My self Himanshu sunhare student of svvv indore completed my BSc degree from svvv indore and persuing master from SVVV

1. BLOOD
COMPOSITION,HISTOLOGY,EXAMINATION OF BLOOD AND BLOOD
STAINS.IDENTIFICATION OF LOCHIAL AND MENSTRUAL STAINS BY
VARIOUS METHODS
SUBMITTED BY- HIMANSHU SUNHARE SUBMITTED TO-NANDINI
KATARE MAM
MSC III RD SEM
SVIFS, INDORE

2. INTRODUCTION
• Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers
necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells
and transports metabolic waste products away from those same
cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in
blood plasma

3. • Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water
(92% by volume),[2] and contains proteins, glucose,
mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the
main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood
cells themselves. Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it
functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.

4. BLOOD BASICS FUNCTION
• transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues
• forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss
• carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection

5. • bringing waste products to the kidneys and liver, which filter
and clean the blood
• regulating body temperature

6. BLOOD COMPOSITION & HISTOLOGY

9. Plasma is pale yellow colored liquid component of blood that
hold the cellular component of blood in suspension

10. ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CELLS)
• Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the most numerous of the
formed elements. Erythrocytes are tiny biconcave disks, thin in
the middle and thicker around the periphery. The shape
provides a combination of flexibility for moving through
tiny capillaries with a maximum surface area for
the diffusion of gases. The primary function of erythrocytes is
to transport oxygen and, to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide.

11. ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD
CELLS)
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the most numerous
of the formed elements. Erythrocytes are tiny biconcave
disks, thin in the middle and thicker around the
periphery. The shape provides a combination of flexibility
for moving through tiny capillaries with a maximum
surface area for the diffusion of gases. The primary
function of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen and, to a
lesser extent, carbon dioxide.

12. LEUKOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD
CELLS)
Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are generally larger than erythrocytes, but they are fewer in
number. Even though they are considered to be blood cells, leukocytes do most of their work in
the tissues. They use the blood as a transport medium. Some are phagocytic, others
produce antibodies; some secrete histamine and heparin, and others neutralize histamine.
Leukocytes are able to move through the capillary walls into the tissue spaces,
a process called diapedesis.In the tissue spaces they provide a defense against organisms that
cause disease and either promote or inhibit inflammatory responses.

13. There are two main groups of leukocytes in the blood. The cells that develop granules in
the cytoplasm are called granulocytes and those that do not have granules are called
agranulocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are granulocytes. Monocytes and
lymphocytes are agranulocytes.

14. Neutrophils, the most numerous leukocytes, are phagocytic and have light-colored granules.
Eosinophils have granules and help counteract the effects of histamine. Basophils secrete
histomine and heparin and have blue granules. In the tissues, they are called mast cells.
Lymphocytes are agranulocytes that have a special role in immune processes. Some
attack bacteria directly; others produce antibodies.

16. THROMBOCYTES (PLATELETS)
• Thrombocytes, or platelets, are not complete cells, but are
small fragments of very large cells called megakaryocytes.
Megakaryocytes develop from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow. Thrombocytes become sticky and clump together to
form platelet plugs that close breaks and tears in blood vessels.
They also initiate the formation of blood clots

17. FORENSIC ANALYSIS OF BLOOD STAINS
1Visual or physical examination of the blood evidence.
2. Presumptive screening test (Is it blood?)
3. Confirmatory test (Seriously, is it blood?)
4. Determine species origin (Is it human or animal blood?)
5. Identify the blood (Whose blood is it?)

18. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF BLOOD STAIN
• Shape,
• Size,
• Color,
• Pattern of spatter,
• Age of the stain, antemortem or postmortem stain.
• Determine the angle of impact.

19. PRESUMTIVE TEST FOR BLOOD
• Phenolphthalein test (Kastel Meyer test) - Phenolphthalein is
reduced by Zn powder in a strongly alkaline medium. If this
reduced phenolphthalein is oxidized by oxygen liberated by the
action of peroxides on hydrogen per oxide (H2O2), then a pink
or purple color is obtained, if the stain of blood. The sensitivity
of phenolphthalein test is about 1:5 lakhs

20. LUMINOL TEST
• Sodium perborate 0.7g
• 3-Aminophthal hydrazide
• 0.1g Sodium bicarbonate 5.0g
procedure
Take the suspected blood stain and add few amount of
Luminol reagent appearance of fluorescent color indicate positive
test of blood.

21. CONFIRMATORY TEST OF BLOOD:
1) Takayama test - It is also known as Haemochromogen test.
Reagent- Saturated solution of glucose 3ml
Pyridine solution 3ml
10%NaoH (sodium hydroxide solution) 3ml
Glacial Acetic Acid 7ml

22. TAKAYAMA TEST (PROCEDURE)
• Place the material to be tested on a microscopic slide and cover
with a cover slip. Add a drop of Takayama Reagent and allow to
flow under the cover slip. Warm slide gently on a hot plate at
65°C for 10-20 seconds. Allow to cool and observe under
microscope at 100X. The appearance of pink needle shaped
crystals of pyridine Haemochromogen
(Pyridineferroprotoporphyrin) is positive reaction for haeme and
confirms the presence of hemoglobin.

23. TEICHMANN’S TEST-
• Reagent preparation
For the Teichmann’s test, the reagent are
formed by the combination KCl, KBr and
KI at about 0.1g each in 100ml of Glacial
acetic acid. The reagent react with
hemoglobin and give brownish rhombic
crystal, Confirms the presence of blood.
Procedure
Place material to be tested on a microscopic
slide and cover with a cover slip. Let the
reagent flow under the cover slip. Warm the
slide gently on a hot plate at 65°C for 10-20
seconds. Allow to cool and observe under
microscope at 100X. The appearance of brown
rhombohedron shaped crystals of
ferroprotoporphyrin chloride is a positive
reaction for haeme.

24. LOCHIAL AND MENSTRUAL BLOOD
• In the field of obstetrics, lochia
is the vaginal discharge after giving
birth, containing blood, mucus, and
uterine tissue. Lochia discharge
typically continues for four to eight
weeks after childbirth, a time
known as the postpartum period or
puerperium.
• Menstruation (also known as
a period and many
other colloquial terms) is the
regular discharge of blood
and mucosal tissue from the inner
lining of the uterus through
the vagina. The menstrual cycle is
characterized by the rise and fall
of hormones. Menstruation is
triggered by
falling progesterone levels and is a
sign that pregnancy has not
occurred.

25. IDENTIFICATION OF MENSTRUAL BLOOD
Forensic analysis was done by performing confirmatory test of
normal blood using Teichmann reagent which gives negative
result with menstrual blood can be a good parameter for
differentiating the menstrual blood from normal blood . Period
blood is very different from blood that moves continuously
through the veins. In fact, it's less concentrated blood. It has
fewer blood cells than ordinary blood. To support your endo
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