I t will help you to understand what motivation is all about.

1. Need-Based Perspectives onNeed-Based Perspectives on
MotivationMotivation

2. Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
• Explain the concept of needs and describeExplain the concept of needs and describe
the basic motivation process.the basic motivation process.
• Describe several historical perspectives onDescribe several historical perspectives on
motivation.motivation.
• Discuss important need theories ofDiscuss important need theories of
motivation.motivation.
• Discuss Herzberg’s two-factor theory ofDiscuss Herzberg’s two-factor theory of
motivation.motivation.

3. Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
• Identify and summarize three otherIdentify and summarize three other
important individual needs.important individual needs.
• Describe parallels among the need theories.Describe parallels among the need theories.

4. Motivation DefinedMotivation Defined
Motivation is the set of forces that lead people
to behave in particular ways. Motivation is
important in organizations because, in
conjunction with ability and environment, it
determines performance.

5. Need-Based Theories of MotivationNeed-Based Theories of Motivation
The need-based theories of motivation reflect a
content perspective in that they attempt to
describe what factor or factors motive behavior.
They try to list specific things that motivate
behavior.

6. The Motivational FrameworkThe Motivational Framework
Experienced
need
deficiencies
Experienced
need
deficiencies
Search for
ways to
satisfy needs
Search for
ways to
satisfy needs
Enactment of
behavioral
choice
(performance)
Enactment of
behavioral
choice
(performance)
Choice of goal-
directed
behaviors
Choice of goal-
directed
behaviors
Reassessment
of need
deficiencies
Reassessment
of need
deficiencies
Experienced
rewards or
punishment
Experienced
rewards or
punishment

7. Needs and Motives in OrganizationsNeeds and Motives in Organizations
• Primary NeedsPrimary Needs
– The basic physical requirements necessary toThe basic physical requirements necessary to
sustain life.sustain life.
• Secondary NeedsSecondary Needs
– Requirements learned from the environmentRequirements learned from the environment
and culture in which a person lives.and culture in which a person lives.

8. Needs and Motives in OrganizationsNeeds and Motives in Organizations
• MotiveMotive
– A person’s reason for choosing one behaviorA person’s reason for choosing one behavior
from among several choices.from among several choices.
– Motives are derived from needs in that mostMotives are derived from needs in that most
behaviors are undertaken to satisfy one or morebehaviors are undertaken to satisfy one or more
needs.needs.

9. Early Views of MotivationEarly Views of Motivation
• PowerPower
– To the extent that individuals want power, thisTo the extent that individuals want power, this
need provides motivation and could, therefore,need provides motivation and could, therefore,
be considered one of the first approaches tobe considered one of the first approaches to
understanding motivated behavior.understanding motivated behavior.
– HedonismHedonism
– The idea that people seek pleasure and comfortThe idea that people seek pleasure and comfort
and try to avoid pain and discomfort.and try to avoid pain and discomfort.

10. The Scientific Management ApproachThe Scientific Management Approach
• Scientific ManagementScientific Management
– Associated with the work of Frederick Taylor.Associated with the work of Frederick Taylor.
– Assumed that employees are motivated byAssumed that employees are motivated by
money.money.
– Introduced the idea of “piece rate pay.”Introduced the idea of “piece rate pay.”

11. The Human Relations ApproachThe Human Relations Approach
• Human Relations ApproachHuman Relations Approach
– Arose from the Hawthorne studies.Arose from the Hawthorne studies.
– Suggested that people are motivated by thingsSuggested that people are motivated by things
other than money; in particular, employees areother than money; in particular, employees are
motivated by and respond to their socialmotivated by and respond to their social
environment at work.environment at work.
– Favorable attitudes, such as job satisfaction,Favorable attitudes, such as job satisfaction,
were presumed to result in improved employeewere presumed to result in improved employee
performance.performance.

12. Need Theories of MotivationNeed Theories of Motivation
The basic premise of need theories, consistent
with the motivation framework introduced
earlier, is that humans are motivated
primarily by deficiencies in one or more
important needs or need categories.

13. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
• Developed by psychologist AbrahamDeveloped by psychologist Abraham
Maslow in the 1940s.Maslow in the 1940s.
• Maslow believed that people have an innateMaslow believed that people have an innate
desire to satisfy a given set of needs.desire to satisfy a given set of needs.
• Maslow believed that these needs areMaslow believed that these needs are
arranged in a hierarchy of importance, witharranged in a hierarchy of importance, with
the most basic needs at the foundation ofthe most basic needs at the foundation of
the hierarchy.the hierarchy.

14. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow believed that each need level mustMaslow believed that each need level must
be satisfied before the level above itbe satisfied before the level above it
becomes important.becomes important.
• The escalation up the hierarchy continuesThe escalation up the hierarchy continues
until the self-actualization needs becomeuntil the self-actualization needs become
the primary motivators.the primary motivators.

15. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Physiological
Security

16. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological NeedsPhysiological Needs
– Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortableAdequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable
temperatures and working conditions aretemperatures and working conditions are
measures taken to satisfy this most basic levelmeasures taken to satisfy this most basic level
of need.of need.
– Security NeedsSecurity Needs
– Security needs can be satisfied by such thingsSecurity needs can be satisfied by such things
as job continuity, a grievance system, and anas job continuity, a grievance system, and an
adequate insurance and retirement system.adequate insurance and retirement system.

17. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
• Affiliation NeedsAffiliation Needs
– Managers can help satisfy these needs byManagers can help satisfy these needs by
fostering a sense of group identity andfostering a sense of group identity and
interaction among employees.interaction among employees.
• Esteem NeedsEsteem Needs
– These needs are met at least partially by jobThese needs are met at least partially by job
titles, choice offices, merit pay increases,titles, choice offices, merit pay increases,
awards, and other forms of recognition.awards, and other forms of recognition.

18. The Hierarchy of NeedsThe Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-Actualization NeedsSelf-Actualization Needs
– Achieved when people meet their full potential.Achieved when people meet their full potential.
– These needs are the hardest to understand andThese needs are the hardest to understand and
the most difficult to satisfy.the most difficult to satisfy.

19. ERG TheoryERG Theory
• ERG TheoryERG Theory
– Represents an extension and refinement of theRepresents an extension and refinement of the
need hierarchy theory.need hierarchy theory.
– The ERG theory describes existence,The ERG theory describes existence,
relatedness, and growth needs.relatedness, and growth needs.
– The ERG theory suggests that if people becomeThe ERG theory suggests that if people become
frustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, theyfrustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, they
will regress back to the previously satisfied setwill regress back to the previously satisfied set
of needs.of needs.

20. The Dual-Structure TheoryThe Dual-Structure Theory
• Developed by Frederick HerzbergDeveloped by Frederick Herzberg
• Herzberg conceptualized motivation as aHerzberg conceptualized motivation as a
dual structure phenomenon consisting ofdual structure phenomenon consisting of
motivation factors and hygiene factors.motivation factors and hygiene factors.
– Motivation factors are intrinsic to the workMotivation factors are intrinsic to the work
itself and include factors such as achievementitself and include factors such as achievement
and recognition. These factors causeand recognition. These factors cause
motivation and satisfaction.motivation and satisfaction.

21. The Dual-Structure TheoryThe Dual-Structure Theory
• Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)
– Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itselfHygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself
and include factors such as pay and joband include factors such as pay and job
security.security.
– These factors do not necessarily lead toThese factors do not necessarily lead to
satisfaction. If inadequate, however, thesesatisfaction. If inadequate, however, these
factors can lead to dissatisfaction.factors can lead to dissatisfaction.

22. The Dual-Structure TheoryThe Dual-Structure Theory
The Traditional View
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s View
Motivation Factors
Satisfaction
No Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors

23. The Dual-Structure TheoryThe Dual-Structure Theory
Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors
- Achievement
- Recognition
- The Work Itself
- Responsibility
- Advancement
- Supervision
- Working Conditions
- Pay and Job Security
- Company Policies
- Relationships

24. Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement
• Most frequently associated with the work ofMost frequently associated with the work of
David McClelland.David McClelland.
• The need for achievement is the desire toThe need for achievement is the desire to
accomplish a task or goal more effectivelyaccomplish a task or goal more effectively
than in the past.than in the past.

25. Characteristics of High Need AchieversCharacteristics of High Need Achievers
Assume Personal
Responsibility for
Getting Things
Done
Want Immediate,
Specific Feedback
on Their
Performance
Have a
Preoccupation
With Work
Tend to Set
Moderately
Difficult Goals and
Make Moderately
Risky Decisions

26. The Need for AffiliationThe Need for Affiliation
• The need for human companionship.The need for human companionship.
• Individuals with a high need for affiliationIndividuals with a high need for affiliation
tend to want reassurance and approval fromtend to want reassurance and approval from
others and usually are genuinely concernedothers and usually are genuinely concerned
about others’ feelings.about others’ feelings.
• People with a high need for affiliation oftenPeople with a high need for affiliation often
work in jobs with a lot of interpersonalwork in jobs with a lot of interpersonal
contact.contact.

27. The Need for PowerThe Need for Power
• The desire to control the resources in one’sThe desire to control the resources in one’s
environment.environment.
• People with a high need for power can bePeople with a high need for power can be
successful managers if three conditions aresuccessful managers if three conditions are
met:met:
– They must seek power for the betterment of theThey must seek power for the betterment of the
organization rather than for their own interests.organization rather than for their own interests.

28. The Need for PowerThe Need for Power
• Three Conditions (continued)Three Conditions (continued)
– They must have a fairly low need for affiliationThey must have a fairly low need for affiliation
(fulfilling a personal need for power may well(fulfilling a personal need for power may well
alienate others in the workplace).alienate others in the workplace).
– They need plenty of self-control to curb theirThey need plenty of self-control to curb their
desire for power when it threatens to interferedesire for power when it threatens to interfere
with effective organizational or interpersonalwith effective organizational or interpersonal
relationships.relationships.

29. Process Theories of MotivationProcess Theories of Motivation
The process theories of motivation focus on
how motivated behavior occurs. They explain
how people go about satisfying their needs.

30. Process vs. Need-Based Theories ofProcess vs. Need-Based Theories of
MotivationMotivation
Need-Based
Theories
Process-Based
Theories
Reflect a content
perspective
Try to list specific
things that motivate
behavior
Focus on how
motivated behavior
occurs
Explain how people
go about satisfying
their needs

31. The Equity Theory of MotivationThe Equity Theory of Motivation
• Equity TheoryEquity Theory
– Based on the relatively simple premise thatBased on the relatively simple premise that
people in organizations want to be treatedpeople in organizations want to be treated
fairly.fairly.
• EquityEquity
– The belief that we are being treated fairly inThe belief that we are being treated fairly in
relation to others.relation to others.
• InequityInequity
– The belief that we are being treated unfairly inThe belief that we are being treated unfairly in
relation to others.relation to others.

32. Forming Equity PerceptionsForming Equity Perceptions
People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of
their treatment through a four-step process
A person
evaluates how
he or she is
being treated
by the firm.
A person
evaluates how
he or she is
being treated
by the firm.
The person
forms a
perception of
how a
“comparison
other” is
being treated.
The person
forms a
perception of
how a
“comparison
other” is
being treated.
The person
compares his
or her own
circumstances
with those of
the comparison
other.
The person
compares his
or her own
circumstances
with those of
the comparison
other.
On the strength
of this feeling,
the person may
choose to
pursue one or
more
alternatives.
On the strength
of this feeling,
the person may
choose to
pursue one or
more
alternatives.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

33. The Equity Comparison ProcessThe Equity Comparison Process
Equity theory describes the equity comparison
process in terms of an input-to-outcome ratio
Outcome (self)
Input (self)
Outcome (self)
Input (self)
Outcome (other)
Input (other)
Outcome (other)
Input (other)
Compared To

34. Responses to Equity and InequityResponses to Equity and Inequity
Comparison of Self with Others
InequityInequity EquityEquity
Motivation to reduce inequity
1. Change inputs
2. Change outcomes
3. Alter perceptions of self
4. Alter perceptions of others
5. Change comparisons
6. Leave situation
Motivation to maintain current
situation

35. Evaluations and ImplicationsEvaluations and Implications
• Equity theory offers managers threeEquity theory offers managers three
messages:messages:
– First, everyone in the organization needs toFirst, everyone in the organization needs to
understand the basis for rewards.understand the basis for rewards.
• For example, if people are to be rewarded more forFor example, if people are to be rewarded more for
high-quality work than for quantity of work, thathigh-quality work than for quantity of work, that
fact needs to be clearly communicated tofact needs to be clearly communicated to
employees.employees.

36. Evaluations and ImplicationsEvaluations and Implications
• Messages offered by equity theoryMessages offered by equity theory
(continued)(continued)
– Second, people tend to take a multifaceted viewSecond, people tend to take a multifaceted view
of their rewards; they perceive and experience aof their rewards; they perceive and experience a
variety of rewards, some tangible and othersvariety of rewards, some tangible and others
intangible.intangible.
– Finally, people base their actions on theirFinally, people base their actions on their
perceptions of reality.perceptions of reality.

37. The Expectancy Theory of MotivationThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
– Suggests that people are motivated by howSuggests that people are motivated by how
much they want something and the likelihoodmuch they want something and the likelihood
they perceive of getting it.they perceive of getting it.
– Expectancy theory is a more encompassingExpectancy theory is a more encompassing
model of motivation than equity theory.model of motivation than equity theory.

38. The Basic Expectancy ModelThe Basic Expectancy Model
• Effort-to-Performance ExpectancyEffort-to-Performance Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability thatA person’s perception of the probability that
effort will lead to performance.effort will lead to performance.
• Performance-to-Outcome ExpectancyPerformance-to-Outcome Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability thatA person’s perception of the probability that
performance will lead to certain outcomes.performance will lead to certain outcomes.

39. The Basic Expectancy ModelThe Basic Expectancy Model
• ValenceValence
– The degree of attractiveness or unattractivenessThe degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness
of a particular outcome.of a particular outcome.
– An outcome is anything that results fromAn outcome is anything that results from
performing a particular behavior.performing a particular behavior.

40. The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model
• The Porter-Lawler model suggests that aThe Porter-Lawler model suggests that a
high performance level, if followed byhigh performance level, if followed by
equitable rewards, may lead to increasedequitable rewards, may lead to increased
satisfaction.satisfaction.

41. Guidelines Offered by Expectancy TheoryGuidelines Offered by Expectancy Theory
• Determine the primary outcome eachDetermine the primary outcome each
employee wants.employee wants.
• Decide what levels and kinds of performanceDecide what levels and kinds of performance
are needed to meet organizational goals.are needed to meet organizational goals.
• Make sure the desired levels of performanceMake sure the desired levels of performance
are possible.are possible.

42. Guidelines Offered by Expectancy TheoryGuidelines Offered by Expectancy Theory
• Link desired outcomes and desiredLink desired outcomes and desired
performance.performance.
• Analyze the situation for conflictingAnalyze the situation for conflicting
expectations.expectations.
• Make sure the rewards are large enough.Make sure the rewards are large enough.
• Make sure the overall system is equitableMake sure the overall system is equitable
for everyone.for everyone.

43. Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins,
Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory
• The theory that specific and difficult goalsThe theory that specific and difficult goals
lead to higher performance.lead to higher performance.
– Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and howGoals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended.much effort will need to be expended.
• Specific goals increase performance.Specific goals increase performance.
• Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performanceDifficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance
than do easy goals.than do easy goals.
• Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.
– Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output thanSpecific hard goals produce a higher level of output than
does the generalized goal of “do your best.”does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
• The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.

44. Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins,
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
• Goals:Goals:
– Direct attentionDirect attention
– Regulate effortRegulate effort
– Increase persistenceIncrease persistence
– Encourage the development of strategies andEncourage the development of strategies and
action plansaction plans

45. Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins,
Goals Should Be SMARTGoals Should Be SMART
• For goals to be effective, they should beFor goals to be effective, they should be
SMART:SMART:
– SpecificSpecific
– MeasurableMeasurable
– AttainableAttainable
– Results-orientedResults-oriented
– Time-boundTime-bound

46. Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins,
Exhibit 4-7 Locke’s Model ofExhibit 4-7 Locke’s Model of
Goal SettingGoal Setting
Regulating effort
Increasing persistence
Encouraging the development
of strategies and action plans
Task
performance
Directing attention
Goals
motivate
by . . .
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A.
Locke.

47. Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins,
Contingency Factors inContingency Factors in
Goal SettingGoal Setting
• Self-efficacySelf-efficacy
– An individual’s belief that he or she is capableAn individual’s belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task.of performing a task.