This slide(perception) describes perception, types of perception, the parts of the brain which control it, and disorders and remedies. It also explains memory and its types. The language which is another cognitive skill also presented in this slide.

1. PERCEPTION

2. What is perception?
• Perception is the ability to capture, process,
and actively make sense of the information
that our senses receive

3. Types of Perception and Neuro
anatomy
• Visual or visual perception: The ability to see and interpret light
information within the visible spectrum that arrives to our eyes.
The area of the brain responsible for visual perception is the
occipital lobe (primary visual cortex V1 and secondary visual cortex
V2).
• Hearing or auditory perception: Ability to receive and interpret
information that arrives to our ears by audible frequency waves
through the air or another mean (sound). The brain part in charge
of the basic stage of auditory perception is the temporal lobe
(primary auditory cortex A1 and secondary auditory cortex A2).
• Touch, touch perception, somatosensory or haptic perception :
The capacity to interpret information of pressure and vibration
received on the surface of our skin. The parietal lobe is the part of
the brain responsible for the basic stages in haptic perception
(primary somatosensory cortex S1 and secondary somatosensory
cortex S2).

4. • Smell or olfactory perception: The ability to interpret
information of chemical substances dissolved in the air
(smell). Basic stages of the olfactory perception are done by
the olfactory bulb (primary olfactory cortex) and the
piriform cortex (secondary olfactory cortex).
• Taste or taste perception: The ability to interpret
information from chemical substances dissolved in saliva
(taste). The main brain areas in control of the basic stages
are the primary taste areas G1 (postcentral inferior gyrus,
parietal ventral lobe, anterior insula, fronto-parietal medial
operculum) and secundary taste areas G2 (caudolateral
frontal orbital cortex and anterior cingulate cortex).
• Other types of Perception

5. Phases of Perception
• Selection: The number of stimuli we are exposed daily exceeds our
capacity. For this reason, we need to filter and choose the
information we want to perceive. This selection is done through
our attention, experiences, necessities and preferences.
• Organization: Once we know what to perceive, we need to gather
the stimuli in groups in order to give them meaning. In perception
there is synergy, since it is an overall perception of what is
perceived and it can't be reduced to separate stimuli characteristics.
According to Gestalt principles, stimuli organization is not random
but instead it follows specific criteria.
• Interpretation: When we have organized all the selected stimuli, we
then proceed to give them meaning, completing the perception
process. The interpretation process is modulated by our experience
and expectations.
• Other Gestalt principles

6. Examples of Perception
• It's important to identify on time any perceptive
problem that the student might have. This will allow us
to apply the means necessary so no auditory
information is lost (what the professor says) or visual
information (the text on the board and books).
• A correct perception helps workers do their job
efficiently. Artists are a clear example of the
importance of perception in the professional world.
However, any job requires, in a greater or lesser
manner, some type of perception: sweepers, taxi
drivers, designers, policemen, cashiers, builders, etc.

7. Agnosia and other disorders regarding
perception
• The most common perception disorder is Agnosia. This disorder
entail(involve) a difficulty in directing and controlling perception, as well
as behaviour in general. There are two types: Perceptive visual
agnosia (can see parts of an object but is incapable of understanding the
object as a whole) and Associative visual agnosia (understands the object
as a whole but can place what object is it). It's difficult to understand
perception through these disorders since even though they can see, for
them it is a similar sensation to being blind. There are also more specific
disorders, such as akinetopsia (inability to see
movement), achromatopsia (inability to see
colours), prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces), auditive
agnosia (inability to recognize an object by sound, and, in the case of
verbal information, person with agnosia wouldn't be able to recognize the
language as such), amusia (inability to recognize or reproduce musical
tones or rhythms). These disorders are produced by brain damages such
as ictus, brain trauma (shock) or, even a neurodegenerative disease.

8. How Can you Recover or Improve
Perception?
• Brain plasticity is the basis of perception rehabilitation
and other cognitive skills. CogniFit has a battery of
clinical exercises designed to help rehabilitate the
deficits in perception and other cognitive functions.
The brain and its neural connections can be
strengthened by challenging and working them, so by
frequently training these skills, the brain structures
related to perception will become stronger.
• CogniFit was created by a team of professionals
specialized in the area of neurogenesis and synaptic
plasticity, which is how we were able to create
a personalized cognitive stimulation program that
would be tailored to the needs of each user.

9. Memory
• Memory is a complex process that allows us to
code, store, and recover information. If the
attention system doesn't work properly, we
won't be as efficient in doing such tasks. If we
don't pay attention to something, we cannot
code, store, or recover this information. In
order to understand memory, we can classify
it according to two criteria:

10. MEMORY
Sensory Short term
Long term
Emplicit(Con)
Implicit(Un
con)
Procedural(skills,
tasks)
Declarative(Facts,
Events)
Epidodic(events,expe
rience)
Semantic(fact
s, concepts)

11. 1-TEMPORAL CRITERION
• Short-term memory:
• -Immediate memory
• -Operative or working memory: Short-term
passive storage system that allows us to work
with information. For example, when we try to
remember a telephone number before writing
it on a piece of paper.

12. LONG TERM MEMORY
• AREAS THAT MEMORY OPERATES
• Declarative (explicit) memory: References memories
that may be consciously evoked.
• -Episodic: the autobiographical memory that allows us
to remember concepts and events from our past. For
example, where did we go on vacation last year? When
did I graduate? When did I get married?
• -Semantic: This memory references what we've
learned and our general knowledge of the world. What
is the capital of France? What is a square root?
• The medial temporal lobe and the diencephalon are
the structures associated with this kind of memory.

13. Non-declarative or implicit memory
• References subconscious memories and some
skills like riding a bike or ice-skating. The
neocortex, the amygdala (when emotions are
involved), the striatum, and the reflex arcs.
• We also have to keep in mind that the storage
zones are in the temporal lobes, but the more
strategic components are more related to the
frontal lobes. (See image below)

15. LANGUAGE
• Language is a symbolic communication system
that is presented through languages. Language
isn't only important for communicating with
others, but also for structuring our internal
thoughts. Language processing uses different
brain areas that act together through different
functional systems that involve the left
hemisphere especially. We could talk about two
cortical areas that are in charge of expression and
reception of language, mainly in the left cerebral
hemisphere:

16. 1.LANGUAGE EXPRESSION AREA
• Includes different areas of the cerebral cortex.
• - Pre-frontal area: Involved in the motivational
processes of language. It is where both verbal
and written communication starts (related to the
executive functions).
• -Broca's area: Located in the left frontal lobe. It is
related to speech production and spoken
language processing.
• -Primary motor cortex: Starts the movements to
start to pronounce words and movements to
guide writing.

17. LANGUAGE RECEPTION AREA
• : Includes:
• -Occipital Lobe: Allows us to identify linguistic images.
• -Parietal lobe: In charge of integrating visual and auditory stimuli.
• - Left temporal lobe: In charge of synthesizing and understanding spoken
sounds. It is integrated by: Helsch's Area (primary auditory area. It
receives the sounds to code them in the multimodal area) and
the Wernicke's Area (related to language comprehension. It gives meaning
to these perceived sounds.)
• Aside from the cortical areas, other areas are also essential for proper
language function. The interconnection between these cortical areas with
other subcortical structures, like the arcuate fasciculus (connects the
Broca's area to the Wernicke's area), the thalamus (important for language
regulation, as it connects sympathetic with expressive areas), the pulvinar
nucleus and geniculate, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum (which
intervenes in language fluency, rhythm, and tone), etc.

18. Dylexia
• Dyslexia is a learning disorder that affects more than 10% of the
population. It is a neurological impairment that affects the learning
process, making difficult to read, write, and easily decode language
or symbols. Children with dyslexia tend to start speaking later, have
weaker listening comprehension, and have fewer words in their
vocabulary compared to other children their age. Dyslexia is not
related to intelligence, but to the way the brain processes
information. Nowadays people are more aware of this disorder
and children are better diagnosed than they used to be. However,
many adults with reading and writing difficulties throughout their
entire lives still have never heard of dyslexia. The worst-case
scenario are adults with dyslexia that are unaware of their disorder.
If left untreated, dyslexia may lead to a number of problems, such
as low self-esteem, behavior problems, anxiety, aggression, and
withdrawal from friends, parents, and teachers.

19. • ogniFit Cognitive Assessment Battery for Dyslexia (CAB-DX)
will adapt to the user's age making it appropriate for kids 7
and older, teens, and adults. This test consists of two parts,
the first part is a questionnaire based on the relevant
dyslexia symptoms and the second part is aimed at
assessing cognitive tasks in the form of brain games. The
CAB-DX takes approximately 30 to 40 minutes to complete,
and the results are available for download at the end of the
test.
Human Brain Functions and CogniFit
• www.cognifit.com › brain-functions
•

20. Language Learning
• Specifically, some of the cognitive benefits include…
• Being a better listener: Being bilingual requires your brain to discern between two
sets of very distinctive sounds and to accurately identify those speech sounds.
• Being less distracted: Speaking in a foreign tongue requires the active suppressing
of the other language(s) that one knows, showing to better inhibit overall
distractions.
• Becoming a better multitasker: For someone who knows multiple languages, it’s a
common occurrence to switch rapidly between tongues, effectively an exercise in
quickly and efficiently switching between different tasks.
• Better ability to problem-solve and be creative: Speaking in a foreign tongue
inevitably requires creativity when one is faced with unfamiliar words or phrases in
order to communicate effectively. Studies have shown that bilinguals have an
advantage in overall problem solving and creativity.
• The cognitive benefits of language learning
• By Steffanie Zazulak
• February 15, 2016

21. Decision-making
• In psychology, decision-making (also
spelled decision making and decisionmaking)
is regarded as the cognitive process resulting
in the selection of a belief or a course of
action among several alternative possibilities.
Decision-making is the process of identifying
and choosing alternatives based on
the values, preferences and beliefs of the
decision-maker

22. Neuroscience
• Decision-making is a region of intense study in the
fields of systems neuroscience, and cognitive
neuroscience. Several brain structures, including
the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal
cortex and the overlapping ventromedial prefrontal
cortex are believed to be involved in decision-making
processes. A neuroimaging study[15] found distinctive
patterns of neural activation in these regions
depending on whether decisions were made on the
basis of perceived personal volition or following
directions from someone else. Patients with damage to
the ventromedial prefrontal cortex have difficulty
making advantageous decisions.[16]

23. • A common laboratory paradigm for studying neural decision-
making is the two-alternative forced choice task (2AFC), in which a
subject has to choose between two alternatives within a certain
time. A study of a two-alternative forced choice task
involving rhesus monkeys found that neurons in the parietal
cortex not only represent the formation of a decision[17] but also
signal the degree of certainty (or "confidence") associated with the
decision.[18] Another recent study found that lesions to the ACC in
the macaque resulted in impaired decision-making in the long run
of reinforcement guided tasks suggesting that the ACC may be
involved in evaluating past reinforcement information and guiding
future action.[19] A 2012 study found that rats and humans can
optimally accumulate incoming sensory evidence, to make
statistically optimal decisions

24. Cognitive styles
1. Optimizing vs. satisfying
• psychological research has identified individual differences between two
cognitive styles: maximizers try to make an optimal decision,
whereas satisficers simply try to find a solution that is "good enough“.
2.Intuitive vs. rational
• The psychologist Daniel Kahneman, adopting terms originally proposed by
the psychologists Keith Stanovich and Richard West, has theorized that a
person's decision-making is the result of an interplay between two kinds
of cognitive processes: an automatic intuitive system (called "System 1")
and an effortful rational system (called "System 2").
3.Combinatorial vs. positional
• The combinational style is -a very narrow, clearly defined, primarily
material goal; and a program that links the initial position with the final
outcome.
• The positional style is -a positional goal; and a formation of semi-complete
linkages between the initial step and final outcome

25. 4. Influence of Myers-Briggs type- According to Isabel Briggs
Myers, a person's decision-making process depends to a
significant degree on their cognitive style. Myers developed
a set of four bi-polar dimensions
as thinking and feeling; extroversion and introversion; judg
ment and perception; and sensing and intuition.
5. General decision-making style - In the general decision-
making style (GDMS) test developed by Suzanne Scott and
Reginald Bruce, there are five decision-making styles:
rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous.
6. Organizational vs. individual level- There are a few
characteristics that differentiate organizational decision-
making from individual decision-making as studied in lab
experiments

26. LANGUAGE
• Language is a symbolic communication system
that is presented through languages. Language
isn't only important for communicating with
others, but also for structuring our internal
thoughts. Language processing uses different
brain areas that act together through different
functional systems that involve the left
hemisphere especially. We could talk about two
cortical areas that are in charge of expression and
reception of language, mainly in the left cerebral
hemisphere.

27. Language and Cognition
• 1-LANGUAGE EXPRESSION AREA
• 2-LANGUAGE RECEPTION AREA
• 1-LANGUAGE EXPRESSION AREA: Includes different areas
of the cerebral cortex.
• - Pre-frontal area: Involved in the motivational processes of
language. It is where both verbal and written
communication starts (related to the executive functions).
• -Broca's area: Located in the left frontal lobe. It is related to
speech production and spoken language processing.
• -Primary motor cortex: Starts the movements to start to
pronounce words and movements to guide writing.

28. • 2-LANGUAGE RECEPTION AREA: Includes:
• -Occipital Lobe: Allows us to identify linguistic images.
• -Parietal lobe: In charge of integrating visual and auditory stimuli.
• - Left temporal lobe: In charge of synthesizing and understanding spoken
sounds. It is integrated by: Helsch's Area (primary auditory area. It
receives the sounds to code them in the multimodal area) and
the Wernicke's Area (related to language comprehension. It gives meaning
to these perceived sounds.)
• Aside from the cortical areas, other areas are also essential for proper
language function. The interconnection between these cortical areas with
other subcortical structures, like the arcuate fasciculus (connects the
Broca's area to the Wernicke's area), the thalamus (important for language
regulation, as it connects sympathetic with expressive areas), the pulvinar
nucleus and geniculate, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum (which
intervenes in language fluency, rhythm, and tone), etc.

29. • 2.2.14 Cognitive Training for Dyslexia
• Cognitive dyslexia training is a brain stimulation
program to help develop reading and writing
skills and improve cognitive skills associated with
dyslexia. Measures and trains a total of 4
cognitive skills from a set of games andtasks. The
cognitive skills it trains are: naming, visual
scanning, short-term visual memory and
processing speed.It is a training program available
for children 7+. Scores and difficulty level are
adjusted to each patient.