COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME & COST ANALYSIS

A PROJECT REPORT ON
COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME
&
COST ANALYSIS
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
B.TECH
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
BY
SAIKH MOHAMMAD NAYAR
REG. NO-142810120103 OF 2014-2015
ROLL NO-28101314045
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
MR. SOMDEB MONDAL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GARGI MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BALARAMPUR ; BARUIPUR
KOLKATA-700144
MAY, 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 01
1.1. GENERAL 01
1.2. GROUND IMPROVEMENT & NECESSITY 02
1.3. METHOD OF SOIL STABILIZATION
1.3.1. STABILIZATION WITHOUT ADDITIVES
1.3.1.1. MECHANICAL STABILIZATION
1.3.1.2. STABILIZATION BY DRAINAGE
1.3.1.3. GROUND REINFORCEMENT
1.3.2. SOIL STABILIZATION WITH ADDITIVES
03
03
03
03
04
04
1.4. SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY 04
1.5. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 05
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 06
2.1. GENERAL 06
2.2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 07
CHAPTER 3: LIME STABILIZATION 19
3.1. WHAT IS STABILIZATION ?
3.2. LIME STABILIZATION OF SOILS
3.3. LIME MODIFICATION & SOIL DRYING
3.4. CHEMISTRY OF LIME TREATMENT
3.4.1. DRYING
3.4.2. MODIFICATION
3.5. WHAT IS LIME ?
3.6. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF LIME APPLICATION
19
19
20
21
21
21
22
22

3.6.1. DRY HYDRATED LIME
3.6.2. DRY QUICK LIME
3.6.3. SLURRY LIME
22
22
23
CHAPTER 4: EXPERIMENTAL WORK 24
4.1. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT BY OVEN DRYING 24
4.2. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY DENSITY
BOTTLE
25
4.3. DETERMINATION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVING
& HYDROMETER
25
4.4. DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT & PLASTIC LIMIT 26
4.5. DETERMINATION OF COMPACTION PROPERTIES 28
4.6. DETERMINATION OF UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 28
4.7. DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD 29
CHAPTER 5: TABULATION FORM OF TESTED RESULTS 31
5.1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY 31
5.2. SIEVE ANALYSIS
5.3. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
5.4. LIQUID LIMIT & PLASTIC LIMIT
5.5. OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT & MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY
5.6. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
32
33
35
36
37
CHAPTER 6: EFFECT : SOIL IMPROVEMENT 40
6.1. EFFECT OF LIME ON PLASTICITY INDEX 40
6.2. EFFECT OF LIME ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR
6.3. EFFECT OF LIME ON E LOG P CURVE
6.4. EFFECT OF LIME ON COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS
6.5. EFFECT OF LIME ON STRENGTH BEHAVIOUR
6.6. MEDIUM TERM EFFECT
41
41
42
42
42
CHAPTER 7: NON HIGHWAY APPLICATIONS 44
7.1. GENERAL 44
7.2. AIRPORTS 44
7.3. COMMERCIAL AREA 45

7.4. HOUSING
7.4.1. SUBDIVISION STREETS
7.4.2. INDIVIDUAL HOME SITES
45
45
45
7.5. EMBANKMENT STABILIZATION 46
CHAPTER 8: VOLUME & COST ANALYSIS 49
8.1. GENERAL 49
8.2. COST COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TRAFFIC 50
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS 52
9.1. GENERAL
9.2. NUMEROUS ADVANTAGES IN BROAD RANGE APPLICATION
9.3. ECONOMIC BENEFITS
52
52
53
REFERENCES 54

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
NO.
FIGURE NAME
PAGE
NO.
1.1 LEANING TOWER OF PISA 03
3.1 EFFECT OF LIMING ON THE CONSISTENCY OF SOIL. 21
4.1 THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED OVEN. 25
4.2
SET OF IS SIEVES WITH SIEVE-SHAKER &
HYDROMETER.
26
4.3 CONSISTENCY LIMIT. 27
4.4 MOISTURE CONTENT DRY DENSITY RELATIONSHIP 28
4.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST. 29
5.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE. 34
5.2
LOAD-PENETRATION CURVE OF CBR TEST FOR
NORMAL SOIL.
37
5.3
LOAD-PENETRATION CURVE OF CBR TEST FOR 3%
LIME MIXED SOIL.
38
5.4
LIME MIXED SOIL.
38
5.5
LIME MIXED SOIL.
39
5.6
LIME MIXED SOIL.
39
6.1 EFFECT OF LIME ON LL, PL AND PI. 40
6.2 EFFECT OF LIME ON E-LOG P CURVES. 41
6.3
EFFECT OF LIME ON COMPACTION
CHARACTERISTICS.
42
6.4
EFFECT OF LIME ON STRESS-STRAIN
BEHAVIOUR.
42
7.1 LIME STABILIZATION PROJECT AT AN AIRPORT. 45
7.2
COMPACTING LIME STABILIZED SOIL FOR BASE OF
STREET IN HOUSING SUBDIVISION.
46
7.3
PRELIMINARY MIXING OF LIME AND EMBANKMENT
SOILS IN MIXING AREA.
47
7.4
RETURNING TREATED SOILS FROM MIXING AREA TO
EMBANKMENT
48

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TABLE NAME PAGE NO.
5.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 31
5.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS 32
5.3 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS 33
5.4 LIQUID LIMIT & PLASTIC LIMIT 35
5.5
OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT & MAXIMUM DRY
DENSITY
36
5.6 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO VALUE 37
8.1 VOLUME AND COST ANALYSIS OF PAVEMENT 50

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this project entitled
“COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME &
COST ANALYSIS” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the Degree of B.Tech in Civil Engineering, Gargi Memorial Institute Of
Technology, is an authentic record of my own work carried out under the
supervision of Mr. Somdeb Mondal; Assistant Professor; Department Of Civil
Engineering; Gargi Memorial Institute Of Technology; Balarampur ; Baruipur;
Kolkata-700144
The matter embodied in this project has not been submitted for the award of any
other Degree or Diploma.
REG. NO-142810120103 OF 2014-2015
ROLL NO-28101314045

CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the project entitled “COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE
SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME & COST ANALYSIS” in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of B.Tech in Civil
Engineering, Gargi Memorial Institute Of Technology, is a Bonafied
representation of the work carried out by SAIKH MOHAMMAD NAYAR ;
Reg. No-142810120103 OF 2014-2015 ; Roll No-28101314045 under the
guidance of MR. SOMDEB MONDAL ; Assistant Professor ; Department of
Civil Engineering, Gargi Memorial Institute Of Technology Balarampur ;
Baruipur Kolkata-700144.
Mr. Indrajit Chowdhury Mr. Somdeb Mondal
H.O.D Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department Department Of Civil Engineering
Gargi Memorial Institute Of Technology Gargi Memorial Institute Of Technology

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express our sincere regards and gratitude to Mr. Somdeb Mondal
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering Department for his encouragement
whole hearted co-operation and suggestion in preparation of this project.
I am also thankful to Mr. Indrajit Chowdhury , H.O.D, Department of Civil
Engineering and Mr. Pranab Kumar Pal , Mr. Arpan Kumar Manna , Mr.
Subhayan Chaudhuri , Mr. Joy Mondal & Mr. Manas Mitra , Assistant Professor
, Department of Civil Engineering for their guidance and encouragement whole
hearted co-operation and suggestion in preparation of this project.
I am also thankful to Mr. Santu Das , Technical Assistant , Department of Civil
Engineering for his guidance in performing all the related experiment for this
project work.
REG. NO-142810120103 OF 2014-2015
ROLL NO-28101314045

ABSTRACT
Soil stabilization can be explained as the alteration of the soil properties by chemical or
physical means in order to enhance the engineering quality of the soil. The main objectives of
the soil stabilization is to increase the bearing capacity of the soil, its resistance to weathering
process and soil permeability. The long-term performance of any construction project depends
on the soundness of the underlying soils. Unstable soils can create significant problems for
pavements or structures, Therefore soil stabilization techniques are necessary to ensure the
good stability of soil so that it can successfully sustain the load of the superstructure
especially in case of soil which are highly active, also it saves a lot of time and millions of
money when compared to the method of cutting out and replacing the unstable soil. This
project report deals with the complete analysis of the improvement of soil properties and its
stabilization using lime.
KEYWORDS : Soil Stabilization, Lime, Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), Maximum Dry
Density (MDD), California Bearing Ratio (CBR).

COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME & COST ANALYSIS
[1]
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL :
Practice of urbanization and industrialization is so rampant these days. Though there is
bountiful supply of soil, the cheapest construction material , it may exhibit some uncovered
properties for intended construction purpose at .Such as construction on soft soil like clay
appears to be difficult and it causes substantial distress to the overlying structure as it
possesses low shear strength , high compressibility. The ‘shrink-swell’ behavior of clayey
soil can endanger the construction work causing excessive settlement at the site. Again soil
can be collapsible or liquefiable which are difficult to handle.
In search of the suitable site, interference with natural stability is not recommended.
Extirpation or Destruction of forest and agrarian land, natural slope results in imbalance in
wildlife, natural calamities like sudden flood (spate), land-slides etc. This is certainly
minatorious to mankind and their survival. This problem needs serious attention.
Alternative solution is to be employed. Instead of searching a new land, one can go for the
betterment for the soil properties by different means such as compaction, use of piles,
replacement of soil, soil reinforcement etc. It can also be done by incorporating different
materials such as fly ash, lime, rice husk ash, industrial wastes etc. having least or no
production value. Hence problematic soil like clayey soil must be adequately treated before
the erection of structure. Wide range of soil modification method is available. Selection of

[2]
appropriate method should be based on the type of soil and its characteristics, type of the
construction, time available, associated cost. It has been observed that industrial by-products
can cause drastic change in the soil properties in terms of strength characteristics, density,
and acidity and also serves agricultural benefits by increasing crop yield. Moreover
utilization of these products is a better solution to disposal than heaving them up on land.
It is very common that the soil at a site is not ideal from the viewpoint of Geo-Technical
engineering. An attractive approach which is generally employed to avoid many of the
settlement and stability problems associated with soft soil, is the “Soil Stabilization”. The
soil improvement with different stabilizer is one of the efficient way to enhance the geo-
technical properties of virgin soil . In this method, the fine grain soil is mixed with the
optimum proportion of stabilizers, by the principle of mechanical compaction, in order to
increase the durability and strength. Recently, a number of agro-industrial waste materials
i.e Lime, Fly ash, sludge ash, bottom ash, rice husk ash etc have been very popular for use
as soil stabilizer to improve soil characteristics, since they have a good pozzolanic activity
with soil particles. In addition, that uses of such waste materials benefits the environment
from the perspective of recycling sustainability.
Also , the utilization of RHA in sub grade soil as a soil stabilizer with conventional additive
materials i.e Lime or Cement has been research extensively. However, the number of
researchers on the usage of it as a soil stabilizer without using any conventional additives
for the stabilization of the fine grain soil is rare. So, utilization of such material for
improving the engineering properties of fine grain soil needs to be investigated. Thus , the
problem of shortage of conventional materials and also the depositional problem of these
waste may thus be solved by this unique application.
1.2 GROUND IMPROVEMENT AND ITS NECESSITY :
It is a well established fact that the load coming from the superstructure is ultimately borne
by the soil. Hence when a project encounters, soil feasibility is the first and foremost thing
to be studied. The characteristics of soil vary from one place to another. Often soil at
particular site lacks in desirable properties causing distress to the overlying structures. It
may exhibit low shear strength, higher compressibility etc. such as Sandy soil has propensity
to liquefaction whereas expansive soil absorbs lot of water posing threat to small structures,
canal- linings, pavements. Hence when an unsatisfactory condition is met, possible
alternative solution can be either of

[3]
 Abandon the site.
 Remove and replace the soil.
 Redesign the planned structure accordingly.
 Treat the soil to modify its properties or Ground Improvement.
The last method listed above is known
as Ground Improvement Technique or
Soil Stabilization. The ‘Leaning
Tower of Pisa’ is a classical example
of such geotechnical Engineering
Practice and Ground Improvement
Techniques.
FIG 1.1 LEANING TOWER OF PISA
1.3 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION :
Methods of stabilization can be broadly classified under two categories and these are as
follows:
 Stabilization without additives.
 Stabilization with additives.
1.3.1 STABILIZATION WITHOUT ADDITIVES :
1.3.1.1 MECHANICAL STABILIZATION :
This approach involves improvement of soil by compacting to denser state or by changing
the gradation of soil. This can be achieved by either of following methods
 Compaction.
 Addition or removal of soil particles.
 Blasting.
1.3.1.2 STABILIZATION BY DRAINAGE :
The strength of soil depends upon the effective stress which in turn is adversely affected by
ground water and hence excess pore water must be expelled out by using following methods

[4]
 Application of external load.
 Electro-osmosis.
 Application of thermal gradient.
1.3.1.3 GROUND REINFORCEMENT :
The following methods also help in increasing the shear strength of soil significantly.
 Stone columns and soil nailing.
 Geo synthetics.
 Grouting.
1.3.2 SOIL STABILIZATION WITH ADDITIVES :
So many additives have been employed with different type soil with varying degree of
success. A additive is satisfactory when it upgrades the quality of soil but all the
requirements cannot be met at a time. For better results more than one additive can be
introduced checking the suitability.
 Cement Stabilization.
 Lime Stabilization.
 Bitumen Stabilization.
 Salt Stabilization.
 Flyash Stabilization etc.
1.4 SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY :
Many part around the globe such as India, U.S.A, Egypt etc are facing problems in
construction work due to clayey soil. Damage to the light structures and road pavement has
been reported. Replacement of soil with suitable one and disposal of the former is costly
process and this is critical in developing country like ours where construction cost is quite
high. Moreover pavement on clayey soil requires a greater thickness of base and sub-base
course which results increases the expenditure of project. To set right this problem it
becomes mandatory to increase the strength of the soil which in-turn will help in lessening
the thickness of the pavement layers and thus project cost. Two common additives which
are widely used in stabilizing the soil are cement and lime. Lime is preferred over cement
stabilization because lime is cheaper than cement and Carbon-Di-Oxide (CO2), which
causing detrimental to the environment, is emitted during the production of cement. Lime

[5]
stabilization is requires adequate clay content and a relatively high curing temperature and
hence it is more suitable for tropical and sub-tropical countries like India.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY :
The study is focused on
 Improvement of locally available soil using some eco-friendly and cheap waste
materials.
 Evaluation of strength characteristics of virgin as well as blended soil using different
ratio of rice husk and lime.
 Determination of appropriate soil, rice husk and lime content ratio to achieve the
maximum gain in strength from the mixture.

[6]
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL :
The stabilization of soils has been recognized before the Christian era began and performed
for millennia. Many ancient cultures including the Chinese, Romans and Incas utilized
various techniques to improve soil suitability some of which were so effective that many of
the buildings and roadways they constructed still exist today and some are still in use. Jump
forward a few years to the war in Vietnam, the US military were looking for methods for
rapid stabilization of weak soils for support of its missions worldwide. Over the past 60
years they had used cement and lime and these being the most effective stabilizers for road
and airfield applications. But efforts were being made to find a stabilizer that could be used
quickly without having to carry out extensive site tests that would increase the strength of
the prevalent soft clay type local soils rapidly to support the landing and take-off of aircraft
traffic on their temporary airfields.
2.2 REVIEW OF LIERATURE :
Many researcher have done their research work on subgrade strength determination and used
various types of materials such as waste materials, crushed stone, geosynthetics etc. various
scientists had different opinion to use those materials as subgrade material.

[7]
APARNA ROY (2014)1 describes the suitability of the locally available Rice Husk
Ash (RHA) to be used in the local construction industry in a way to minimize the amount
of waste to be disposed to the environment causing environmental pollution. The common
soil stabilization techniques are becoming costly day by day due to the rise of cost of the
stabilizing agents like, cement, lime, etc. The cost of stabilization may be minimized by
replacing a good proportion of stabilizing agent using RHA. It will minimize the
environmental hazards also. Soil sample taken for the study is clay with high plasticity (CH)
which truly requires to be strengthened. The soil is stabilized with different percentages of
Rice Husk Ash and a small amount of cement.
Observations are made for the changes in the properties of the soil such as Maximum
dry density (MDD), Optimum moisture content (OMC), California bearing ratio (CBR) and
Unconfined compressive stress (UCS). The results obtained show that the increase in RHA
content increases the OMC but decreases the MDD. Also, the CBR value and UCS of soil
are considerably improved with the RHA content. From the observation of maximum
improvement in strength, 10% RHA content with 6% cement is recommended as optimum
amount for practical purposes. Observing the tremendous improvement of CBR value of
soil, the present soil stabilization technique may mostly be recommended for construction
of pavement.
S. CHAKRABORTY , S.P MUKHERJEE , S. CHAKRABARTI , B.C
CHATTOPADHYAY (APRIL 2014)2 reported that the quality of a flexible pavement
depends on the strength of its sub-grade soil. The strength of sub-grade is the major
parameters for determining the thickness of pavement. In case of the flexible pavement the
sub-grade must be uniform in terms of geotechnical properties like shear strength,
compressibility etc. Materials selected for use in the construction of sub-grade must have to
be of adequate strength and at the same time it must be economical for use. In view of the
above the present investigation has been carried out with easily available materials like lime
and rice husk ash mixed individually and also in combination with locally available clayey
soil in different proportions at optimum moisture content (OMC). Since CBR is an important
criterion in flexible pavement design, the strength improvement has been found in terms of
CBR in the present study. The laboratory test results shows marked improvement of strength
of soil with the addition of admixtures in respect of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) in
unsoaked and soaked condition.

[8]
T.K. ROY , B.C. CHATTOPADHYAY , S.K. ROY (2009)3 explained that
Procurement of conventional materials in huge quantity required for construction of
subgrade of road is becoming very difficult in many locations due to various problems. On
the other hand, due to increasing economic growth and industrialization, a huge quantity of
waste materials generated needs land for disposal and from that generally creates problems
for public health and ecology. So need has arisen for proper disposal of the waste materials.
Utilizing these materials in the area of road construction after improving their characteristics
suitably can provide useful solution of this problem. So keeping this in view, an
experimental study was undertaken to explore the possibility of utilization of the alternative
materials like rice husk ash by mixing with local alluvial soil by adding small percentage of
lime for the construction of road subgrade as cost effective mix.
SABYASACHI BISWAS , ARGHADEEP BISWAS , AMAR DIGHADE
(2012)4 reported that Emerging trend of using waste material in soil stabilizing or soil
strengthening is being working out all over the world in present days. The main reason
behind this trend is the excessive production of waste like fly ash, plastics, rice husk ash
(RHA) which is not only hazards but also creating deposition problems. Using some of these
waste materials in construction practice will reduce the problem in a great extent. However
before using these materials in practice, systematic analysis of the experimental result is a
must so that it should not create a new problem. RHA has been used with a small amount of
lime of different quantity to stabilize a highly plastic soil. The percentage by weight of virgin
soil has been partially replaced by RHA and lime to improve its strength property as CBR
value. Series of laboratory tests like soaked and un-soaked CBR; compaction has been
performed to evaluate the effects of the foreign materials on virgin soil. Result showed that
only use of RHA decreases the strength whereas in addition of RHA with soil, a very little
amount of lime improves the soil property to a great extent. Subsequently, result shows that
for the mix, the optimum moisture content (OMC) increases and the maximum dry density
(MDD) decreases.
B.SUNEEL KUMAR , T.V.PREETHI (MAY 2014)5 carried out a research &
found that In India the soil mostly present is Clay, in which the construction of sub grade is
problematic. In recent times the demands for sub grade materials has increased due to
increased constructional activities in the road sector and due to paucity of available nearby
lands to allow excavate fill materials for making sub grade. In this situation, a means to
overcome this problem is to utilize the different alternative generated waste materials, which

[9]
cause not only environmental hazards and also the depositional problems. Keeping this in
view stabilization of weak soil in situ may be done with suitable admixtures to save the
construction cost considerably. The present investigation has therefore been carried out with
agricultural waste materials like Rice Husk Ash (RHA) which was mixed with soil to study
improvement of weak sub grade in terms of compaction and strength characteristics. Silica
produced from rice husk ashes have investigated successfully as a pozzolanic material in
soil stabilization. However, rice husk ash cannot be used solely since the materials lack in
calcium element. As a result, rice husk ash shall be mixed with other cementitious materials
such as lime and cement to have a solid chemical reaction in stabilization process. Lime is
calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO
occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered lime stone xenoliths in volcanic ejection.
In this study RHA and Lime is mixed in different percentage like (RHA as 5%, 10%, and
15%) and (Lime as 3%, 6%, 9%) and laboratory test CBR is done with a curing period of 4,
7 and 14 days with different percentages of RHA & Lime and Lime+ RHA.
DR. H. K. MAHIYAR , PRAVIN PATEL (17 NOVEMBER 2014)6 carried out
an experimental investigation to study the effect of Rice husk ash, Fly ash and Lime on
index and engineering properties of Black cotton soils. The properties of stabilized soil such
as compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength and california bearing ratio
were evaluated. Various percentage of Rice husk ash, Fly ash ,Lime have been used to
improve the engineering properties of expansive black cotton soil. One ingredient at a time
has been mixed with soil and index as well as engineering properties have been determined.
The optimum content of each ingredient has been mixed together and the same properties
have been evaluated. It has been concluded that liquid limit & plastic limit of soil is reduced
by adding of any ingredient individually. However the improvement in shrinkage limit is
not substantial. The standard proctor perimeter are influenced negatively i.e. OMC varies
from 15% to 18% using RHA and Fly ash. The maximum dry density (MDD) is reduced
from 1.71 to 1.57 gm/cc. The Ф value decreases from 19 to 10 and Cohesion value is
increases from 0.5 to 1 kg/cm2 using RHA The Ф value is decreases from 19 to 14 and
Cohesion value increases from 0.5 to 1.1 kg/cm2 using fly ash. The CBR value increases
from 1.52% to 3.64% using Lime, it increases from 1.52% to1.70% using Fly ash and 1.52%
to 1.70% using RHA. The CBR value is 12.74% at combination of RHA, fly ash and lime.
The UCS value increases with increase in percentage of RHA, Fly ash and Lime. Swelling
pressure is decreases at different percentage of Lime and Fly ash.

[10]
Coefficient of permeability is decreases at different percentage of Lime and fly ash.
Plasticity index of soil is decreases with increase the percentage of RHA, Fly ash and Lime.
The optimum percentage of RHA , fly ash and lime is 8%,20% and 20%. On treated soil
reduction in sub-base layer by 60% and reduction in DBM layer by 40.7% in comparison to
pavement design on Untreated Black Cotton soil. Pavement cost also decreases on treated
soil. The objective of this work is to estimate the effect of RHA, Fly ash and Lime on some
geotechnical properties of black cotton soil, in order to determine the suitability of RHA,
Fly ash and Lime for use as a modifier or stabilizer in the treatment of black cotton soil for
roadwork.
G. V. RAMA SUBBARAO, D. SIDDARTHA, T. MURALIKRISHNA, K. S.
SAILAJA, AND T. SOWMYA (18 JULY 2011)7 made an attempt to enhance the
geotechnical properties of a soil replaced with industrial wastes having pozzolanic value
like rice husk ash (RHA) and fly ash (FA). Soil is replaced with RHA in 2%, 4%, and 6%
to dry weight of soil. It is observed that soil replaced with 4% RHA is the optimum for the
soil used in this study from geotechnical point of view. To know the influence of fly ash,
soil is further replaced with 4% FA along with 4% RHA. It is found that results of soil
replacement by both RHA and FA proved to be soil modification and not the improvement.
Hence, a cost-effective accelerator like lime is used for further replacing the above soil-4%,
RHA-4% FA mix. The optimum lime content is found to be 4%.
E.A. BASHA , R. HASHIM , H.B. MAHMUD , A.S. MUNTOHAR (22
OCTOBER 2004)8 carried out an investigation includes the evaluation of such properties
of the soil as compaction, strength, and X-ray diffraction. Test results show that both cement
and rice husk ash reduce the plasticity of soils. In term of compactability, addition of rice
husk ash and cement decreases the maximum dry density and increases the optimum
moisture content. From the viewpoint of plasticity, compaction and strength characteristics,
and economy, addition of 6–8% cement and 10–15% rice husk ash is recommended as an
optimum amount.
SUDIPTA ADHIKARY & KOYEL JANA (FEBRUARY 2016)9 presented the
results of experimental study carried out by the virgin soil sample was taken alongside the
pond of “Jadavpur University”(Jadavpur Campus), Classified as CI( clay of medium plastic)
as per AASTHO soil classification system and was stabilized with 5%,10%,15% & 20 %
of Rice Husk Ash(RHA) by weight of the dry virgin soil. The improvement of the Geo-
Technical properties of the fine grain soil with varying percentages of RHA was done with

[11]
the facilitate of various standardize laboratory tests. The testing program conducted on the
virgin soil samples by mixed with specified percentages of rice-husk materials, it is included
Atterberg limits, “California Bearing Ratio(CBR)”, “Unconfined Compressive
Strength(U.C.S)” , and “Standard Proactor test “.It was found that a general decrease in the
maximum dry density(MDD) and increase in optimum moisture content(OMC) is shown
with increase of the percentages (%) of RHA content and there was also a significant
improvement shown in CBR and UCS values with the increase in percentages(%) of RHA.
MEENU PRAKASH, REKHA RAVEENDRAN (28 AUGUST 2011)10 exposed
the possibilities of paper sludge and rice husk ash in soil improvement and comparison of
the results. Both paper sludge and rice husk ash are waste materials which cannot be
disposed easily. The main objective of this paper is to check which stabilizing agent will
give more strength. This paper involves the detailed study with various tests such as initial
soil properties and to check the strength achievement through unconfined compression test.
Soil stabilization is the alteration of property of locally available soil to improve its
engineering performance. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of soil and control
shrink – swell properties of soil, thus improving the load bearing capacity of a sub grade to
support the pavements and foundation.
PARIMAL JHA , NISHEET TIWARI (APRIL-MAY 2016)11 performed a
research on black cotton soil & described that Black Cotton Soils exhibit high swelling and
shrinking when exposed to changes in moisture content and hence have been found to be
most troublesome from engineering considerations. This behaviour is attributed to the
presence of a mineral montmorillonit. The wide spread of the black cotton soil has posed
challenges and problems to the construction activities. To encounter with it, innovative and
non traditional research on waste utilization is gaining importance now a days. Soil
improvement using the waste material like Slags, Rice husk ash, Silica fume etc., in
geotechnical engineering has been in practice from environmental point of view. The main
objective of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of using Rice Husk Ash with lime as soil
stabilization material. A series of laboratory experiment has been conducted on 0.5% lime
mixed black cotton soil blended with Rice Husk Ash in 10%, 20% and 30% by weight of
dry soil.
MANDEEP SINGH , ANUPAM MITTAL (29 MARCH 2014)12 observed that,
solid waste materials such as rice husk ash and waste tyres are used for this intended purpose
with or without lime or cement. Disposal of these waste materials is essential as these are

[12]
causing hazardous effects on the environment. With the same intention literature
review is undertaken on utilization of solid waste materials for the stabilization of soils and
their performance is discussed. Soil stabilization means alteration of the soils properties to
meet the specified engineering requirements. Methods for the stabilization are compaction
and use of admixtures. Lime and Cement was commonly used as stabilizer for altering the
properties of soils. Earth reinforcement techniques with commonly used with mild steel
rods, geo synthetics etc.
TAPASH KUMAR ROY (APRIL 29-MAY 4TH 2013)13 investigated the benefits
of using rice husk ash (RHA) with clayey soil as the subgrade material in flexible pavements
with addition of small amount of lime. Four ratios of RHA of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% mixed
with the clayey soil by weight of soil sample. Further for getting the better performance,
lime has been added in this study in the varying proportions from 1% to 3% by weight of
soil. The compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength tests were
conducted on these different mixed soils. The test results shows that the rice husk ash can
be used advantageously with addition of clayey soil and lime as cost effective mix for
construction of subgrade of the roadway pavement.
DR. D. KOTESWARA RAO , G.V.V. RAMESWARA RAO , P.R.T. PRANAV
(APRIL 29-MAY 4TH 2013)14 reported that The soil found in the ocean bed is classified as
marine soil. It can even be located onshore as well. The properties of marine soil depend
significantly on its initial conditions. The properties of saturated marine soil differ
significantly from moist soil and dry soil. Marine clay is microcrystalline in nature and clay
minerals like chlorite, kaolinite and illinite and non-clay minerals like quartz and feldspar
are present in the soil. The soils have higher proportion of organic matters that acts as a
cementing agent. Clay is an impermeable soil, meaning it holds water, as opposed to
permeable soil that allows water to rapidly drain, like a gravel or sand. It is also an expansive
soil, such as the marine clay which predominates in almost all countries of the world, which
when shrinking or expanding, can damage foundations and structures. The shrink and swell
movements are due to changes in soil moisture. Providing uniform soil moisture next to and
under your foundation is the only best thing to reduce or minimize the damaging effects of
expansive soil. Accumulation of various waste materials is now becoming a major concern
to the environmentalists. Rice Husk ash is one such by-product from Timber industries and
Wood cutting factories. Rice Husk ash by itself has little cementitious value but in the
presence of moisture it reacts chemically and forms cementitious compounds and attributes

[13]
to the improvement of strength and compressibility characteristics of soils. So in
order to achieve both the need of improving the properties of marine clays and also to make
use of the industrial wastes, the present experimental study has been taken up. In this paper
the effect of Rice Husk ash and Lime on strength properties of marine clay has been studied.
NAVEEN KUMAR , MR. S. S KAZAL (JULY-2015)15 treated soil with fly ash
(5%,10%,15%,20%,25%) and rice husk ash (10%,15%,20%,25%,30%) and examine after
28 days of curing is to upgrade expansive soil as a construction material using rice husk ash
(RHA) and fly ash, which are waste materials. Soil is a peculiar material. Some waste
materials such Fly Ash, rice husk ash, pond ash may use to make the soil to be stable.
Addition of such materials will increase the physical as well as chemical properties of the
soil. Some expecting properties to be improved are shear strength, liquidity index, plasticity
index, unconfined compressive strength and bearing capacity etc. The objective was to
evaluate the effect of Fly Ash and Rice husk ash to improve the performance of soil.
UMADEVI.S , HASHIFA HASSAN (NOVEMBER-2014)16 showed in their
paper that 15 %RHA and 6% lime gave the optimum CBR Values. X ray Diffraction studies
conducted on both stabilized and unstabilized clay showed the presence of a new mineral
Albite in the stabilized clay structure. Finite element analysis in plaxis software conducted
on both stabilized and unstabilized sample showed that the settlement of the foundation has
been reduced remarkably on the stabilized clay.
ANIL KUMAR SINGHAI , SUDHANSHU SHEKHAR SINGH (NOVEMBER-
2014)17 evaluated the effect of Fly Ash and Rice husk ash to improve the performance of
black cotton soil. In this paper black cotton soil is treated with fly ash
(5%,10%,15%,20%,25%) and rice husk ash (10%,15%,20%,25%,30%) and examine after
28 days of curing to upgrade expansive soil as a construction material using rice husk ash
(RHA) and fly ash, which are waste materials. Soil is a peculiar material. Some waste
materials such Fly Ash, rice husk ash, pond ash may use to make the soil to be stable.
Addition of such materials will increase the physical as well as chemical properties of the
soil. Some expecting properties to be improved are CBR value, shear strength, liquidity
index, plasticity index, unconfined compressive strength and bearing capacity etc.
DR. ROBERT M. BROOKS (NOVEMBER-2014)18 examined the importance of
the study, a cost comparison was made for the preparation of the sub-base of a highway
project with and without the admixture stabilizations. Stress strain behavior of unconfined
compressive strength showed that failure stress and strains increased by 106% and 50%

[14]
respectively when the flyash content was increased from 0 to 25%. When the RHA
content was increased from 0 to 12%, Unconfined Compressive Stress increased by 97%
while CBR improved by 47%. Therefore, an RHA content of 12% and a flyash content of
25% are recommended for strengthening the expansive subgrade soil. A flyash content of
15% is recommended for blending into RHA for forming a swell reduction layer because of
its satisfactory performance in the laboratory tests to upgrade expansive soil as a
construction material using rice husk ash (RHA) and flyash, which are waste materials.
Remolded expansive clay was blended with RHA and flyash and strength tests were
conducted. The potential of RHA-flyash blend as a swell reduction layer between the footing
of a foundation and subgrade was studied.
FIDELIS O. OKAFOR , UGOCHUKWU. N. OKONKWO (JULY-
DECEMBER 2009)19 investigated the effect of RHA on some geotechnical properties of a
lateritic soil classified as A-2-6 (0) or SW for sub-grade purposes. The investigation includes
evaluation of properties such as compaction, consistency limits and strength of the soil with
RHA content of 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of the dry soil. The results obtained
show that the increase in RHA content increased the OMC but decreased the MDD. It was
also discovered that increase in RHA content, reduced plasticity and increased volume
stability as well as the strength of the soil. 10% RHA content was also observed to be the
optimum content.
J. O. AKINYELE, R. W. SALIM, K. O. OIKELOME, O. T. OLATEJU (JULY-
DECEMBER 2009)20 evaluated an alternative waste management of this agricultural
product for use as a civil engineering material. The RH was burn in a controlled environment
to form Rice Husk Ash (RHA). The RHA was mix with lateritic clay at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and
10% proportion by weight. Chemical test was conducted on the open burn and controlled
burn RHA with the lateritic clay. Physical test such as particle size distribution, Atterberg
limits test, and density test were carried out on the mix material. The chemical composition
obtained for the RHA showed that the total percentage compositions of Fe2O3, SiO2 and
Al2O3 were found to be above 70% (class “F” pozzolan) which qualifies it as a very good
pozzolan. The coefficient of uniformity (Cu) was 8 and coefficient of curvature (Cc) was 2
for the soil sample. The Plasticity Index (PI) for the 0, 2, 4, 6, 8. 10% was 21.0, 18.8, 16.7,
14.4, 12.4 and 10.7 respectively. The work concluded that RHA can be effectively used in
hydraulic barriers and as a stabilizing agent in soil stabilization.

[15]
LAXMIKANT YADU AND DR. R K TRIPATHY (2013)21 studied the effect of
Granulated blast furnace slag and fly-ash stabilization on soft soil. The soil was classified
as CI-MI as per Indian Standard Classification System. Different amount of GBS (3%, 6%,
9%, and 12%) and fly ash (3%, 6%, 9%, 12%) was mixed to the parent soil and both UCS
and CBR are carried out. They found that there was an increase in maximum dry density
but decrease in Optimum Moisture Content with increasing GBS content. Addition of GBS
increased the UCS value and this increase was maximum up to 9% and then it started falling.
In case of both soaked and unsoaked CBR samples, addition of GBS caused sharp increase
in CBR value and it is maximum up to 6%. Hence they found out 3% fly ash + 6% GBS
mix to be optimum.
AKINMUSURU (1991)22 put his effort in finding out the effect of mixing of GGBS on the
consistency, compaction characteristics and strength of lateritic soil. GGBS content varied
from 0% -15% by dry soil weight. He observed a decrease in both the liquid and plastic
limits and an increase in plasticity index with increasing GGBS portion. Further, he
observed that the compaction, cohesion and CBR increased with increasing the GGBS
content up to 10% and then subsequently decreased. The angle of friction was to be
decreased with increasing percentage of GGBS.
GUPTA AND SEEHRA (1989)23 studied the effect of lime-GGBS on the strength of soil.
They found that lime- GGBS soil stabilized mixes with and without addition of gypsum, or
containing partial replacement of GGBS by fly ash produced high UCS and CBR in
comparison to plain soil. They also concluded that partial replacement of GGBS with fly
ash further increased the UCS.
ERDAL COKCA, VEYSEL YAZICI AND VEHBI OZAYDIN (2009)24 reported about
an experimental study on the stabilization of expansive clays using granulated blast furnace
slag (GBFS) and granulated blast furnace slag-cement (GBFSC). These were added to soil
in proportions of 5–25% by weight. The effects of these stabilizers on grain size distribution,
Atterberg limits, swelling percentage and rate of swell of soil samples were determined.
Addition of GBFS and GBFSC altered the grain size distribution of expansive soil sample
by decreasing clay fractions and increasing silt fractions. Plasticity index was decreased
specific gravity was increased for all GBFS and GBFSC additions. GBFS and GBFSC
additions decreased the swell percentage and the t50 values of specimens. 75% sample +
25% GBFSC gave 6% swell, which also almost satisfied the irrigation water standards. The

[16]
addition of 20% GBFS and 15% GBFSC to the expansive soil after 7 days of curing, reduced
the swell per cent from 29.4 to 10.9% and 3.1%, respectively.
A. SREERAMA RAO, G. SRIDEVI AND M. RAMA RAO (2009)25 reported about
heave studies on expansive clays with stabilized granulated blast furnace slag cushion. This
study is conducted to find an alternative method to CNS layer technique which is used for
stabilisation of black cotton soils. Cement-stabilized blast furnace slag in the form of a
cushion has been placed over black cotton soil layer and the resulting heave was measured.
Experiments were also conducted to study the effect of the cement content as well as the
cushion thickness on the heave of the black cotton soil bed. The study also aimed at
comparing the performances of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) and the ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and to study the effect of cushion thickness on the
swelling behaviour of black cotton soil. It was reported that both the slag cushions, stabilized
with cement, are effective in minimizing the swell of black cotton soils. For GGBFS, there
is a significant reduction of heave at low cement contents itself but for GBFS, as the cement
content is increased, the swell potential decreased steeply. 6% to 8% cement content has
been found to be optimum. No such optimum was observed in GGBFS. As the thickness of
the cushion increased, there was a corresponding decrease in the swell potential.
ZORE T. D AND S. S. VALUNJKAR (2010)26 had reported about the utilization of fly
ash and steel slag in road construction. In their study, it was aimed to replace natural
aggregates in road construction, either for blanket courses, bases or sub bases using these
waste by-products. It was concluded that steel industry waste by-product is suitable and
economical for use in the road construction. Steel slag is easily available and has higher
CBR value than fly ash hence saving is excess than fly ash use. The optimum mix was
reported as 15% steel slag mix in sub grade and in sub base for road construction.
MEHMOUD REZA ABDI (2010, 2011)27 reported about the efforts to extend the use of
Basic Oxygen Steel (BOS) slag to soil stabilization by determining possible beneficial
effects it may have on compressive strength and durability. Unconfined compression test
and durability test were conducted. Tests determined strength development of compacted
cylinders, moist cured in a humid environment at 35° C and durability by freezing and
thawing method. Kaolinite treated with a particular percentage of lime and various amounts
of BOS slag showed slight increase in MDD and reduction in OMC. Results of the
investigation showed that using lime and BOS slag either singularly or concurrently for
stabilizing kaolinite improves soil properties in terms of increased UCS and durability by

[17]
resistance to freezing and thawing. The improvements are shown to be dependent on the
lime and the BOS slag contents as well as the curing period.
R C GUPTA, BLESSEN SKARIAH THOMAS, PRACHI GUPTA, LINTU RAJAN
AND DAYANAND THAGRIYA (2012)28 reported about an experimental study of clayey
soil stabilized by copper slag. In this study, index properties, compaction and shear
characteristics of the soil mixed with copper slag were evaluated. The addition of copper
slag increased the maximum dry density and decreased the optimum moisture content.
Maximum dry density was obtained with 50% soil + 50% copper slag combination. Tri-
axial tests were conducted and it was reported that as the percentage of copper slag
increases, the angle of shearing resistance increases up to certain limit (48°) at 40% of
combination and further it tends to decrease. The combination of 70% Clay with 30%
Copper slag to 30% clay with 70% copper slag was most satisfactory combination to get
good soil stabilizations.
K.V. MANJUNATH, HIMANSHU SHEKHAR, MANISH KUMAR, PREM KUMAR
AND RAKESH KUMAR (2012)29 reported about the stabilization of black cotton soil
using ground granulated blast furnace slag. A series of compaction and unconfined
compression tests were carried out on virgin as well as blended samples prepared. It was
observed that with increase of slag, more stability of soil is achieved as compared to using
lime alone. UCC strength of ordinary black cotton soil which was found out to be 188.5
kN/m2, increased to 3429.37 kPa. The study recommended that for the proportion of (BC
soil + 30% slag) + 4% lime @ OMC on 28th day with proper curing, UCC strength increased
up to 18 times that of ordinary black cotton soil and the use of slag as an admixture was
recommended for improving engineering properties of the soils as an economical solution
to use the locally available poor soil.
LAXMIKANT YADU AND R.K. TRIPATHI (2013)30 reported an investigative approach
in soft soil stabilisation with the help of granulated blast furnace slag. Different amounts of
granulated blast furnace slag (3,6,9,12%) were used to stabilise the soft soil and the
performance was evaluated using physical and strength performance tests like plasticity
index, specific gravity, free swelling index, compaction, swelling pressure, California
bearing ratio, and unconfined compressive strength. Liquid limit and plastic limit decreased
with increasing percentage of slag. Maximum dry density increased and optimum moisture
content decreased with increasing percentage of slag. Blended mix of 9% granulated blast
furnace slag reduced the free swelling index and swelling pressure at about 67% and 21%

[18]
respectively from its unstabilised state. It was also reported that there was a sharp increase
in the unconfined compressive strength values with the addition of slag which was attributed
to the formation of cementations compounds between the CaOH present in the soil and the
pozzolana present in the slag. In case of CBR values, an increase was reported with addition
of slag up to a certain point, and after that it started decreasing.
GYANENTAKHELMAYUM, SAVITHA.A.L AND KRISHNA GUDI (2013)31
reported their investigation on soil stabilization using fine and coarse ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBS). Here compaction and unconfined compressive strength
characteristics of black cotton soil blended with fine and coarse ground granulated blast
furnace slag were evaluated. The black cotton soil with varying proportion of ground
granulated blast furnace slag mixtures were prepared at the respective optimum moisture
content and the characteristic compaction and unconfined compressive strength values were
determined for different curing. In both of the cases it was found that the maximum dry
density increased with increase in GGBS content but increase is more pronounced in case
of soil-fine GGBS mixture. The increase in dry density was reported to be due to enhanced
C-S-H formation compared to using Soil alone. The increase in the maximum dry unit
weight with the increase of the percentage of GGBS mixture was attributed to high specific
gravity and immediate formation of cemented products by hydration which increases the
density of soil.
NOORINA TARANNUM AND R.K. YADA (2013)32 have reported on their study on the
effect of blast furnace slag on the consistency limits of the black cotton soil. The samples
used in the study were prepared by blending black cotton soil with different percentage of
blast furnace slag, using lime as stabilizer. The tests showed a decrease in the liquid limit
with increase in quantity of blast furnace slag while shrinkage limit showed a decrease. The
plasticity index was gradually decreased. It is recommended that for proper results the
blending of black cotton soil and blast furnace should be done in presence of water to attain
homogeneity.

[19]
CHAPTER 3
LIME STABILIZATION
3.1 WHAT IS STABILIZATION?
When adequate quantities of lime and water are added, the pH of the soil quickly increases
to above 10.5, which enables the clay particles to break down. Determining the amount of
lime necessary is part of the design process and is approximated by tests such as the Eades
and Grim test (ASTM D6276). Silica and alumina are released and react with calcium from
the lime to form calcium-silicate-hydrates and calcium-aluminate-hydrates (CAH). CSH
and CAH are cementitious products similar to those formed in Portland cement. They form
the matrix that contributes to the strength of lime-stabilized soil layers. As this matrix forms,
the soil is transformed from a sandy, granular material to a hard, relatively impermeable
layer with significant load bearing capacity. The process begins within hours and can
continue for years in a properly designed system. The matrix formed is permanent, durable,
and significantly impermeable, producing a structural layer that is both strong and flexible.
3.2 LIME STABILIZATION OF SOILS :
Soil stabilization significantly changes the characteristics of a soil to produce long-term
permanent strength and stability, particularly with respect to the action of water and frost
Lime, either alone or in combination with other materials, can be used to treat a range of
soil types. The mineralogical properties of the soils will determine their degree of reactivity
with lime and the ultimate strength that the stabilized layers will develop. In general, fine-

[20]
grained clay soils and a Plasticity Index greater than 10 are considered to be good candidates
for stabilization. Soils containing significant amounts of organic material (greater than about
1 percent) or sulfates (greater than 0.3 percent) may require additional lime and/or special
construction procedures.
SUB-GRADES OR SUB-BASES : Lime can permanently stabilize fine-grained soil
employed as a subgrade or subbase to create a layer with structural value in the pavement
system. The treated soils may be in-place (subgrade) or borrow materials. Subgrade
stabilization usually involves in-place “road mixing,” and generally requires adding 3 to 6
percent lime by weight of the dry soil.
BASES: Lime can permanently stabilize submarginal base materials (such as clay-gravel,
“dirty” gravels, limestones, caliche) that contain at least 50 percent coarse material retained
on a 4 screen. Base stabilization is used for new road construction and reconstruction of
worn-out roads, and generally requires adding 2 to 4 percent lime by weight of the dry soil.
In-situ “road mixing” is most commonly used for base stabilization, although off-site
“central mixing” can also be used. Lime is also used to improve the properties of
soil/aggregate mixtures in “full depth recycling.”
3.3 LIME MODIFICATION & SOIL DRYING :
There are two other important types of lime treatment used in construction operations:
First, because quicklime chemically combines with water, it can be used very effectively to
dry wet soils. Heat from this reaction further dries wet soils. The reaction with water occurs
even if the soils do not contain significant clay fractions. When clays are present, lime’s
chemical reaction with clays causes further drying. The net effect is that drying occurs
quickly, within a matter of hours, enabling the grading contractor to compact the soil much
more rapidly than by waiting for the soil to dry through natural evaporation.
“Dry-up” of wet soil at construction sites is one of the widest uses of lime for soil treatment.
Lime may be used for one or more of the following: to aid compaction by drying out wet
areas; to help bridge across underlying spongy subsoil; to provide a working table for
subsequent construction; and to condition the soil (make it workable) for further
stabilization with Portland cement or asphalt. Generally, between 1 and 4 percent lime will
dry a wet site sufficiently to allow construction activities to proceed.
Second, lime treatment can significantly improve soil workability and short-term strength
to enable projects to be completed more easily. Examples include treating fine-grained soils

[21]
or granular base materials to construct temporary haul roads or other construction platforms.
Typically, 1 to 4 percent lime by weight is used for modification, which is generally less
than the amount used to permanently stabilize the soil. The changes made to lime-modified
soil may or may not be permanent. The main distinction between modification and
stabilization is that generally no structural credit is accorded the lime-modified layer in
pavement design. Lime modification works best in clay soils.
3.4 CHEMISTRY OF LIME TREATMENT :
3.4.1 DRYING:
If quicklime is used, it immediately hydrates (i.e., chemically combines with water) and
releases heat. Soils are dried, because water present in the soil participates in this reaction,
and because the heat generated can evaporate additional moisture. The hydrated lime
produced by these initial reactions will subsequently react with clay particles. These
subsequent reactions will slowly produce additional drying because they reduce the soil’s
moisture holding capacity. If hydrated lime or hydrated lime slurry is used instead of
quicklime, drying occurs only through the chemical changes in the soil that reduce its
capacity to hold water and increase its stability. In fig.1 water content Wn is reduced to W’n
after treatment with lime.
FIG. 3.1 EFFECT OF LIMING ON THE CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
3.4.2 MODIFICATION:
After initial mixing, the calcium ions (Ca++) from hydrated lime migrate to the surface of
the clay particles and displace water and other ions. The soil becomes friable and granular,
making it easier to work and compact. At this stage the Plasticity Index of the soil as shown
in fig. 1 decreases dramatically, as does its tendency to swell and shrink. The process, which
is called “flocculation and agglomeration," generally occurs in a matter of hours.

[22]
3.5 WHAT IS LIME?:
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides
predominate. Strictly speaking, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. The word
"lime" originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of "sticking or
adhering." These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering
materials (including limestone products, concrete and mortar) and as chemical feedstock‟s,
and sugar refining, among other uses. The rocks and minerals from which these materials
are derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate.
They may be cut, crushed or pulverized and chemically altered. "Burning" (calcinations)
converts them into the highly caustic material quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and, through
subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but still strongly alkaline) slaked lime or
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of which is called slaking of lime.
3.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT LIME
APPLICATIONS
The type of lime stabilization technique used on a project should be based on multiple
considerations, such as contractor experience, equipment availability, location of project
(rural or urban), and availability of an adequate nearby water source.
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of different lime application methods follow:
3.6.1 DRY HYDRATED LIME:
ADVANTAGES : Can be applied more rapidly than slurry. Dry hydrated lime can be used
for drying clay, but it is not as effective as quicklime.
DISADVANTAGES : Hydrated lime particles are fine. Thus, dust can be a problem and
renders this type of application generally unsuitable for populated areas.
3.6.2 DRY QUICKLIME:
ADVANTAGES : Economical because quicklime is a more concentrated form of lime than
hydrated lime, containing 20 to 24 percent more “available” lime oxide content. Thus, about
3 percent quicklime is equivalent to 4 percent hydrated lime when conditions allow full
hydration of the quicklime with enough moisture. Greater bulk density requires smaller
storage facilities. The construction season may be extended because the exothermic reaction
caused with water and quicklime can warm the soil. Dry quicklime is excellent for drying
wet soils. Larger particle sizes can reduce dust generation.

[23]
DISADVANTAGES : Quicklime requires 32 percent of its weight in water to convert to
hydrated lime and there can be significant additional evaporation loss due to the heat of
hydration. Care must be taken with the use of quicklime to ensure adequate water addition,
mellowing, and mixing. These greater water requirements may pose a logistics or cost
problem in remote areas without a nearby water source. Quicklime may require more mixing
than dry hydrated lime or lime slurries because the larger quicklime particles must first react
with water to form hydrated lime and then be thoroughly mixed with the soil.
3.6.3 SLURRY LIME:
ADVANTAGES : Dust free application. Easier to achieve even distribution. Spreading and
sprinkling applications are combined. Less additional water is required for final mixing.
DISADVANTAGES : Slower application rates. Higher costs due to extra equipment
requirements. May not be practical in very wet soils. Not practical for drying applications.

[24]
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The project have conducted various experiment to find the stabilisation of the sub grade
material i.e the soil sample using the lime. The various test conducted to find the stabilisation
of the soil sample based on the INDIAN STANDARD procedure are listed below:
 Determination of Water Content by Oven-Drying Method [IS : 2720 PART-II ;
1973].
 Determination of Specific Gravity by Density Bottle [[IS : 2720 PART-III ; 1980].
 Determination of Grain Size Distribution by Sieving [IS : 2720 PART-IV ; 1985].
 Determination of Grain Size Distribution by Hydrometer [IS : 2720 PART-IV ;
1985].
 Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit [IS : 2720 PART-V ; 1985].
 Determination of Compaction Properties [IS : 2720 PART-VII ; 1980/87].
 Determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength [IS : 2720 PART-X ; 1991].
 California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) [IS : 2720 PART-XVI ; 1979].
4.1 DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT BY OVEN-DRYING
METHOD :
The object of this test is to determine the water content of a soil sample in the laboratory by
oven-drying method. This experiment forms an essential part of many other laboratory

[25]
experiments. Oven drying at 105o
C to 110o
C does not result in reliable water content values
for soil containing gypsum and other
minerals having loosely bound water of
hydration or for soil containing
significant amounts of organic
material. Reliable water content values
for these soils can be obtained by
drying in oven at approximately 60o
C
to 80o
C. The specimen should be dried
in the oven to constant mass indicated
by the difference between two
consecutive mass of the container with
the dried specimen taken at suitable
intervals after initial drying, being a
maximum of 0.1 percent of the original
mass of the soil specimen.
FIG 4.1 THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED OVEN
4.2 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY DENSITY
BOTTLE :
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil solids at a
given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature,
both weights being taken in air. The specific gravity is needed for various calculation
purposes in soil mechanics.
4.3 DETERMINATION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY
SIEVING AND HYDROMETER :
The percentage of various sizes of particles in a given dry soil sample is found by a particle
size analysis or mechanical analysis. By mechanical analysis is meant the separation of a
soil into its different size fractions.
The mechanical analysis is performed into two stages :
i) Sieve Analysis & ii) Sedimentation Analysis.

[26]
The first stage is meant for coarse grained soils only while the second stage is performed
for fine grained soils. In general a soil sample may contain both coarse grained particles as
well as fine grained particles, and hence both the stages of the mechanical analysis may be
necessary. The sieve analysis is however the true representative of grain size distribution,
since the test is not affected by temperature. The result of the mechanical analysis are plotted
to get a particle size distribution
curve with percentage finer as
the ordinate and the particle
diameter as the abscissa, the
diameter being plotted on a
logarithmic scale. A particle size
distribution curvegives us an
idea about the type and gradation
of the soil. A curve situated
higher up or to the left represents
a relatively fine grained soil
while a curve situated to the
right represents a coarse grained
soil. FIG 4.2 SET OF IS SIEVES WITH
SIEVE-SHAKER & HYDROMETER
4.4 DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT :
By consistency is meant the relative ease with which soil can be deformed. This term is
mostly used for fine grained soils for which the consistency is related to a large extent to
water content. Consistency denotes degree of firmness of the soil which may be termed as
soft, firm, stiff or hard. Fine grained soil may be mixed with water to form a plastic paste
which can be moulded into any form by pressure. The addition of water reduces the cohesion
making the soil still easier to mould. Further addition of water reduces the cohesion until
the material no longer retains its shape under its own weight but flows as a liquid. Enough
water may be added until the soil grains are dispersed in a suspension. If water is evaporated
from such a soil suspension the soil passes through various stages or states of consistency.
In 1911, the Swedish agriculturist Atterberg divided the entire range from liquid to solid
state into four stages :
 The Liquid State.

[27]
 The Plastic State.
 The Semi Solid State.
 The Solid State.
He sets arbitrary limits known as consistency limits or atterberg limits for these
division in terms of water content. The Atterberg limits which are most useful for
engineering purposes are liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are
expressed as percent water content.
FIG 4.3 CONSISTENCY LIMIT
LIQUID LIMIT is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state,
but has a small shearing strength against flowing which can be measured by standard
available means. With reference to the standard liquid limit device, it is defined as the
minimum water content at which a part of soil cut by a groove of standard dimensions, will
flow together for a distance of 12mm under an impact of 25 blows in the device.
PLASTIC LIMIT is the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to crumble
when rolled into a thread approximately 3mm in diameter.

[28]
4.5 DETERMINATION OF COMPACTION PROPERTIES :
Compaction is a process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged and packed
together into a closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to decrease the porosity
or void ratio of the soil and thus increase its dry density. For compaction of any particular
soil in the field the engineer can vary water content, amount of compaction, and type of
compaction. The compaction characteristics are first determined in the laboratory by various
compaction test such as :
 Standard Proctor Test.
 Modified Proctor Test.
 Harvard Miniature Compaction Test.
 Abbot Compaction Test.
 Jodhpur Mini Compactor Test.
The aim of these tests is to arrive at a standard which may serve as a guide and a basis of
comparison for field compaction.
FIG 4.4 MOISTURE CONTENT DRY DENSITY RELATIONSHIP SHOWED BY MR.
R.R PROCTOR (1933)
4.6 DETERMINATION OF UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
The unconfined compression test is used to measure the shearing resistance of cohesive soils
which may be undisturbed or remolded specimens. An axial load is applied using either
strain-control or stress-control condition. The unconfined compressive strength is defined

[29]
as the maximum unit stress obtained within the first 20% strain. The test may be performed
on both undisturbed and remoulded soil specimen.
FIG 4.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST WITH SAMPLE
4.7 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD :
The California Bearing test was developed by the California state Highway department as a
method for evaluating the strength of subgrade soil and other pavement materials for the

[30]
design and construction of flexible pavement. The CBR test have been correlated with
flexible pavement thickness requirements for highways and air fields. Being an empirical
test method, CBR test results cannot be related accurately with any fundamental property of
the soil or pavement material tested. The CBR method of test has also been standardized by
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
The CBR test denotes a measure of resistance to penetration of a soil or a flexible pavement
material, of standard plunger under controlled test conditions. The CBR test may be
conducted in the laboratory generally on remoulded specimens; The test may should be
strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is desired. Procedure for field
determination of CBR value of soil in-place or in-situ has also been developed and
standardized by different agencies including the BIS.
The basic principle in CBR test is by causing a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter
penetrate into the specimen of soil or pavement component material at a rate of 1.25 mm
per min. the loads required for 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration of the plunger into soil /
material tested are recorded. The CBR value of material tested is expressed as a percentage
of standard load value in a standard material. The standard load values have been
established based on a large no of tests on standard crushed stone aggregate at the respective
penetration level of 2.5 and 5.0 mm. The standard load values are :
Penetration , mm Standard load, kg Unit Std. load, kg/cm2
2.5 1370 70
5.0 2055 105
The CBR value is calculated using this relation :
CBR, % =
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝟐.𝟓𝐦𝐦 𝐨𝐫 𝟓.𝟎𝐦𝐦 𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐚𝐠𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥
×100
Several agencies in different countries have standardized CBR test method and have develop
charts for the design of flexible pavements for roads and run ways based on CBR values of
subgrade soil and pavement materials. CBR test as well as CBR method of flexible
pavement design are simple and the performance studies of these pavement have been
extensively investigated and found to be satisfactory. The Indian Road Congress has
standardized the guidelines for the design of flexible pavement based on CBR test vide IRC:
37-2001 and this method is being followed fir the design of flexible pavements for all the
types of roads in India.

[31]
CHAPTER 5
TABULATION FORM OF TESTED RESULTS
Table 5.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY :
SOIL TYPE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
AVERAGE SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
Normal Soil
2.38
2.3992.419
2.40
3 % Lime Mixed Soil
2.26
2.2862.39
2.22
6 % Lime Mixed Soil
2.104
2.0832.046
2.099
9 % Lime Mixed Soil
2.08
2.062.10
2.01
12 % Lime Mixed Soil
2.16
2.132.14
2.10

[32]
Table 5.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS :
IS SIEVE
NO
SIEVE
OPENING
(mm)
WEIGHT
OF SOIL
(gm)
%
RETAINED
CUMULATIVE
% RETAINED
% FINER
4.75 mm 4.75 0 0 0 0
2.36 mm 2.36 132.67 13.267 13.267 86.733
1.18 mm 1.18 203.77 20.377 33.644 66.356
850 µ 0.850 145.72 14.572 48.216 51.784
600 µ 0.600 100.50 10.050 58.266 41.734
300 µ 0.300 119.63 11.963 70.229 29.771
150 µ 0.150 119.53 11.953 82.182 17.818
75 µ 0.075 67.90 6.790 88.972 11.028
Pan - 110.28 11.028 100 0

[33]
Table 5.3 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS :
TIME RH HE T CM CD CT R N D
%
FINER
1 1.029 11.93
26
0.0005
0.0025
-0.00127
25.73
0.00875
0.048 88.22
2 1.023 14.01 19.73 0.037 67.65
4 1.021 14.80 17.73 0.027 60.79
8 1.018 15.88
27 +0.00150
17.50
0.00855
0.019 59.99
15 1.017 16.23 16.50 0.014 56.57
30 1.015 16.95
28 +0.00178
14.78
0.00836
0.010 50.67
60 1.013 17.67 12.78 0.007 43.82
120 1.011 18.39 27 +0.00150 10.50 0.00855 0.005 35.99
960 1.009 19.10
26 -0.00127
5.73
0.00875
0.002 19.65
1440 1.007 19.82 3.73 0.002 12.79
NOTE :
 Time in Minute.
 RH = Hydrometer Reading.
 HE = Effective Depth from Calibration Point.
 T = Temperature in o
C.
 CM = Meniscus Correction.
 CD = Deflocculating Agent Correction.
 CT = Temperature Correction.
 R = Corrected Hydrometer Reading.
 N = Co-efficient of Viscosity of water in Poise.
 D = √
HE
TIME
K
in mm.
 K is a factor, equal to √
30𝑛
𝑔(𝐺𝑠−𝐺𝑤)

[34]
FIG 5.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
PERCENTAGEFINER
PARTICLE SIZE
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

[35]
Table 5.4 LIQUID LIMIT & PLASTIC LIMIT :
SOIL TYPE LIQUID LIMIT
AVERAGE
LIQUID
LIMIT
PLASTIC
LIMIT
AVERAGE
PLASTIC
LIMIT
Normal Soil
53.01
53.17
28.12
28.5149.17 28.34
57.32 29.09
3 % Lime Mixed
Soil
60.13
59.69
37.77
35.3359.19 39.66
59.75 28.57
6 % Lime Mixed
Soil
50.46
53.01
38.68
39.6356.50 38.82
52.07 41.40
9 % Lime Mixed
Soil
58.50
56.70
37.98
38.4057.07 38.76
54.54 38.46
12 % Lime
Mixed Soil
51.56
50.65
36.20
36.8650.31 36.45
50.10 37.93

[36]
Table 5.5 OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT & MAXIMUM DRY
DENSITY :
SOIL TYPE WATER CONTENT , % DRY DENSITY , g/cm3
Normal Soil
15.55 1.59
18.34 1.690
21.59 1.694
24.40 1.68
27.96 1.60
3 % Lime Mixed Soil
15.47 1.58
17.75 1.605
20.32 1.687
24.24 1.682
27.53 1.62
6 % Lime Mixed Soil
15.04 1.604
17.9 1.606
20.31 1.67
23.37 1.66
27.68 1.62
9 % Lime Mixed Soil
14.025 1.622
17.705 1.631
20.845 1.605
23.70 1.608
27.24 1.642
12 % Lime Mixed Soil
12.57 1.63
14.85 1.66
17.85 1.638
20.81 1.69
23.70 1.65

[37]
Table 5.6 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO VALUE :
SOIL TYPE
CBR VALUE AT
2.5 mm
PENETRATION
CBR VALUE AT
5.0 mm
PENETRATION
CBR VALUE
%
Normal Soil 4.61 4.80 4.80
97 % Soil 3 %
Lime
10.25 9.06 10.25
94 % Soil 6 %
Lime
10.86 9.65 10.86
91 % Soil 9 %
Lime
16.82 15.04 16.82
88 % Soil 12 %
Lime
17.81 16.22 17.81
FIG 5.2 LOAD-PENETRATION CURVE OF CBR TEST FOR NORMAL SOIL
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LOAD,KN
PENETRATION , mm
NORMAL SOIL

[38]
FIG 5.3 LOAD-PENETRATION CURVE OF CBR TEST FOR 3% LIME MIXED
SOIL
SOIL
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LOAD,KN
PENETRATION , mm
3% LIME MIXED SOIL
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LOAD,KN
PENETRATION , mm
6% LIME MIXED SOIL

[39]
SOIL
SOIL
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LOAD,KN
PENETRATION , mm
9% LIME MIXED SOIL
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LOAD,KN
PENETRATION , mm
12% LIME MIXED SOIL

[40]
CHAPTER 6
EFFECT: SOIL IMPROVEMENT
6.1 EFFECT OF LIME ON PLASTICITY INDEX :
Liquid Limit decreased and Plastic Limit increased with increasing lime content resulting
in decreased Plasticity Index. Flocculation takes place when lime is mixed with clays. As
the concentration of lime is increased,
there is a reduction in clay content and
a corresponding increase in the
percentage of coarse particles. This
results in a reduction of Plasticity
Index. At a lime content of 4%, a
maximum reduction in PI of 36% was
obtained. When the lime content was
increased beyond 4%, there was no
further change in Plasticity Index.
FIG. 6.1 : EFFECT OF LIME ON LL, PL AND PI

[41]
6.2 EFFECT OF LIME ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR :
Free Swell Index (FSI) decreased with increasing lime content Surface activity decreases
with flocculation, reducing FSI. FSI indicates potential for swell which is a result of
chemical activity at the colloidal level. When lime content was increased beyond 4%, FSI
increased. FSI reduced by 27% at 4% lime content. Swell potential decreased with
increasing lime content. The reduction in swell potential (%) was significant at a lime
content of 4%. However, swell potential increased when the lime content was increased to
6%. Swelling pressure also decreased with increasing lime content. At 4% lime, swelling
pressure was reduced by 52%. Swelling pressure could not be measured at a lime content of
6% as the sample could not be compressed even at higher compressive loads. This can be
attributed to the development of cementitious products.
6.3 EFFECT OF LIME ON E-LOG P CURVES :
Equilibrium void ratio at the end of swelling decreased, indicating that swelling decreased
with increasing lime content. Swelling pressure also decreased with increasing lime content.
Compression index (Cc) increased up to certain lime content and thereafter decreased with
increasing lime content. The values of
Cc were 0.5, 0.64 and 0.16 for the lime
contents of 0%, 2% and 4%. At low
lime contents, change in void ratio
under the applied stress would be
large because of flocculation and
consequent increase in void space of
the sample. Hence, Cc increased up to
2% lime content, and as lime content
increased from 2% to 4%, there was a
significant reduction in Cc.
FIG. 6.2 : EFFECT OF LIME ON E-LOG P CURVES
Coefficient of consolidation (cv) also increased with increasing lime content up to 2% and
decreased when the lime content was increased to 4%. Compressibility also increased as
indicated by increased compression index. The combined effect of increase in permeability

[42]
and compressibility resulted in an increased Cv. At higher lime contents cementitious
products would reduce compression index and permeability, decreasing Cv.
6.4 EFFECT OF LIME ON COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS :
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) increased
and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
decreased with increasing lime content.
Flocculation results in particles rolling over
themselves more easily during compaction.
Therefore, clay-lime blends attain to higher
densities than unblended clay. MDD was
13.6 kN/m3, 13.8 kN/m3 and 13.7 kN/m3
and OMC was 34%, 29% and 28% for
respective lime contents of 0%, 4% and 6%.
FIG. 6.3 : EFFECT OF LIME ON COMPACTION
CHARACTERISTICS
6.5 EFFECT OF LIME ON STRENGTH BEHAVIOUR :
Failure stress and failure strain
increased up to a lime content of
4% and thereafter decreased.
Failure strain of unblended clay
was 8%, which increased to
11.5% when lime content was
increased to 4%. Failure strain
decreased to 6% at a lime content
of 6%.
FIG. 6.4 : EFFECT OF LIME ON STRESS-STRAIN
BEHAVIOUR
6.6 MEDIUM TERM EFFECT :
When lime comes into contact with a substance containing soluble silicates and aluminates
(such as clay and silt), it forms hydrated calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. As with
cement, this gives rise to a true bond upon crystallization. Called a pozzolanic reaction, this

[43]
bonding process brings about improved resistance to frost and a distinct increase in the soil’s
compressive strength and CBR. In general, in non-winter conditions, the soil develops
sufficient strength after three to six months. A slow curing process during road construction
is a marked advantage, as it allows greater flexibility when working with the treated soil.
The long-term hardening facilitates the design of foundations for industrial platforms. The
stabilizing effect gives load-bearing qualities to the treated soil.

[44]
CHAPTER 7
NON-HIGHWAY APPLICATIONS
7.1 GENERAL :
Lime treatment is used in a number of non-highway applications for both modification and
stabilization. Non-structural applications (modification) are designed to dry up mud and
create working platforms in a variety of construction settings. Structural applications
(stabilization) include non-highway pavements, such as airports, parking lots, secondary
roads, and racetracks; and other applications such as building foundations and embankment
stabilization. The lime treatment construction techniques used are essentially the same as
those described above for lime stabilization and lime modification in highway construction.
7.2 AIRPORTS :
Lime has an extensive history as a soil treatment option for airport construction. Examples
include the Denver International, Dallas Ft. Worth, and Newark airports. Many airports in
the United States are expanding by lengthening runways, taxiways, and parking aprons.
New and expanded terminals are also under construction. Most airports build on existing
properties or purchase adjacent properties, and therefore have little control over terrain and
soil conditions. If marginal or poor soil conditions are encountered, the owner can choose
to remove and replace the existing soils or treat them. Construction techniques for lime
treatment of soils in airport construction are essentially the same as those for roads.

[45]
However, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has specifications for construction
and soil treatment methods
FIG 7.1 LIME STABILIZATION PROJECT AT AN AIRPORT.
7.3 COMMERCIAL AREA :
New construction of large stores or shopping centers with the accompanying parking areas
is an increasingly common application for lime stabilization or modification. Location of
these facilities tends to be based on customer accessibility, not on soil characteristics.
Unstable soils may be present. Sites may be in wet, low-lying areas. Rarely are sites level
or on grade. The contractor must cut and fill the site and compact soils to prescribed soil
densities. Stabilization/modification techniques are generally the same as those described
for highway construction.
7.4 HOUSING :
The development of subdivisions begins with the establishment of access roads and related
utilities, followed by the construction of sidewalks, driveways, and homes. Lime
stabilization can be used to create structural foundations for building pads, sidewalks, and
streets. Lime modification offers a convenient construction technique for minimizing the
effects of weather and marginal soils. Often, housing construction continues through all
seasons, wet or dry, because borrowed money makes maintaining construction schedules

[46]
paramount. The ability to reduce delays is one way to increase profits. Soil treatment
procedures are similar to those described earlier.
7.4.1 SUBDIVISION STREETS :
The contractor begins by laying out streets and utilities. The streets are rarely without crews
digging utility trenches for sewer, water, gas, and electric. With all of this digging and filling
it is small wonder the streets tend to be areas of deep mud and at many times impassable.
One way to mitigate this problem is to use lime in the beginning phase of construction to
modify the soil and then to use additional treatments for drying trench fills. Stabilized soils
can also be used as a foundation for the final pavement. Soils beneath sidewalks can also be
stabilized to minimize sinking and buckling.
FIG 7.2 : COMPACTING LIME STABILIZED SOIL FOR BASE OF STREET IN
HOUSING SUBDIVISION
7.4.2 INDIVIDUAL HOME SITES:
The contractor can use lime to modify and stabilize the driveway area and building pad,
which will create a work area free of mud to receive building materials and set up equipment.
When construction is complete, the home will have a driveway and foundation that is less
likely to settle and crack.

[47]
7.5 EMBANKMENT STABILIZATION :
Often, inferior or overly wet borrow materials are used to construct embankments. Lime
treatment can be used to stabilize these soils either when they are first constructed, or as part
of repairing failed embankments. Usually the unstable soil is moved to a mixing area where
construction equipment can be used to conduct the operations described above. For soils
with high clay content, lime is used; whereas for soils with low clay content, lime-pozzolan
mixtures are used. These treated soils should have a water content 1 to 3 percent above
optimum to ensure that the lime reaction has enough water for completion. After mixing,
watering, and mellowing, the material is returned to the embankment, shaped, and
compacted to specification. Construction time is saved as the mellowing occurs in the
material stockpile. Limed material is compacted without delay in lifts as it is returned to the
embankment. For embankments where soil drying is the primary goal, the soil is often
treated with lime after it is brought into the embankment location. The untreated soil is
placed in lifts, typically 8 to 12 inches thick. Each lift is treated with lime and thoroughly
mixed, lowering the soil moisture content. The lift is then compacted, another lift of soil is
placed and the process is repeated until the embankment is complete. Again, it is important
to ensure that adequate moisture exists or is added, particularly if quicklime is used. If
quicklime is used, it is essential that all particles have undergone hydration.
FIG 7.3 : PRELIMINARY MIXING OF LIME AND EMBANKMENT SOILS IN
MIXING AREA

[48]
FIG 7.4 : RETURNING TREATED SOILS FROM MIXING AREA TO
EMBANKMENT

[49]
CHAPTER 8
VOLUME AND COST ANALYSIS OF PAVEMENT
8.1 GENERAL :
A typical pavement cross section for rural roads used in this study. The section is of single
lane road with 3.75m carriage way and 1.125m shoulder on the either side. A length of 1km
road is considered for computation of cost. The thickness of different layer that are obtained
from the design are used to compute the cross sectional areas of the layers by multiplying
with the pavement width. The materials used for constituting the different layer of granular
sub base(GSB), water bound macadam(WBM II and WBM III), premix carpet (PMC), seal
coat, prime coat and tack coat, which are currently recommended in IRC:SP:20-2002.
The costs of different pavements are obtained by multiplying the volume of materials by
their respective costs. The costs of the different materials are calculated using 2012 schedule
of rates for PMGSY Roads. Since no standard rates are given for rice husk ash as it is a
waste material. The cost comparison of proposed Lime- Rice husk ash stabilized pavements
for different traffic category are tabulated in the table 8.1 to 8.2 The cost of flexible
pavement construction per kilometer varies from 46 lakhs to 67 lakhs for different category
of traffic whereas the cost of flexible pavement construction using 10% Rice husk ash and
8% Lime varies from 28 lakhs to 38 lakhs.

[50]
Table 8.1 COST ANALYSIS :
SL ITEM QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT
1
Providing and laying
granular sub base with
well graded material
over compacted sub
grade
(4.05×0.110×1000)
=445.5 cum
2953.90
Per cum
1315962.45
2
Construction of earthen
shoulder
[{0.5×(1.125+1.685)×0.280)}
-{(0.075×0.075)
+(0.15×0.11)}]×2×1000 =
742.55 cum
154.10
Per cum
114426.955
3
Providing, laying,
spreading and
compacting WBM
Grade III
(3.75×0.075×1000)
= 281.25 cum
37777.5
Per cum
1062421.87
4
Providing, laying,
spreading and
compacting WBM
Grade II
(3.90×0.075×1000)
= 292.50 cum
3782.50
Per cum
1106381.25
5
Providing and applying
Prime coat
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2 35 per
m2 131250
6
Tack coat
3.75×1000) = 3750 m2 12.50
per m2 46875
7
Providing, laying and
rolling of open graded
premix carpet 20mm
thick using bituminous
binder (asphalt 80/100)
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2 184.10
per m2 690375
8
seal coat
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2 43.00
per m2 161250
Total Cost = 4628942.53

[51]
Table 8.2 COST ANALYSIS :
SL ITEM QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT
1
granular sub base with
well graded material
over compacted sub
grade
NA NA NA
2
Construction of earthen
shoulder
Lime
Net soil
[{0.5×(1.125+1.405)×0
.140)}-{(0.075×0.06}]
×2×1000=345.2 cum
345.2×0.12 = 41.424
cum
283.064 cum
46.034
154.10
1906.912
43620.16
3
Providing, laying,
spreading and
compacting WBM
Grade III
(3.75×0.060×1000) =
225 cum
3777.50 Per
cum
849937.5
4
Providing, laying,
spreading and
compacting WBM
Grade II
(3.90×0.060×1000) =
234 cum
3782.50 Per
cum
885105
5
Prime coat
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2
35 Per m2
131250
6
Tack coat
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2
12.5 Per m2
46875
7
Providing, laying and
rolling of open graded
premix carpet 20mm
thick using bituminous
binder (asphalt 80/100)
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2
184.10 m2
690375
8
seal coat
(3.75×1000) = 3750 m2
43.00 Per m2
161250
Total Cost = 2810318.432

[52]
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
9.1 GENERAL :
 Lime is used as an excellent soil stabilizing materials for highly active soils which
undergo through frequent expansion and shrinkage.
 Lime acts immediately and improves various property of soil such as carrying capacity
of soil, resistance to shrinkage during moist conditions, reduction in plasticity index,
increase in CBR value and subsequent increase in the compression resistance with the
increase in time.
 The reaction is very quick and stabilization of soil starts within few hours.
9.2 NUMEROUS ADVANTAGES IN BROAD RANGE OF
APPLICATION :
 In the time of a few hours, an unconditional soil is transformed by lime into a stabilized
soil which can carry the traffic load sufficiently. An added bonus is that the soil becomes
less sensitive to moisture. This immediate and spectacular effect makes it possible to
build job site roads that can be used regardless of weather condition.
 The technique makes it possible to retain high quality raw materials for quality
applications. The building of embankments using moist plastic soils treated with lime
can result in considerable savings on materials brought in from elsewhere, often at great
cost, and the inevitably high costs of waste soil disposal.

[53]
 Lime treatment makes it possible to construct good quality capping layers and beds for
roads, railway tracks, and runways. The stiffening/curing of the structure means that the
slopes of the structure have greater stability.
 Because it is such a simple process, lime-stabilization of soil is easy to apply to “small”
works, such as foundations for car parks, industrial platforms, and agricultural and
forestry roads. The greatest benefits of this procedure, namely the savings on aggregate
and disposal charges, are indeed the same as for all major earth moving works.
9.3 ECONOMIC BENEFITS :
 Limitation of the need for embankment materials brought in from outside and the
elimination of their transporting costs.
 Reduction of transport movements in the immediate vicinity of the construction site.
 Machines can move about with far greater ease. Delays due to weather conditions are
reduced, leading to improved productivity. As a result, the overall construction duration
and costs can be dramatically reduced.
 Structures have a longer service life (embankments, capping layers) and are cheaper to
maintain.
From the study it is observed that there is an appreciable improvement in the optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density for the soil treated with lime. In terms of
material cost, the use of less costly Admixtures can reduce the required amount of industrial
waste. Soils had the greatest improvement with all soils becoming nonplastic with the
addition of sufficient amounts of industrial waste. The study after conducting several
experiments revealed significances in using lime and industrial waste as a stabilizing agent.
The addition of lime to sub base increases the unconfined compressive strength value more
than that by ordinary methods. The sub base stabilization with lime improves the strength
behaviour of sub base. It can potentially reduce ground improvement costs by adopting this
method of stabilization.

[54]
REFERENCES
 https://www.ripublication.com/ijcer_spl/ijcerv5n1spl_08.pdf
 https://www.ijirset.com/upload/2014/april/26_Improvement.pdf
 http://gndec.ac.in/~igs/ldh/conf/2009/articles/T04_07.pdf
 http://research.ijcaonline.org/efitra/number4/efitra1025.pdf
 http://www.ijettjournal.org/volume-11/number-1/IJETT-V11P209.pdf
 http://www.ijert.org/download/11712/a-experimental-study-of-black-cotton-soil-
stabilized-with-rice-husk-ash-fly-ash-and-lime
 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2011/138149/
 www.ijettjournal.org/2016/volume-38/number-7/IJETT-V38P266.pdf
 http://www.ijlret.com/Papers/Vol-2-issue-2/8-B2016056.pdf
 http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-jmce/papers/ICETEM/Vol.%201%20Issue%203/28-08-
11.pdf
 https://www.ijitr.com/index.php/ojs/article/download/839/pdf
 http://www.ijera.com/special_issue/AET_Mar_2014/CE/Version%20%202/C1116.pdf
 www.iiests.ac.in/index.php/abouttapash-kumar-roy-civilmenuitem
 http://www.ijeit.com/vol%202/Issue%201/IJEIT1412201207_66.pdf
 http://www.ijemhs.com/Published%20Paper/Volume%2014/Issue%2001/IJES%2001/I
JEMHSJuly2015_1_5_Naveen.pdf
 www.ijetae.com/files/Volume4Issue11/IJETAE_1114_29.pdf
 http://esatjournals.net/ijret/2014v03/i11/IJRET20140311057.pdf
 http://www.arpapress.com/Volumes/Vol1Issue3/IJRRAS_1_3_01.pdf
 http://lejpt.academicdirect.org/A15/067_074.pdf
 www.arpapress.com/Volumes/Vol1Issue3/IJRRAS_1_3_01.pdf
 International Journal of Engineering, Management, Humanities and Social Sciences
Paradigms (IJEMHS) (Volume 14, Issue 01) Publishing Month: July 2015
www.ijemhs.com/IJES%20VOL%2014,%20ISSUE%2001.php
 International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology
Vol. 2, Issue 2, February 2013
 The FAA’s Advisory Circular for Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports,
AC 150/5370-10A, Part 2, Item P-155 “Lime Treated Subgrade.”
 Lime-treated soil construction manual published BY National Lime Association

[55]
 International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN
2278 – 0882 Volume 4, Issue 7, July 2015
 Soil Mechanics and Foundations Engineering by Dr. B.C Punmia & Ashok Kumar Jain.
 Geotechnical Engineering – Principles and Practice of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering By VNS Murthy
 Highway Engineering by S.K Khanna & C.E.G Justo
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_stabilization
 The National Lime Association-http://lime.org/
 IS 2720 ( Part 1 – 5, 7, 10,16 ), Indian Standard Methods of Tests for Soils.

COMPARISON OF SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH USING LIME & COST ANALYSIS

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