the structure of human brain is being discribed. Its bout the explaination of how human brain works and all the eesnsial substances include in it that are simpkly defoned and very important if someone nb to be .

4. CONTENTS
Brain Anatomy
Divisions of Brain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Protection of Brain
Ventricles of Brain
Deeper Structure of Brain

5. Brain Anatomy
• The brain is housed inside the bony covering called the cranium.
• Together, the cranium and bones that protect the face are called
the skull.
• The brain serves many important functions.
• The brain controls thoughts, memory and speech, arm and leg
movements and the function of many organs within the body.
• It also determines how people respond to stressful situations by
regulating heart and breathing rates.
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6. Weight of human brain
•The weight of the brain changes from birth through
adulthood.
•At birth, the average brain weighs about one pound,
and grows to about two pounds during childhood.
•The average weight of an adult female brain is about
2.7 pounds, while the brain of an adult male weighs
about three pounds.
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7. The cell structure of the brain
•The brain is made up of two types of cells: neurons
and glial cells, also known as neuroglia or glia.
•The neuron is responsible for sending and receiving
nerve impulses or signals.
• Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide
support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form
myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the
nervous system.
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8. Divisions of brain
• The brain is like a group of experts. All the
parts of the brain work together, but each part
has its own special responsibilities.
• The brain can be divided into three basic
units:
1. The forebrain
2. The midbrain
3. The hindbrain
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9. Forebrain
•In the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the
forebrain or prosencephalon is the rostral (forward-
most) portion of the brain.
•The forebrain controls body temperature, reproductive
functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of
emotions.
•The forebrain is a mammal’s brain’s largest and most
obvious part. The outer layer is called the cerebral
cortex and consists of the cerebral hemispheres, which
account for two-thirds of the brain’s total mass.
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10. Thalamus
 Thalamus is an egg-shaped structure in the middle of
your brain
The thalamus is complex part of your brain that's known
as the relay station of all incoming motor (movement
and sensory information from your body to your brain
 Location of thalamus
 The thalamus is a small structure within the brain
located just above the brain stem between the cerebral
cortex and the midbrain and has extensive nerve
connections to both

11. Function of thalamus
Thalamus has many functions, including:
 Relaying sensory information:
 Taking in information, in the form of nerve signals, from all of senses (taste,
touch, hearing, seeing) except smell, into the brain
 Prioritizing attention:
 Thalamus helps decide what to focus on among the vast amount of
information that it receives

12. Cont…
 Role in consciousness:
 It plays a role in keeping you awake and alert
 Role in thinking (cognition) and memory:
 It is involved in processing and regulating emotions
 Formation and storage of memories and learning
 It plays a role in sleep and wakefulness

13. Thalamus and injury
The side effects of thalamus damage can vary from person to person
 Some of the most common side effects of thalamic damage include:
 Sensory issues such as tingling, numbness, hypersensitivity and pain
 Vision loss or light sensitivity
 Motor impairments
 Tremors
 Attention problems
 Memory loss
 Insomnia
 Severe damage to it can also result in a coma

14. Limbic system
•It is the center of our emotions, learning, and memory.
• Included in this system are the
o Hypothalamus
oAmygdala (emotional reactions)
o hippocampus (memory).

15. Amygdala
•The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure that is
located in the medial temporal lobe, just anterior to (in
front of) the hippocampus.
•The main function of the amygdala is in emotional
responses, including feelings of happiness, fear, anger,
and anxiety
•An emotion the amygdala is particularly responsible
for is controlling fear

16. Hippocampus
•The hippocampus is a small, seahorse-shaped structure in
the brain ,a part of the brain found in the inner folds of the
temporal lobe
•The main functions of the hippocampus involve human
learning and memory
•Diseases that affect the hippocampus
•A range of conditions can adversely affect the
hippocampus, including long-term exposure to high levels
of stress

17. Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain
 It’s located at the base of the brain, near the
pituitary gland

18. Functions of hypothalamus:
 The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in many important functions
 Including
 Releasing hormones
 Controlling appetite
 managing sexual behavior
 Regulating emotional responses
 Regulating body temperature

19. Regions of hypothalamus:
Anterior region:
 The anterior region of the hypothalamus also helps regulate body
temperature through sweat
 Middle region:
 It involved in appetite and releasing growth hormone-releasing hormone
(GHRH)
 Posterior region:
 The posterior region is also called the mammillary region
 It helps regulate body temperature by causing shivering and blocking sweat
production

20. Hypothalamus and injury:
Some of the cause that damage the hypothalamus include:
 Brain tumors
 Nutritional deficiencies
 Brain surgery
 Inflammatory disease

21. Cerebrum
•The cerebrum is the largest and most complex part of
the brain, comprising about 85% of its weight and
volume.
• It is responsible for many of the higher cognitive and
sensory functions, including consciousness, perception,
memory, language, emotion, and voluntary movement.
• The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, each
with four lobes, and is connected by the corpus
callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers that allows
communication between the two sides.

22. Hemispheres
•The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres
•The left and the right.
•Each hemisphere has its unique functions and
abilities, and they are connected by the corpus
callosum, which allows communication
between them.

23. The left hemisphere is often referred to as the "logical" or
"analytical" side of the brain and is responsible for language
processing, mathematical skills, and logical thinking.
The right hemisphere is considered the "creative" or
"intuitive" side of the brain and is responsible for processing
visual and spatial information, music and emotions.

24. Cerebral cortex
•The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the
brain and is responsible for processing sensory
input, analyzing data, and controlling voluntary
movements.
•It is divided into four lobes
o frontal
o Parietal
oTemporal
o Occipital

25. Lobes of brain:
•The four lobes of the
cerebral cortex :
i. Frontal lobes
ii. Parietal lobe
iii.Temporal lobe
iv. Occipital lobe

26. Frontal lobe
The frontal lobes are located in the front of the brain
 They are very large and have many functions:
i. The frontal lobes are considered to be our emotional control center
ii. They play a central role in our personality and how we act
iii. They are also involved in attention skills and controlling
movement
iv.The frontal lobes manage skills known as executive functions
v. These are very important skills we use for things such as solving
problems, planning, making decisions and controlling our
behaviour

27. Effects of an injury to the frontal lobes
The frontal lobes are particularly vulnerable to injury because they are large and are at
the front of the brain
An injury to the frontal lobes can lead to a number of changes including:
 Changes in personality
 Difficulties with attention and taking in information
 Emotional responses may be reduced
 Changes in the ability to control behaviour
 reduced self-awareness (anosagnosia)
 Poor judgment and decision-making
 Irritability and less tolerance of frustration

28. Parietal lobes
The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and
above the temporal lobes
 One of their main functions is to allow us to make sense of
things we touch
 for example, whether an object is smooth or sharp, firm or
soft
 Function
 The parietal lobe is vital for sensory perception and
integration, including the management of taste, hearing, sight,
touch, and smell

29. Effects of an injury to the parietal lobes:
Difficulty naming objects (anomia)
 Difficulty in distinguishing left from right
 Difficulties with hand-eye coordination
 Difficulty knowing the function of an object
 Problems with reading (alexia), writing (agraphia) or maths (dyscalculia)
 Reduced self-awareness (anosognosia)
 Visual neglect

30. Temporal lobe
The temporal lobe of your brain is a pair of areas on your brain’s left and right
sides
 Function
 They are most commonly associated with processing auditory information and
with the encoding of memory
 The temporal lobes are also believed to play an important role in Processing
affect emotions, language, and certain aspects of visual perception

31. Effects of an injury to the temporal lobes
 Disturbance with selective attention to what we see and hear
 Difficulty with identification and categorisation of objects
 Difficulty learning and retaining new information
 Impaired factual and long-term memory

32. Occipital lobes
The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain
Functions
 They have an important role in vision because they
allow us to make sense of information that comes from
our eyes
 This process is known as visual perception

33. Effects of an injury to the occipital lobes:
Sight defects blurred vision or sight loss
 Visual hallucinations and distortions
 Difficulty with identifying colours
 difficulty recognising words

34. Midbrain
•Located towards the base of your brain is a small but
important region called the midbrain , which serves as a
vital connection point between the other major regions
of the brain - the forebrain and the hindbrain.
•The midbrain is the topmost part of the brainstem, the
connection central between the brain and the spinal cord.

35. Hindbrain
•The hindbrain (developmentally derived from
the rhombencephalon) is one of the three major
regions of our brains, located at the lower back
part of the brain.
• It includes most of the brainstem and a dense
coral-shaped structure called the cerebellum.
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36. Functions of hindbrain
• The hindbrain coordinates functions that are fundamental to survival, including
respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness.
• It is one of the three major developmental divisions of the brain; the other two
are the midbrain and forebrain.
• The hindbrain is responsible for most of the breathing, blood pressure, sneezing,
and swallowing actions that happen in the body.
• This part of the brain is also responsible for the heart rate and breathing that
happens in the body.
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37. Parts of hindbrain
The hindbrain consist of:
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
• It controls rapid muscular activities.
• The cerebellum — also called the "little brain" because it looks like a small
version of the cerebrum — is responsible for balance, movement, and coordination.

38. Pons
•Your pons is a part of your brainstem, a structure that links your brain to your
spinal cord.
•It handles unconscious processes and jobs, such as your sleep-wake cycle and
breathing.
• It also contains several junction points for nerves that control muscles and
carry information from senses in your head and face.
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39. Medulla oblongata
•Medulla oblongata is the connection between the
brainstem and the spinal cord, carrying multiple
important functional centers.
• It is comprised of the cardiovascular-respiratory
regulation system, descending motor tracts,
ascending sensory tracts, and origin of cranial
nerves ix, x, xi, and xii.
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40. Functions of medulla oblongata
•Your medulla oblongata is the bottom-most part of your brain.
•Its location means it's where your brain and spinal cord connect, making it a key
conduit for nerve signals to and from your body.
•It also helps control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood
pressures.

41. Protection of brain
•The brain is protected by the bones of the skull.
•Covering of three thin membranes called meninges.
•The brain is also cushioned and protected by cerebrospinal fluid.

42. Protection by skull
•The skull consists of 22 bones in most adult specimens, and these bones come
together via cranial sutures.
• The function of the skull is both structurally supportive and protective.
•The skull will harden and fuse through development to protect its inner contents:
the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and orbits.
• It supports the muscles of the face and scalp by providing muscular and tendinous
attachments, protects neurovascular structures, and houses various sinuses to
accommodate increases in pressure

43. Protection by meanings
•The brain has several forms of protection from injury. First is the skull which
is composed of thick bone.
• Between the skull and the brain itself are three protective membranes, the
meninges named as
 Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater

44. Membranes
Dura mater:
• A thick layer of tissue attached to the skull and forming sheets between the two
cerebral hemispheres (the falx cerebri) and between the cerebrum and cerebellum
Arachnoid mater:
• A thinner layer (called arachnoid as like a spider’s web) separate from the dura.
Pia mater:
•A thin layer closely applied to the brain itself.
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45. Protection by cerebrospinal fluid
•Cerebrospinal fluid has four major functions:
(1) physical support of neural structures,
(2) excretion and “sink” action,
(3) intracerebral transport, and
(4) control of the chemical environment of the central nervous system.
•Cerebrospinal fluid provides a “water jacket” of physical support and buoyancy.

46. Ventricles of brain
•The ventricles are structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid, and transport
it around the cranial cavity.
•They are lined by ependymal cells, which form a structure called the choroid
plexus.
• It is within the choroid plexus that CSF is produced.
•Embryologically, the ventricular system is derived from the lumen of the neural
tube.

47. Ventricles of brain
•In total, there are four ventricles
o right lateral ventricle
o left lateral ventricle
o third ventricle
o fourth ventricle

48. Pathways called white matter tracts connect
areas of the cortex to each other.
Messages can travel from one gyrus to
another, from one lobe to another, from one
side of the brain to the other, and to
structures deep in the brain
Deeper structure of brain

49. Pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland is connected to the
hypothalamus of the brain by the pituitary stalk.
•Known as the “master gland,” it controls other
endocrine glands in the body.
•It secretes hormones that control sexual
development, promote bone and muscle growth,
and respond to stress.

50. Pineal gland
•It is located behind the third ventricle.
•It helps regulate the body’s internal clock and
circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin.
•It has some role in sexual development.