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Work based project KNE520_John Ghaly visual audio presentation
- 1. Work Based Project – KNE520 Assignment 4 – Digital – Audio Visual presentation Centre for Pavement Engineering Education CPEE University of Tasmania Bachelor of Engineering (Professional Honours Road Engineering & construction – N4R)
- 2. Student Name : John Ghaly Student ID - 414784 Unit Chair: Kieran Sharp Work Place Mentor: Paul Constance CPEE – High Education Officer : Mignon Goswell
- 3. The use of recycling and stabilisation in heavy duty flexible pavement rehabilitation.
- 4. What is Pavement recycling and stabilisation? Recycling of pavement materials is defined as the reuse of existing materials in new construction, with or without changing the characteristics of the material.
- 5. Why it is more attractive than conventional treatment when it comes to flexible pavement rehab? Economic benefits - Not only reduce the disposal cost of reclaimed asphalt, but reduce the demand for scare natural sources. Environmental benefits - Society has decided that the "use-and-throw-away" culture is not the right path to follow
- 6. The current techniques for pavement recycling and stabilisation • An overview of binder types that can be used in cold and hot processes, or in situ and off-site is given in the table below:
- 7. Cold-in-place Recycling with cement (CRC) Cold in-place recycling with cement is particularly useful when the pavement to be rehabilitated exhibits severe deterioration, with high deflections that need special attention.
- 8. Foamed bitumen is produced on the spot by a device integrated into the mixing machine. The process consists of injecting, in an expansion chamber, a small quantity of water (about 2 to 3 %) into hot bitumen at a temperature of about 170 °C Foamed bitumen stabilisation (FBS)
- 9. The Pros and Cons between both approaches Foamed Bitumen Stabilisation Cold –In-Place Recycling with cement Advantage Disadvantage Advantage Disadvantage Significant shelf life after production Cost, Bitumen is relatively expensive Cost, relative to bitumen, cement is cheaper Increase rigidity in flexible pavement Rapid construction in multiple layers and Early trafficability due to ambient production temperature. The recovery of representative samples of the existing pavement material during the FBB mixture design phase can present a significant challenge. Ease of application , cement can always be spread by hand if required in the absence of bulk spreader or slurry unit Less working time and require longer curing and protection procedures during early trafficking. High stiffness providing an efficient contribution to structural capacity. Where the moisture content of the material in the existing pavement is close to OMC, saturation often occurs when emulsion is added. Significant improvement of compressive strength and durability Shrinkage cracking is unavoidable Moisture resistance resulting from the bound nature of the material. FBB workability could be sensitive to the production and field moisture content. Due to
- 10. Case studies • Whitsunday Coastal airport pavement rehabilitation • Oakey – Pittsworth Flood-damaged road rehabilitation
- 11. Research Methodology – Online Survey • The survey has been developed and created through Survey monkey website • The survey comprised 10 questions (survey questions in appendix A), 1 qualitative question as open comments and 9 quantitative question between multiple choice and drop-down style to enable multiple selections for some questions. • 26 complete responses have been received for the survey. The average completion time is 06:00 minutes, with 100% completion rate of all the questions.
- 12. Analyses of the result
- 15. Survey outcomes and highlights
- 16. There was large scale use of lime to treat expansive black soil subgrades at Tullamarine airport and at Amberley Defence Airfield west of Brisbane. The first use of insitu foam stabilization on Australian airports was to widen taxiway flanks in the late 60’s at Sydney airport to prepare for the first Jumbo Jets. This was when foamed bitumen was first introduced to Australia. In 2015 a spray-sealed gravel runway at Barymunja in WA was rehabilitated by stabilizing in situ using foamed bitumen.
- 17. Research Conclusion • Efforts should be made to stimulate the reuse of pavement materials according to the ladder-concept. • A move towards performance guarantees for pavement materials • Whole of life cycle cost analysis
- 18. References • Apeagyei, A.K., and B.K. Diefenderfer, B.K., (2013), ‘Evaluation of cold in-place and cold central plant recycling methods using laboratory testing and field-cored specimen’, Civ. Eng. 25 (11), pp. 1712-1720. • American Concrete Pavement Association. (ACPA). (2009). ‘Recycling concrete pavements’ • http://wikipave.org/index.php?title=Recycling_Concrete_(June 24, 2019). • Austroads, 2007, AG: PT/T053 Determination of Permanent Deformation and Resilient Modulus Characteristics of Unbound Granular Materials Under Drained Conditions. • Bozyurt, O., Tinjum, J.M., Son, Y.H., Edil, T.B., and Benson, C. H. (2012). “Resilient Modulus of Recycled Asphalt Pavement and Recycled Concrete Aggregate.” Proc., GeoCongress 2012, Oakland, CA, 3901-3910. • Chu, J, & Rujikiatkamjorn, C 2005, Ground Improvement: Case Histories, Elsevier Science & Technology, Oxford. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. <<http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utas/detail.action?docID=270066>>. • Coban, H.S., Cetin, B., Ceylan, H., Edil, T.B., Nazarian, S., 2019 ‘Evaluation of Field and Laboratory Stiffness of Recycled Materials Used in Pavement Base Layers’ • Di Mascio, P., Loprencipe, G. & Moretti, L. 2019, ‘Technical and Economic Criteria to Select Pavement Surfaces of Port Handling Plants’, Coatings (2079-6412), vol. 9, no. 2, p. 126, viewed 17 March 2020, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aps&AN=134937722&site=eds-live • Jofré, C. 2001, ‘The technique of pavement recycling with cement’. Proceedings, First International Symposium on Subgrade Stabilisation and In Situ Pavement Recycling using Cement, IECA – AEC – ATC, Salamanca (Spain). • Logitharan, L.R., Somasundaraswaran, K & Ramanujam, J.M., 2015, ‘Rehabilitation Works in Queensland Using Foamed Bituminous Stabilisation’, International Journal of GEOMATE, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 1308–1315, viewed 18 March 2020, <http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.utas.edu.au/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aps&AN=100854851&site=eds- live>. • Hashemian, L., Kavussi, A., & Aboalmaali, H.H., 2014, ‘Application of foam bitumen in cold recycling and hydrated lime in airport pavement strengthening’, Case Studies in Construction Materials, no. C, p. 164, viewed 9 March 2020, http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.utas.edu.au/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsdoj&AN=edsdoj.7ccaaa981a6944d6b9d947e87e8fa2d7&site=eds-live • Hasan, M., Islam, R., Tareffder, R.A., 2018, ‘Characterization of subgrade soil mixed with recycled asphalt pavement’, Journal of traffic and transportation engineering, Vol 5, PP 207-214 • Hiways Ltd (2014), Technologies: Foamed Bitumen Recycling: Pioneering stabilisation technology in Australiasia and South Pacific. Available from: <http://www.hiways.com.au/stabilization/techn ologies/foam-bitumen-recycling> [Accessed 6 Jun. 2014]. • Meletiou, M. & Knapton, J. 1996, ‘UNCTAD Monographs on Port Management - A series of monographs prepared for UNCTAD in collaboration with the international association of Ports and 39
- 19. • Harbours (IAPH) - Monograph No. 5 Container Terminal pavement management’, united nation publication UNCTAD/SHIP/494 • Miller, G.A. and Azad, S., 2000. ‘Influence of soil type on stabilization with cement kiln dust’. Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 14 (2), 89–97, Elsevier Science Ltd. • Wardle, L.J. and Rodway, B. 1998, ‘Layered elastic design of heavy-duty and industrial pavement’, AAPA Pavement industry conference, Surface Paradise, Australia. • White, G, 2019, ‘Zero-wast runway rehabilitation a Whitsunday Coast Airport’, 98th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, District of Columbia, USA, 13-17 January. • White, G., Fairweather, H. and Jamshidi, A. (2018) ‘Sustainable runway pavement rehabilitation: A case study of an Australian airport’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 204, pp. 380–389. • White, G 2018, ‘Foamed bitumen base for expedient airport pavement upgrade: a case • study on Whitsunday Coast Airport’, GeoMEast Conference, Cairo, Egypt, 24-28 • November, pp. 94-111. Permanent international association of Road Congress (PIARC), 2003, Pavement recycling guidelines, PIARC Committee c7/8, Viewed online on 15th March 2020, << <<https://www.piarc.org/en/search.htm?q=pavement+recycling+2003+Comit%C3%A9+Technique+AIPCR+C7%2F8+%E2%80%93+ %22Chauss%C3%A9es+Routi%C3%A8res%E2%80%9D+PIARC+Committee+C7%2F8+%E2%80%93+%22Road+Pavements%22>> • Permanent international association of Road Congress (PIARC), 2001, Recycling of existing flexible pavement, PIARC technical Committee 8 - flexible roads, PIARC Ref. : 08.07.BEN, viewed online on 28th February 2020 << https://www.piarc.org/en/order- library/4108-en Recycling%20of%20Existing%20Flexible%20Pavements>> • Wirtgen cold recycling technology manual (2012), viewed online on 15th April 2020, << https://media.wirtgengroup.com/media/02_wirtgen/infomaterial_1/kaltrecycler/kaltrecycling_technologie/kaltrecycling_handbuc h/Cold_recycling_Manual_EN.pdf>> • Youndale, G.P., Vos, R.M., Tooma, G. and Richard, C.J., 2002, ‘The Impact of Risk on Whole of life costing’, ARRB Transport research conference, 21st, 2003, Cairns, Queensland, Australia • Valentin, J., Cizkova, Z., Suda, F.B., Mollenhauer, K., Simnofske, D. (2016), ‘Stiffness characterization of cold recycled mixtures’, 6th transport research arena (TRA), pp. 758-767.
- 20. Thank You • Please forward any questions to john.ghaly82@gmail.com • Or please feel free to directly contact the unit chair via email kierans@netspace.net.au • Alternatively please contact CPEE-HEO heo@pavementeducation.edu.au
Editor's Notes
- This is a visual audio presentation for my research project as part of my bachelor degree of engineering from university of Tasmania in collaboration with the centre of pavement engineering education
- I would like to thanks Kieran sharp - the unit chair, Paul Constance – my work place mentor and Megan Goswell High education officer from cpee for their positive support and feedback throughout the course.
- The research topic is
- Many recycling techniques have been developed throughout the past 50 years. Recycling techniques for asphalt fall into two basic categories: hot and cold recycling, which are further subdivided into off-site treatment and in-situ treatment. This presentation will shed the light on cold-in-place recycling of pavements with cement. And foamed bitumen stabilisation. Pavement Recycling Recycling of pavements is a technique whereby an existing degraded pavement is modified and transformed into a homogeneous structure that can support the traffic requirements. More specifically, it involves reusing the materials from the existing pavement for the construction of a new layer, including: - Pulverisation of the existing pavement up to a certain depth, and - Addition of a binder (cement and/or bituminous emulsion), water (for hydration, mixing and compaction), Aggregates if necessary (for grading correction or other purposes) and admixtures. Pavement Stabilisation
- Recycling has an important part to play in achieving sustainable development, which is often defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In order to achieve this objective, it is necessary to conserve aggregates as far as possible, while ensuring that there is an adequate supply to meet the needs of society. Also, it is necessary to minimize the production of waste and to encourage the efficient use of materials including, where appropriate, recycling. The major benefits from (direct or indirect) recycling and stabilisation of existing pavements are twofold. Firstly, it is economically attractive to use the materials already available. Secondly, more extensive use of recycled pavement materials is required for environmental reasons. Not only reduce the disposal cost of reclaimed asphalt, but reduce the demand for scarce natural sources. This is important because landfill capacity is becoming scarce and landfill costs are predicted to rise. Society has decided that the "use-and-throw-away" culture is not the right path to follow. The situation where the welfare of one generation may adversely affect future generations is not acceptable any more. Therefore, there are moral obligations to minimise further pollution of the environment.
- A variety of binders can be used in the recycling of unbound materials into a new bound base. In different States, the use of bituminous emulsion, cement, granulated slag, lime, steel slag, and a mix of foamed bitumen and lime have been reported. Slow-setting binders are preferred in order to minimize thermal cracking and to ensure sufficient time for compacting and trimming.
- Cold in-situ recycling with cement is particularly useful when the pavement to be rehabilitated exhibits severe deterioration, with high deflections that need special attention. It is important to emphasise that recycling with cement is a total rehabilitation technique. This means that the design of the recycled pavement does not depend on the deflections of the existing pavement. In place recycling with cement presents many advantages for the rehabilitation of fatigued pavements needing a significant increase in the bearing capacity. With very plastic materials, such as certain granular sub-bases polluted with clays, a combined treatment with lime and cement can be convenient. Each binder has its role: - Lime flocculates fine particles, with a quick reaction of ionic exchange. Moisture content is reduced at the same time; Cement quickly increases mechanical strength. Recycling can be summarised as follows: - Preparing the surface (sweeping to eliminate any potentially damaging material such as clay or organic matter), - If necessary, correcting the grading by crushing, screening or adding new materials, - Spreading the cement, - Pulverising the pavement to the required depth, - Adding water, - Mixing in the cement, - Forming joints (pre-cracking), - Initial compaction, - Trimming, - Final compaction, - Laying the curing and protection seal, - Laying the asphalt surfacing. Depending on the equipment used, some of these operations may be carried out simultaneously, and the sequence of operations can differ from the above-mentioned one. The most widely used method is to add the binder mechanically by one of the two machines that are currently available: - Bulk spreaders which distribute the material as a powder – see figures - Machines which mix cement and water to produce a slurry, which is then pumped into the Advantage: - Reuse of the aged, polluted or inadequate materials of the existing pavement, - Homogenisation of the pavement, both in strength and in geometry, Reduction in waste and extraction of aggregates from quarries or pits, with the associated environmental advantages, Disadvantage Shrinkage of the cement bound material may lead to reflective cracking in the surface.
- Foaming is produced by injection of a controlled quantity of cold water (usually, about 2 to 3% in weight) and air in the hot bitumen. The bitumen viscosity is so substantially decreased, allowing it to be mixed with the material from the milled pavement. Compared to the traditional techniques of rehabilitation by overlay, foamed bitumen stabilisation (FBS) presents a set of advantages. It allows: 1- To save new materials (aggregates, bitumen) by the re-use of whole or part of the materials in place, thus a cost savings to the owners, 2- To reduce the energy expenditure without the need for drying, hauling, crushing, etc of the materials, if one consider the whole cycle of producing aggregate, 3- To reduce the needs for transport of materials for the works, which results in less damage of the roads adjacent to the work site and saves fuel, tires and equipment, 4- To limit the ancillary works (adjustment of levels, raising of kerbs, of accesses…), 5- To return traffic shortly to the new section after rolling. The disadvantage 1-The level of mechanical performances required. The characteristics of modulus and resistance to fatigue are lower than those that can be obtained with hot bituminous mixes . 2- In-place recycling necessitates the use of a substantial amount of plant and equipment unique to such works. In order to achieve the economies of scale offered by this process, it is desirable that each job has a minimum area or can be combined with similar works nearby. Although each case has to be analysed separately, 3,000 m2 is suggested as a minimum area of work
- Foamed bitumen stabilisation (FBS) is often compared to cold in place recycling with cement (CRC). However, compared to CRC, the risk of FBS cracking, which will reflect through the bituminous surfacing, is almost completely mitigated. FBS also allows greater layer thicknesses and multiple layers of FBB adhere to each other more reliably that CRC layers. It is clear that the biggest advantage in foamed bitumen stabilisation is its flexibility and its ability to create a viscos-elastic type of final product with the improved shear property; However, on the other side of the coin, it still relies on relatively empirical pavement mix design and has rutting and instability distresses issues. When it comes to cement binder, the cost is far better than bitumen application but most importantly the significant improvement of pavement compressive strength and stiffness can not be ignored; However, its disadvantage comes in the developed shrinkage cracking distress plus the increased rigidity of the Cementous layer which makes it more prone to tensile stress. Figure shows the full list of advantages and disadvantages for each technique.
- This paper has also has shed the light on two case studies that presents successful stories for the application of recycling and stabilisation in pavement rehab. Case 1 is for Whitsunday coastal airport pavement rehabilitation. Whitsunday coastal airport (WCA) is located in the Whitsunday Coast region of tropical north Queensland. It is the primary airport for the Airlie Beach area, which is a major Queensland tourist destination as the main gateway to the Whitsunday Islands and the Great Barrier Reef. The airport is lit and capable of accommodating 24-hour flight operations with one main runway (2,075 m by 45 m), a parking apron capable of accommodating up to four commercial aircraft simultaneously, as well as a connecting taxiway. Other infrastructure includes general aviation areas and a passenger terminal building. In 2012 the runway at WCA was in poor condition, exhibiting significant roughness and cracking as a result of continuous overloading and inundation associated with flood events in 2010 and 2012. A significant repair was affected in late 2012 and a major pavement rehabilitation was planned for the future. That major rehabilitation was complete over three months in mid 2017 and is the subject of this case study. Operations at the airport required the upgrade to be affected between 1800 and 0600 nightly, with the pavements reinstated to a serviceable condition each morning. In response to a desire to recycle and reuse materials wherever possible, as well as providing a cost-effective upgrade solution and to increase the strength and moisture resistance of the pavement, the following design was adopted: • Stabilisation of the upper 250 mm of the existing pavement, comprising a 50 mm thick asphalt surface on 300 mm of natural gravel, with foamed bitumen to create FBB. • 100 mm asphalt surfacing. • Grooving, line marking, airfield lighting modifications, flank regrading and other ancillary works. 3% bitumen was adopted for the FBB design It is worth noting that the works were delivered via a design and construct procurement model and both the FBB and the asphalt specifications were performance-based . This allowed the experience and expertise of the contractor to be incorporated during the finalisation of the design solution, as well as the mixture design and production of the FB Base. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Case 2 is Oakey pittsworth flood damaged road rehabilitation The project is on Oakey-Pittsworth two-lane undivided highway which is located 40 km from Toowoomba. A 2.6 km section of the highway has been identified for rehabilitation works which was severely affected by flood in 2011 and 2013. Since its location subject to floods, a proper treatment is required to stand against future flood/rain events. The initial design considered the use of existing base and sub-base pavement material or replacing it with suitable material. During the initial stage the moisture condition of existing pavement was considered critically when proposing mix design for foamed bitumen. As a result, it proposed to replace unsuitable material (250mm top) with imported Type 2.5 material as per Main Roads Technical Specification. Further lime stabilising (300mm) was proposed to improve the strength of subgrade to eliminate the undesirable characteristics of the expansive soil. Lime demand test was conducted, and it was proposed to use 9% by mass that is 40kg/m2 hydrated lime to stabilise the subgrade. The optimum bitumen content was also identified through MATTA testing done in laboratory. As a result, the initial proposed FBS layer design was to use 3% bitumen and 2% General Blend cement (GB) by mass as primary and secondary stabilising agents respectively. This has been changed later down the track to use lime instead of cement because 1- it will act as anti-stripping agent 2-Stiffen the bitumen binder 3- Will defiantly increase working time if rework shall be needed.
- Besides to the research review an online survey has been adopted as the main research methodology. The survey has been developed and created through Survey monkey website and has been published to the following groups: • The Online Survey was officially posted on the Institute of Public Works Engineering Australasia (IPWEA) Community Forum, Ask Your Mates on 16th April 2020. • Link to the survey has been sent out via Ports Australia engineering working group forum (Microsoft teams), followed by a courtesy email to seek response from the members of the group. • The survey has been published on ‘Roads Australia’ newsletters to the subscribed members • The survey has been sent internally to my work colleagues, consultants and contractors whom my organisation (Flinders Ports Holdings) has been engaging with. • The survey has been sent to the Australian Airport Association (AAA) and has been forwarded to their internal working groups The survey comprised 10 questions, 1 qualitative question as open comments and 9 quantitative question between multiple choice and drop-down style to enable multiple selections for some questions. The survey has achieved an excellent response rate and has provided a valuable insight into the research outcome. 26 complete responses have been received for the survey. The average completion time is 06:00 minutes, with 100% completion rate of all the questions.
- Analyses of the responses as follow: 44% of the responses came from State road authorities across the country. Approx. 77% of the responses indicated roads as the targeted infrastructure asset for heavy duty pavement rehabilitation. Approx. 85% of the responses came favouring the stabilisation as the best rehabilitation technique, followed by asphalt overlay with 77% rating, thirdly came cold in situ recycling with 31%.
- Cement and foamed bitumen came as the top 2 used binder material for the rehabilitation treatment with 58% for cement and 50% for foamed bitumen, followed by 42% for lime treatment. 57% of responses referred to heavily trafficked major or arterial local government owned roads where the stabilisation treatment applied, followed by 23% for the state highways, then 7% for ports hardstands. Cost wise, 23% of the responses indicated that the cost of treatment exceeds $60 per square metre, while approx. 35% indicated that it falls between $30 to $50
- From serviceability perspective, 61% of the responses expected that presumably after 5 year of the treatment, there will be still 60 to 70% remaining life of the pavement; while 23% indicated that there could be 80 to 90 % of the pavement life left after 5 years of the rehab. From project management and construction perspective, 88% of the responses indicated that the selected treatment was completed within the allocated project timeframe and budget. Performance perspective, 25 out of 26 feedback came confirming that the selected treatment has met the economical and environmental objectives of the project.
- The following slide mention some of the comments that have been received with the survey responses. Things to mention are : The survey outcome was conclusive in determining that the various pavement recycling and stabilisation techniques have the potential to be the most favourable treatment techniques when it comes to flexible pavement rehabilitation or reconstruction. It also worth to highlight the comments received from the survey, such as a feedback from NSW state road authority has indicated that the stabilisation (as well as modification) treatment of pavement is typical treatment adopted for the rehabilitation of the state highway in western NSW. These treatments can be highly effective, although, as with most treatments, they are dependent upon adopting the correct binder type and spread rate as well as implementing good construction practices. Another comment came from NSW indicating that sometimes the problem lies deeper down in the subgrade.
- Other interesting feedback came with a conservative view to the recycling and stabilisation techniques when it comes to pavement rehab stating that reclaimed pavement on the main highway has failed in the past when the adjacent section of full pavement depth has not. It can be a good option for reduced cost and waste if the appropriate Geo-Tech measures are carried out and incorporated into the new pavement design. The collaborative approach from neighbouring local government when it comes to applying a stabilisation and recycling treatment was remarkable and highly iterated. It was also noted upon discussion with Gregory white director of Airport pavement research program in University of sunshine coast, that, Foamed bitumen stabilisation treatment is considered the best technique for rehabilitating existing pavement, especially in Airports industry due to: firstly, its rapid construction timeframe as it can occur overnight and the runway/ taxiway can be back to operate the following day. Secondly, Foamed bitumen agglomerates the fine aggregate particles which lead to a significant reduction in moisture susceptibility.
- Pavement Recycling and stabilisation has an important role to play in achieving sustainable development, which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Resources are finite and it is necessary to conserve aggregates as far as possible by minimizing the production of waste and encouraging recycling and reuse. Until the optimum situation of justifying the practice from economical and environmental consideration has been achieved, decision makers and road authorities have to encourage the recycling of existing pavement by following these measures : 1- Promotion of the recycling ethos; 2- Clients should share the risk with contractors to stimulate more innovation in recycling; 3- The road authorities should emphasize recycling in specifications and introduce controls for recyclable materials; 4- Consider introducing a bonus for reuse; 5- Consider supporting capital investment in recycling plants to make them capable of handling high percentages of reclaimed asphalt; 6- Consider deep lift stabilisation and efficient mixing and compaction. Efforts should be made to stimulate the reuse of pavement materials according to the ladder-concept. whereby the highest quality of reuse is preferred. When reconstruction becomes necessary, the reclaimed materials should be reused in the same layers with identical properties to those in the original pavement structure. For example, the reclaimed asphalt from surfacing should be recycled into asphalt materials of the same quality as the original. when all possible applications have been explored, a limited quantity of reclaimed pavement material may be dumped. The dumping option is the least environmentally acceptable option and should be avoided whenever possible. A move towards performance guarantees for pavement materials - Although research into performance specifications is currently in progress, recipe specifications are still widely used. One of the main ways of increasing reuse and recycling within the construction industry is to include recycled and reused materials in national materials standards and specifications. Inclusion in specifications can be encouraged by promoting a performance-based approach. The use of life-cycle cost analysis should also be encouraged in order to also capture agency and user costs associated with rehabilitation and preventive maintenance activities over the analysis period. This type of analysis may make recycling and stabilisation more cost competitive
- Thank you for giving me this opportunity to investigate such interesting topic and undertaking a survey that captured responses from nation wide in regards to the current view of recycling and stabilisation. Please direct any questions to the highlighted contact.