminga on stone tools in the field,
principally in order to assess the development of wear patterns. This analysis relied on low
power optical microscopy and macroscopic observations. The results of this preliminary
analysis are included in the section Experimental Results (II-30).
Use-wear - laboratory
The analytical method used for this study is Integrated Use-Wear Analysis (Kamminga
1982).
Residues
As the original tool-use experiments are presented in this work, the formation and probable
character of any expected residues are summarily presented as part of this discussion.
However, a thorough chemical description of these residues and a consideration of the
possible taphonomic changes they may undergo archaeologically, are deferred for future
research.
Moreover, wherever residues are observed during analysis of the assemblages, they are
superficially described and their location noted, in order to facilitate future work. Whenever
a lithic is examined by SEM, the opportunity is taken to further characterize any residues
present, by their elemental composition with the use of uncalibrated EDAX.4
Stone materials & tool type
The stone materials used in the experiments were chosen to span the most common types
found archaeologically within the study region. The analytical program concentrates on
chert tools, these being common and the most amenable to use-wear analysis.
To reflect the nature of typical lithic assemblages in the study region, simple flakes were
used; no attempt was made to produce specific morphological tool types for the experiments
such as microliths or blades. Ground stone adzes were not considered in the experimental
program due to the close correlation between morphology and function for these tools.
STONE TOOL COLLECTIONS
Two collections of stone tools were analysed, experimental stone tools made by Johan
Kamminga and tested in the Philippines, and archaeological stone tools from three sites on
the island of Timor (Figure 2:1). The analysis of the experimental stone tools provides a
basis for functional analysis of stone tools from the study region in general. The
archaeological collections were chosen as a test, to assess the applicability of the baseline
data obtained from the archaeological collection.

5
Experimental – Philippines
The product of the Philippine experimental program, including stone tools, samples of
worked materials and photographic material, are currently held by Johan Kamminga in
Canberra.
Archaeological - Timor
The majority of prehistoric artefacts examined for this study were collected on the island of
Timor, by Ian Glover during his 1966-7 field season. This collection now resides in the
Australian Museum, Sydney.
This large collection has been characterised previously (Glover 1986). Because of the
previous work and large size of the collection, a complete re-examination for the purposes
of this thesis is not appropriate. Instead, tools from different sites and horizons are examined,
with particular attention paid to those tools previously identified as ‘flakes with gloss’.
REASONS FOR STUDY
‘AMORPHOUS’ NATURE OF ASSEMBLAGES
Studies of flaked stone assemblages have previously contributed little to the understanding
of Southeast Asian – Pacific Island prehistory. One of the main reasons for this is that few
diagnostic tool types have been identified. Archaeologists commonly describe the stone
artefacts they find as ‘amorphous’ ‘opportunistic’ or ‘smash and grab’ (Bronson & Asmar
1975; Coutts 1984; Coutts & Wesson 1980:216-23). This paucity of formal tool types can
be largely attributed to the lack of shaping in general (see White 1979:360). Whilst stone
tools from the study region may thus appear nondescript, from a use-wear perspective the
lack of shaping suggests these flakes were typically created for a single use then discarded,
greatly simplifying functional analysis.
PRESERVATION
Preservation of organic materials in the study region is particularly poor, due mainly to the
moist, tropical climate. Cultural materials that are expected to be particularly important in
the region’s prehistory, such as bamboo (Ikawa-Smith 1978:8; Pope 1989), have a very short
use life and would not usually survive more than two years of exposure to tropical weather
Kumar et al. (1994). Consequently, archaeologically preserved organic materials are
uncommon and contribute little to the region’s prehistory. Thus, the prehistoric uses of
materials such as bamboo and rattan must be deduced by indirect means.
PREVIOUS WORK
No experimental tool-use program has previously been conducted for the study region that
utilises a representative range of stone and worked materials.

6
CHAPTER 2 Regional Background
GEOGRAPHY
The study region comprises of five major areas, mainland Southeast Asia, the Indo-
Malaysian Archipelago, Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. These areas span different
climactic, landform and soil zones but the most important broad bio-geographical division
is the separation known as Huxley’s Line (Figure 2:1).
Areas of the study region to the west of Huxley’s line, tend to be rich in Asian plant and
animal species, those to the immediate east are comparatively poor in these species and have
a large Australian influence. Ancient species of large placental mammals were also
predominantly distributed west of Huxley’s Line; these include elephant, rhinoceros and
even Homo erectus, which have been associated with early pebble and flake tool industries
(Groves 1985:51,53; Morwood 1999; Higham & Thosarat 1998:24).
Because of their young age and isolation, the islands of Polynesia have comparatively few
plant and animal species (Bellwood 1985:14; Groves 1985:45); hence, the majority of this
thesis focuses on Southeast Asia. However, many of the worked materials and activities
considered in this thesis have relevance for Polynesia and Melanesia, these are specified in
the text (see Ethnobotany, Material Culture & Activities: I-26).
ARCHAEOLOGY
OVERVIEW
Many assemblages in the study region comprise primarily of simple, unmodified flakes.
When defined in general terms, such technology has great time depth, probably extending
from before 40,000 BP and persisting in some remote areas until relatively recent times
(Movius 1948:411; Bellwood 1985:67; Coutts & Wesson 1980:216; Hampton 1996; Majid
1982:87-88).
The persistence of this broad preference for a simple, non-standardised lithic technology has
posed problems for typological studies; the data does not lend itself to the same kinds of
inferences familiar to European or Middle Eastern archaeologists. This apparent stasis in
technology has previously been attributed to cultural retardation, but many researchers now
point to the availability of bamboo as an excellent technological resource, that may have
made standardised stone tools somewhat redundant (Ikawa-Smith 1978:8; Pope 1989;
Shutler 1995:53; Movius 1978:352). Moreover, as noted by Hutterer (1988:67,68), simple
flake tools may be highly efficient within their environmental and cultural context, both for
hunter-gatherers and farming communities.

7
However, some standardised stone tools do exist within the study region. These include
Maros points from the Toalean assemblages of South Sulawesi, and what Kamminga(1994;
1990) now believes to be pebble adzes from Hoabinhian assemblages, which have been
described from Vietnam, Thailand, the Malay peninsula and some of the Southeast Asian
islands (Bellwood 1985:159-162; Adi 2000). Most of these standardised tools appear in the
late Pleistocene and continue through the Holocene.
PREVIOUS FUNCTIONAL STUDIES
The general archaeology of the study region has been summarised by Bellwood (1985),
Kirch (1997) and Higham (1989), and will not be further described here. The studies most
pertinent to this thesis are those that examine the function of stone tools, and these are
reviewed below:
USE-WEAR
Sillitoe (1988) has recorded the most detailed tool-use experiments for the study region,
based in the highlands of New Guinea. However, the use-wear and residues from these stone
tools have not yet been reported.
The next most comprehensive study in the region was performed by Mijares (2001), who
carried out eleven experiments on stone tools,5 the results of which he applied to an
assemblage from northern Luzon. Mijares used worked materials such as bamboo, rattan,
and meat from pig and deer. The tools were analysed in terms of micropolish, edge rounding
and fracture terminations. This analysis identified use-wear on archaeological tools, but did
not uniquely characterise wear from bamboo or rattan:
“Bamboo and rattan as contact materials produced microwear like those of
other hard materials. However, specific microwear signatures of these
contact materials remain to be identified.” (Mijares 2001:145)
Peterson (1974) also studied an assemblage from northern Luzon, though apparently without
the benefit of any experimental research. Three types of chert, bamboo working tools were
apparently identified in the prehistoric assemblage:
• Crescent shaped denticulate knives about 6 cm long, with edge angles of 20° to 30°,
which were inferred to be used for sawing and whittling. Heavy silica sheen was
observed on projections and flake scar ridges, appearing in streaks in the ‘zone of
diminishing alteration’. Striations appeared both parallel and perpendicular to the
edge. Edge damage was also observed, in the form of rounding, and small step and
feather terminated scars.
• Rectangular shaped knives; these were retouched around the entire edge, measuring
4.5 cm x 2.5 cm, with an edge angle of 30° to 80°. As above, silica sheen was
observed on projections and flake scar ridges. These tools were apparently used for
whittling and scraping.

8
• Gravers; these were distinguished by the presence of heavy silica sheen on a single
corner or projection.
Peterson gives no justification as to why these tools were used to work bamboo; hence, the
validity of his conclusions cannot be assessed (Peterson 1974:98-101).
Sinha and Glover (1984) used the Keeley technique to study collections from Ulu Leang 1
and Leang Burung 2, on the island of Sulawesi. Tool-use experiments were also conducted
but the details of these are vague. Many of the plant species used are not recorded, nor are
the parts of the plants used, their state of dryness or the way in which they were worked with
the stone tools. Moreover, no details or even a summary or number of the experiments is
given. Hence, the conclusions of this study are not used for comparison with the results of
this thesis.
The glossed flakes from Sulawesi have also been studied by Di Lelo (1997:112) who built
on an earlier description from Chapman (1981). Di Lelo concluded the majority of the tools
were used for cutting soft plant materials. However, the specific plant was not identified,
nor was the study based on any applicable tool-use experiments.
Kamminga (1994; 1990) analysed an assemblage from Sai Yok in Thailand, finding a
general absence of use-wear and concluding the site functioned as a pebble adze-making
workshop. Kamminga (1978: plates 19,20) also identified stone drills from Motopure in
New Guinea, a site oriented towards the production of shell beads. This assemblage was
later re-examined by Fullagar (Allen et al. 1997), who confirmed Kamminga’s
identifications. The author has identified similar drills in several different assemblages from
Fiji.6
Fullagar (1989) conducted a preliminary examination of 161 artefacts from the New Guinea
highlands, based on a limited program of nine tool-use experiments. These experiments
included sawing and graving palm (unknown sp.), sawing and scraping reeds (Phragmites
sp.) and sawing wood (Tristania conferta). Hornfels, chert and quartzite were used for stone
materials. Fullagar identified light duty wood, reed and palm working on the archaeological
stone tools, although he acknowledged that the experiments did not clearly differentiate these
activities.
Within the context of a study on the role of silica in polish development, Fullagar (1991)
reported tool-use experiments on bamboo, rattan, reed and palmwood.7 However, the
details, numbers and use-wear patterns associated with these experiments are vague.8 The
lack of these details may have been appropriate within the context of Fullagar’s original
study, but this report has since been used as justification for the identification of tool use in
archaeological assemblages (Kealhofer et al. 1998:530; Fullagar 1992). Hence, the validity
of Fullagar’s identifications is impossible to assess, until the evidence for these is made
public.

9
From Polynesia, Beggerly (1976) performed a limited experimental study using 24 basalt
scrapers, on four indigenous Hawaiian timbers. Few variables were recorded or assessed
and the only use-wear observed was blunting, which was loosely attributed to use on wood.
Spear (1986) made a study of flaked obsidian tools from Easter Island. No specific worked
materials were identified and the study made no reference to relevant tool-use experiments.
OTHER TOOL-USE STUDIES
Pookajorn (1985) performed a functional analysis on Hoabinhian assemblages from caves
in the vicinity of Ban Kao in Thailand. The methodology used is unclear but it relied on
measured macroscopic attributes such as edge angle.
Various stone reaping knives have been reported by researchers in Japan, Taiwan and China
(Bellwood 1985). Whilst (Loofs 1976:126) describes tektite knives from Khok Charoen in
Thailand. Yang (1997) briefly describes seventy flaked stone tools that he classifies as
sickles and harvesting knives. From the description, it appears that Yang believes these tools
were hafted and used as finger knives. However, no justification of Yang’s conclusions are
given.
SUMMARY REMARKS
No functional analysis has previously been performed for the study region that is based on
comprehensive tool-use experiments. Most of the few functional studies that do exist rely
on obscure or unpublished data. The current research aims to fill a void in functional studies,
by providing an analysis of comprehensive tool-use experiments relevant to the study region
and making the full results of this analysis freely available for peer review.

10
CHAPTER 3 Functional Analysis
OVERVIEW
It is the primary aim of lithic functional analysis to categorise stone tools by their intended
function; not simply to identify specific uses for particular artefacts. This approach is more
than a mere technical method, it can shed light on activities carried out at prehistoric sites,
and has more general implications for archaeological reconstruction and theory building.
More conventional, morphological lithic studies must first assume a relationship between
tool shape and function, in order deduce what a stone tool was actually used for. Such
assumptions are often flawed; archaeologists have previously identified functions that may
be performed by several contemporaneous but different tool types (see Kamminga 1982:2)
and ethnoarchaeologists have observed people using single tools for multiple tasks (see
Hampton 1996 II:431,454; Hayden 1979:12).
Functional analysis complements morphological observations, with investigations of
mechanical and chemical changes to the tool, providing more detailed evidence on which to
identify specific functions. This integrated aspect to the method, differentiates it from ‘use-
wear analysis’ or ‘residue analysis’, since functional analysis may employ both these
techniques wherever appropriate. Applied in isolation, the techniques of use-wear or residue
analyses have previously led to reports with little in the way of information regarding actual
human behaviour (Beggerly 1976; Allen et al. 1995). Skibo (1994:xiv) points out this is a
problem typical of many experimental based archaeological investigations in general; where
technical variables may come to replace cultural practices as the principal object of study.
Functional analysis avoids this deficiency, by emphasising the function or the way in which
people intended to utilise a tool, as the principal matter of study.
This introduces another distinction important to functional analysis, that between the
function and a particular use of a tool. As mentioned above, single tools have often been
found to have multiple uses, though not necessarily the ones for which they were created.
For example, a pencil may be used to pierce holes in paper but its actual function is writing
or drawing (Spier 1970:23). Likewise, functional analysis recognises that use-wear patterns
found on a single tool may not necessarily reflect its intended function, and that function can
reveal more about prehistoric technologies and cultural practices, than such incidental uses.

A Functional Analysis Of Southeast Asian - Pacific Island Flaked Stone Tools

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