1) Motivation theories can be categorized as internal, process, or external based on their focus. Well-known theories include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, expectancy theory, and Herzberg's two-factor theory. 2) McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y made assumptions about employee motivation and management's role in arranging conditions to help employees achieve goals. 3) Other motivation theories include ERG theory, McClelland's need for achievement/power/affiliation, and equity theory which examines social exchange and fairness perceptions. 4) Motivation can be influenced by cultural differences, moral development, and management strategies like training, coaching, assignments, and contingent rewards.

1. Organizational Behavior:
Motivation at Work

2. Definition of Motivation
Motivation – the process of
arousing and sustaining goal-
directed behavior

3. 3 Groups of
Motivational Theories
• Internal
– Suggest that variables within the individual
give rise to motivation and behavior
– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process
– Emphasize the nature of the interaction
between the individual and the environment
– Example: Expectancy theory
• External
– Focus on environmental elements to explain
behavior
– Example: Two-factor theory

4. Early Philosophers of
Motivational Theories
Max Weber
work contributes to salvation
Protestant work ethic
Sigmund Freud
delve into the unconscious mind to
better understand a person’s motives
and needs

5. Early Philosophers of
Motivational Theories
Adam Smith
“enlightened” self-interest; that which
is in the best interest and benefit to
the individual and to other people
Frederick Taylor
founder of scientific management;
emphasized cooperation between
management and labor to enlarge
company profits

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SA
er
Esteem
rd
o
st
he
hig
Love (Social)
o
tt
es
Safety and Security
w
Lo
Physiological

7. Motivational Theories X and Y
Theory X
A set of assumptions of how to
manage individuals who are
motivated by lower order needs
Theory Y
A set of assumptions of how to
manage individuals who are
motivated by higher order needs

8. Theories Applied to
Needs Hierarchy
SA Theory Y – a set of
assumptions of how to
Esteem manage individuals
motivated by higher
Love (Social) order needs
Theory X – a set of
Safety and Security assumptions of how to
manage individuals
Physiological motivated by lower
order needs

9. McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based
on Theory X
• Naturally indolent
• Lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be led
• Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
• Naturally resistant to change
• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.

10. McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based
on Theory Y
• Passive and resistant behaviors not
inherent; result of organizational
experience
• People possess
– Motivation
– Development potential
– Capacity for assuming responsibility
– Readiness to direct behavior toward
organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

11. McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based
on Theory Y
Management’s task
Individual Organization
—arrange conditions Goals Goals
and operational
methods so people
can achieve their
own goals by
directing efforts to
organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

12. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
SA
Growth
Esteem
Love (Social) Relatedness
Safety and Security
Existence
Physiological

13. McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement –
a manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns individuals’
issues of excellence,
competition, challenging
goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties

14. McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Power
Need for Power – a
manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s
need to make an impact
on others, influence
others, change people or
events, and make a
difference in life

15. McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation – a
manifest (easily
perceived) need
that concerns an
individual’s need
to establish and maintain warm,
close, intimate relationships
with other people

16. 3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow McGregor Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Theory Y Growth Need for
Achievement
Esteem
Higher self Need for
Order
Needs interpersonal Power
Belongingness
(social and love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation
Safety and Security
Theory X
Lower interpersonal
Order physical
Needs Existence
Physiological

17. Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Hygiene Factor – work condition
related to dissatisfaction caused by
discomfort or pain
– maintenance factor
– contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied
– contributes to absence of complaints

18. Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Motivation Factor – work condition
related to the satisfaction of the
need for psychological growth
– job enrichment
– leads to superior performance & effort

19. Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy and Motivation factors
administration increase job satisfaction
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction • Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

20. Motivation–Hygiene
Combinations
High M Low M
High Hhigh motivation low motivation
few complaints few complaints
Low H high motivation low motivation
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

21. Questions on Herzberg’s
Theory
• Is salary a hygiene or a motivational
factor?
• What role do individual differences
(age, sex, social status, education)
play?
• What role do intrinsic job factors
(work flow process) play?

22. New Ideas in Human
Motivation:
Eustress, Strength, Hope
• Eustress – healthy, normal stress
Opportunities Obstacles
Challenges Barriers
Energy Frustration

23. New Ideas in Human
Motivation:
Positive Energy and
Full Engagement
Management of Energy
Build Positive Expend
Energy Energy
Renewal
and
Recovery

24. Social Exchange
& Equity Theory
• Equity theory focuses on individual–
environment interaction
• Concerned with social processes
• Etzioni—calculated working
relationships
– Both parties have demands
– Both parties make contributions
– Expect fair, equitable, ethical treatment

25. Individual–Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Organization Individual
Contributions Demands
• Organizational goals • Physiological needs
• Departmental objectives • Security needs
• Job tasks • Physical needs
• Developmental potential
• Company status
• Employee knowledge
• Benefits
• Employee skills and
• Income
abilities
SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

26. Adam’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity – the situation in
which a person perceives he
or she is receiving less than
he or she is giving, or is
giving less than he or she is
receiving

27. Equity and Inequity at Work
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs

28. Strategies for
Resolution of Inequity
• Alter the person’s outcomes
• Alter the person’s inputs
• Alter the comparison other’s outputs
• Alter the comparison other’s inputs
• Change who is used as a
comparison other
• Rationalize the inequity
• Leave the organizational situation

29. New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison
other
Equity Sensitive

30. New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
Benevolent

31. New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison
other

32. Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence – value or importance
placed on a particular reward
Expectancy – belief that effort leads
to performance
Instrumentality – belief that
performance is related to rewards

33. Expectancy Model
of Motivation
Effort
Effort Performance Reward
Perceived effort – Perceived
Perceived
performance performance –
value of reward
probability reward probability
“What are my “What are my “What rewards
chances of getting chances of getting do I value?”
the job done if I the rewards I value
put forth the if I satisfactorily
necessary effort?” complete the job?”

34. 3 Causes of
Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in
performance
• Belief that performance will not
result in rewards
• The value a person places on, or
the preference a person has for,
certain rewards

35. Moral Maturity
Moral Maturity – the measure of a
person’s cognitive moral
development
Morally mature Morally immature
people behave and people behave and
act based on act based on
universal ethical egocentric
principles. motivations.

36. Cultural Differences
• Motivational
theories are
culturally bound
• Research results
differ among
cultures U.S. Results
=
Other Cultural
Results

37. Ways to Motivate People
• Training
• Coaching
• Task assignments
• Rewards contingent on good
performance
• Valued rewards available