Communication Skills - By GSL Mandebvu

Communication Skills
Gamuchirai SL Mandebvu

Introducing University Learning
• Academic writing is the style of writing that investigates the state of an
issue and presents one’s position based on the evidence of his or her
research [University ofTechnology Sydney Library2013]
• It’s a style of writing governed by rules and practises such as formal
structure and order, citation on research to support ideas, use of correct
spelling and grammar, punctuation as well as formal tone (Lemme I, 2005)
• It is intended for a critical informed audience and is based on closely
investigated research
2Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

Retaining Information
Studies show that people may forget:
• 80% in 2 weeks
• 50% of a lecture within 24 hours
• 95% within 1 month
IFTHEY DO NOTTAKE NOTES
From a particular survey a frequent complaint
about lectures, is that students do not know
how to identify important information

You should know the
professor lecture pattern or
the lecture style
 Some Lecturers uses PowerPoint
 Write on the board
 Gives handouts
 Stand and talk for about 2 to 3
hours
 So one should know how your
teacher want you to write notes

Contextual
Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020 6

Time management
Time management is the process
of planning and exercising
conscious control of time spent on
specific activities, especially to
increase effectiveness, efficiency
and productivity (Wikipedia 2020)
Good time management enables you to work
smatter, not harder – so that you get more
done in less time, even when time is tight and
pressures are high.
www.mindtools.com/what-is-time-
management

GoodTime Management Skills
• Prioritizing, delegation, decision-
making, goal-setting, multi-
tasking, problem solving, strategic
thinking, scheduling [Tomaszewski
Michael, CPRW –certified
professional resume writer  ]
• For other time management skills
see www.zety.com/blog/time-
management

Personal Management
Manpower Planning/Recruitment/Selection/Training and Development
• Personal Management is a managerial function that is concerned with the people
and their relationship within an organization. Its important to note, that a stratified
workforce can take the company to unimaginable heights, and this is why a
business entity creates a separate personal management department
[www.marketing91.com].
• Its obtaining, using and maintaining a satisfied workforce.
• According to Flippo, personal management is the planning, organization,
compensation, integration, and maintenance of people for the purpose of
contributing to organizational, individual and societal goals
[www.managementstudyguide.com].

DealingWith Peer Pressure/ Leadership
• A leader should be a • change agent • Mentor •
Listener • Learner
• Leaders: • Challenge the process • Inspire a
shared vision • Enable others to act • Model
the way • Encourage the herd
• .Title ‘inflation’ is a disease in Africa
• leadership is what should happen before
promotion and even after demotion. It is not
measured by the title but by delivery,
accomplishment and responsibility.
• Peer pressure meets a deficit in
both positive and negative ways
[RevTI Murefu]
• A moral deficit; • A time deficit • A
decency deficit; • A knowledge
deficit; and • An action and
implementation deficit

Academic Communication
From various books of comprehension we learn
about communication, audience management,
time management and persuasion.
• My people perish because of lack of
knowledge. Hosea 4:6
• But how can they know if no one tells them?
Romans 1:14
• Not only use words but actions and results to
attain persuasion. 1 Corinthians 2:4

Academic Communication
• It is defined as a particular style of expression
that investigates the state of an issue and
presents one`s position to demonstrate
knowledge and show proficiency with
disciplinary skills of thinking , interpreting and
presenting data or information . ( Bradley ,
2001 )
• The primary goal of academic writing is to
make whatever information you are conveying
as clear and easily understood as possible .
• To do this specific formats are followed e.g.
letter , essay , medical reports etc.
• Academic writing is problem solving
• Is scholarly
• There is use of academic register rather than
relaxed conversation language used in
everyday situation
• No use of abbreviated words
• Colloquial language is avoided
• Judgemental words which indicate the
author’s feelings about a subject
• No subheadings, numbering or bullets.
According to www.uefap.com( accessed
22/10/15)
• Therefore one is bound to conclude that an
academic writing should be formal making it
unique to other types of writing

AcademicWriting

AcademicWriting
• Academic writing is not something that
happens at once but it is a process which is
not rigid but involves many twists and turns
as well as going back and forth
• Before sitting down to write, the author
goes through the drafting stage which
involves
1)Brainstorming and discussion with
colleagues
2)Critical thinking and taking down of notes
quickly on a piece of paper
3)Writer decodes focusing on the academic
key words which are to be used

Advantages and Disadvantages of Writing
Advantages
• Writing skills can be easily learned
• Suitable for complicated and vital instruction
which can be given in a precise and uniform
manner
• Less chances of misunderstanding
• Serves as a useful references
• Effective transmission of authority in an
organization
Disadvantages
• There is no immediate feedback from the audience
• Interpretations of some statements may vary and a
person cannot be able to explain him/herself orally
than in writing
• No utilization of bodily movements and facial
expression
• Cannot really measure the ability of individuals to
respond respectively and effectively to other people

EssayWriting
Introduction of Essay writing in Academia

EssayWriting - Coherence and Cohesion
• Ideas are neatly put togethers in academic writing( Conrad, 2000)
• Good use of joining words to link ideas and paragraphs used in academic writing
• Use of sign posting words to show the developments of arguments.
• Sign posting words or transition words designate the relationship between ideas within a sentence or
paragraph.
• Examples of signposting words
1) contrast -used to oppose ideas
2) emphasis- place more importance on an idea
3) Ultimately/conclusion- show that the discussion of an idea is complete
4) Addition-used to add information that agrees with, reinforces or contributes to a previous idea

KeyWords
Essay tools

Explicitness
• The writer makes it clear to the reader how various ideas are related (Bruce, 2007)
• Words are used that emphasise the connection and flow of ideas (signalling words)
• Signalling words are: however- knowing that your line of argument is going to
change.
• Explicitness is achieved by anticipating the reader’s questions and ensuring that
these questions will be answered by the academic literary work
• Explaining what the writer intends to achieve

Precision
• Academic writing is short and direct
• Facts and figures given precisely
• Only factual information is provided and no room is left for anyone's interpretation.
• The author ought to be certain that the word used convey the intended ideas
• The writer of academic work makes sure that words do not come between him or
her and the reader
• The write precisely tells the reader how much, how many and when the
observations were made

Objectivity
• The writer first identifies a gap of knowledge
• From the gap of knowledge writer frames his or her problem statement or
known as the thesis
• The academic literary work must answer to the question set in the thesis or
problem statement
• Meant to inform rather than entertain[Finegan 1999]
• It caters for a definite and set readers and not casual readers

Hedging
• The realisation that learning is an own going process and never complete
guides the writer to use tentative language.
• The writer approaches a certain subject without making strong claims,
leaving room for others to comment
• Use of words like ‘it appears” “data suggests” “it seem”
• The is need to qualify the strength of your claims

Responsibility
• Last, but not least, academic writing should be treated with responsibility.
• The writer must have respect for the published works of others and must not pass
them off as his or hers
• Sources should be citated and style of referencing follow the conventional and
internationally accepted ways of referencing
• No plagiarism of any kind
• Everything stated should be accompanied by proofs and justifications and no
assumptions are allowed.

Beware
• Once a mistake is made in one’s written
presentation you cannot apologize to
the audience and start over compared
to oral presentation.
• Hence this is one of the major
disadvantages of written presentation.

RememberThis study is
For Increased Knowledge Not Increased Stress

Referencing
Why? How?When?

Why Reference
• Referencing is a standardised method of formatting the information sources
you would have used in your assignment or written work.
• it means acknowledging the sources that you use in your work.
To avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism is taking of another person's ideas, writings or inventions
and using them as your own; 'academic theft'.
To validate your work by giving documented evidence.
To integrate information by assessing, comparing, contrasting or
evaluating it, to show understanding.
To enable readers to consult the original source independently 28Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

CSI Harare

References
• In-text and End-text referencing guidelines
• Primary and Secondary sources
• Referencing models (These are based on Departmental needs: Harvard,
American Psychological Association APA, Chicago/Cambridge, IEEE
standards,Vancouver)

In –Text Citations
• If you use the name of the author(s) in your writing, place the year of
publication of the work in brackets after the author’s name.
• If you refer to a work in the text of your paper, place the author's last name
and the year of publication of the work in brackets at the end of the
sentence
Mullane (2006) conducted research into the effect of…
The research conclusively proved a correlation between the results (Mullane, 2006).

In-Text Citation Cont...
• When you use a direct quote you are required to provide a page number
• If you directly quote fewer then 40 words, enclose the quotation by double
quotation marks within the text
• OR
• The year of publication and the page number(s) in brackets
Mullane (2006) referred to this correlation as a “statistical anomaly” (p. 118), contributing....
It was found that the correlation was a “statistical anomaly” (Mullane, 2006, p. 118).
N

In – text contIf the quotation is greater than 40 words it should be displayed in a double-spaced, indented block (1.3 cm) without quotation
marks. As shown below
If you use more than one source to write a statement in your paper, the citation can be presented using semi-colons between
works as follows:
Separate sources, different authors: …and a number of studies have shown identical results (Sanders, 2008; Smith, 2009).
Two or more publications by the same author: It was found that...(Smith, 2000, 2004) 33Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

Reference List
• A reference list includes details of the sources cited in your paper
• It starts on a separate page at the end of your assignment paper and is titled
References.
• Each item cited in the reference list must have been cited in your paper.
• All sources appearing in the reference list must be ordered alphabetically by
surname
• A work is listed only once in the reference list, regardless of how many times it is
cited in text 34Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

Reference List
• The four basic elements of a reference list entry in APA style are:
• author (who)
• date of publication (when)
• title (what)
• source (where)
• These elements are set out as follows:
• Author, Initials. (year). Source.

Reference List

No Author

Two Authors

Three to five authors

Six or More Authors

Books

Webpage

Dictionary or Encyclopedia

Take a Breakfrom all the REF JARGON

Communication Milieu

Communication Process
There are three models of communication
process:
1. Linear
2. Interactive
3. Transactional
• Each offers a slightly different perspective on
the communication process.

Speaker – Encoder – Medium Used – Listener – Decoder
3.Transactional 1. Linear
2. Interactive

Good Listener
• Is willing to listen to something even if it’s hard to hear.
• Keep listening not easily offended or turned off by the speaker. They can
receive a rebuke.
• Proverbs 15:32Whoever ignores instruction despises himself,
but he who listens to reproof gains intelligence.
• Holistic listening – world view, academic vs scientific, culture and
community

A Good Listener
• Is not haste to judge the speaker,
looks, gender, body size can be
really deceiving
• Pays careful attention to words
• Asks questions. Not to embarrass
or attack, but to clarify and distil.

Linear Communication
• In a linear model, a sender encodes a
message via a channel and the message is
decoded by the receiver.
• It is straight line communication found in
mass communication, e.g. television,
radio and newspaper.
• According to this model, there is no
means for immediate feedback.
• There is the concept of noise.

Linear Communications
• Good at audience persuasion and propaganda
setting.
• Intentional results
• Easy to put together and implement.
• It is useful in business
• In marketing for example, helps on how an
advertising message may be altered and influenced
by encoding process of the business ,the effects of
the communication channel or medium, noise
interference and eventual decoding by the potential
customer.
• It suits one way process such as print and broadcast
advertising, where the feedback process is quite
separate from initial communication
• It depicts communication as one-way process where speakers
only speak and never listen and the listeners listen and never
speak or send a message.
• Communication is not continuous as there is no concept of
feedback.
• No way to know if communication was effective.
• Not applicable in general human communication as general
human communication has to have feedback and responses.
• May not always follow the “straight line”, meaning there maybe
someone not in the line that needs the communication as well.
• Only formal, it does not account for content
• Static and misleading Ideals.
• But even with the right symbols, people misunderstand each
other.
• No contents , e.g. “Fire!” in a battlefield may mean two things,
one may keep on blazing the gun or that there is physical fire.

Transaction Communication Process
• the transactional model of
communication positions both
communicators as senders and receivers
who encode their own messages and
decode others’ messages in the context of
both communicators’ individual and
shared experiences.
• It is an interdependent model, and each
element exist in relation to the others.

Transactional
Model
In the transactional model,
two people communicate with
multiple messages through
what may be multiple
channels and with parallel
messages.
As with other models, the
messages may be distorted
and the people may be
distracted, resulting in
misunderstanding that fuels
and hinders the model.
Kublin,K.S,Wetherby,A.M, Crais,E.R and
Prizant,B.M.(1989, pp 285-312)Warren,S.F,
Yoder,P.J (1998, pp 365-384)
It represents - interpersonal communication.
Senders and receivers interchange roles.
There is simultaneous feedback
The feedback is taken as a new message.

Barriers in
Communication

Failure to Encode and Decode Results in
Miscommunication

Barriers to Communication
• No matter how good the communication
system is, unfortunately barriers can and do
often occur .
• These are difficulties involved in the process
of communication which distort the
message being properly understood by the
receiver
• “barriers prevent the communication from
being effective”
• Noise is defined to be “[a]nything that distorts
the message intended by the source,
• Anything that interferes with the receiver’s
receiving the message as the source
intended the message to be received”

Barriers cnt.
There are two types of barriers
—internal and external.
• internal barriers are fatigue, poor listening
skills, attitude toward the sender or the
information, lack of interest in the message,
fear, mistrust, past experiences, negative
attitude, problems at home, lack of common
experiences, and emotions.
• external barriers include noise, distractions, e-
mail not working, bad phone connections,
time of day, sender used too many technical
words for the audience, and environment.
Communication is complete and perfect when the
receiver understands the message in the same sense
and spirit as the communicator intends to convey,
Here, idea and information reached to and responded
by receiver remain unaltered and undistorted.
But practically it has been noticed that such perfect and
complete communication does not take place because
of certain obstacles or other factors known as
communication barriers.
"There are a lot of causes of misunderstanding and
misinterpretations of message communicated.
As the process of communication involves sender,
channels and receiver, the problem of communication

• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver
• Lack of Basic Communication
Skills
• Insufficient Knowledge of the
Subject
• Emotional Interference
• Lacking confidence
Encoding
Barriers
• Physical Distractions
• Channel Barriers.
• Jargon, emotional barriers,
taboos, lack attention,
difference in perception
and worldviews, physical
and mental disability
• Long Communication Chain.
Transmitting
Barriers
• Lack of Interest.
• Lack of Knowledge.
• Lack of Communication Skills
• Emotional Distractions
• Information overload
• Conflicting Messages
Decoding
Barriers.
• No Provision for Feedback
• Inadequate Feedback.
• Individual challenges
• Irrelevance to receiver,
emotional barriers,
taboos, lack attention,
difference in perception
and worldviews, physical
and mental disability
Responding
Barriers

Types Barriers
1. Physical
2. Psychological
3. Language/semantic
4.Organizational structure barrier
5.Cross-cultural Barriers
6.Overcoming barriers

Physical
• Often due to the nature of the environment.
• Likewise, poor or outdated equipment/ technology or -
Defects in media (letters, courier, fax,)
• Noise in Environment (Air vibration, people talking, in
factory cause noise- making oral communication difficult)
• Distractions - playing with key bunch, tapping the desk with
fingers, physical discomfort, ill health and/or poor listening
all these create physical barriers
• May result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused : by
ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties.
Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical
state,
• A receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp to entirety of
a spoken conversation especially if there is significant
background noise. 60Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

Psychological Barriers
• Self-Centered attitude
• Group identification
• Self image
• Selective perception
• Defensiveness
• Filtering
• Status block
• Resistance to change
• Closed mind
• Poor communication
skills
• State of health
• Mental turbulence of any kind which distracts
the participant or prevents him from paying
attention to the message
• May include biases and prejudices, in both the
sender and receiver, that lead to distortions in
receiving and processing information: closed
mindedness.
• E.g. .It could be due to host of reasons –
preoccupation, prejudice, ego hang-ups,
know-it-all, fatigue, anxiety, pre-conceived
ideas or notions, disinterest and/or cultural
disparities
• Self-centred attitude, defensiveness,
resistance to change, filtering

Language Barriers
• Language barriers occur when people do not speak the same
language, or do not have the same level of ability in a
language.
• However, barriers can also occur when people are speaking
the same language.
• Sometimes barriers occur when we use inappropriate levels
of language (too formal or informal) or we use jargon or slang
which is not understood by one or more of the people
communicating
• Semantics, or code noise, occurs when the meaning of a
message to the sender differs from its meaning to the
recipient.
• Too often, this may be the result of “jargon,” involving
pretentious terminology or language specific to a particular
profession or group.
• Unclear message, Faulty translation, Specialists language,
Unclassified assumptions

Examples

Cultural Barriers
• We communicate the way we do
because we are raised in particular
culture and learn its language, rules,
and norms.
• Different cultures (and sub
cultures)may have different rules
and norms.
• Understanding the other's culture
facilitates cross-cultural
communication

Socio-Psychological Barriers
1. Altitudes and opinion: Personal, attitude and
opinion often act as barriers to effective
communication.
2. If information agrees with· our opinions and
attitudes, we tend to receive it comfortably.
3. It fits comfortably in the filter of our mind. But if
information disagrees with our views or tends to
run contrary to our accepted beliefs; we do not
react favorably.
4. Emotions. Emotional states of mind play an
important role in the act of
Worldview
• Closed mind. A person with a closed mind is very
difficult to communicate with.
• He is a man with deeply ingrained prejudices.And
he is not prepared to reconsider his opinions.
• He is the kind of man who will 'say, "Look, my
mind is made up. I know what I know. And I do
not want to know anything else. So just don/t
bother me."
• What can you teach me?"
• Such a person is not open to conviction and
persuasion. And in all likelihood, he has not learnt
anything in the years he has been in at University.

Overcoming Barriers
Miscommunication can originate at three levels:
at the level of the transmitter, of the medium, or of the receiver.
Perceptual Barriers
• Perceptual barriers of communication are internal
barriers that occur within a person's mind when the
person believes or perceives that the other person
that they are going to speak with will not understand
or be interested in what they have to say.
• Perpetual barriers often cause communication
problems because the language employed by the
person with the perceptual barrier is often sarcastic,
dismissive or obtuse so the conversational partner is
not going to understand what the person is saying to
them fully and the person is not going to
communicate anything of substance with the
conversational partner
Gender barriers

Overcoming Barriers
Miscommunication can originate at three levels:
at the level of the transmitter, of the medium, or of the receiver
Information overload
• Poor time management
• Excess number of people assigned
to a work.
• Work overload
• Information duplication
Institutional/ community
• Culture
• Expectation, motivation
• History, lived and inherited
• Trauma/ pain/ rejection

Writing

EssayWriting
• Steps in writing an essay-Topic analysis, Research, Planning, First draft, Final
draft (NoteTaking and SQ3R)
• Paragraphing – a singular thought in a group of sentences in a consistent flow. It
represents a district section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single
theme and indicated by a new line, indentation or numbering.
• The essay structure- Introduction – first paragraph of your essay. It introduces
main idea of your essay. ,
• Body – make up the majority of our pages, each body paragraph has introduction body
and conclusion.
• Conclusion – a concluding paragraph is the last paragraph in an academic essay and
generally summarises the essay, presents the main idea of the essay or gives an overall
solution to a problem or argument given in the essay.

Explicit demand of Essay
Essay title question Convergence reprints a cultural shift as
consumers are encouraged to seek out new
information and make connections among
dispersed media content (harry jerkins). Discuss
the current technology of media convergence
with reference to specific examples of new
media cultures and the relations between media
producers and consumers
Topic Media convergence
Focus Media consumption and production
Instruction discuss
Viewpoints Convergence is a cultural shift

Some InstructionWords
Instruction word Meaning
Analyze Study something in detail, identifying the main
components or characteristics and how they relate
Assess Study the importance or value of something
Discuss Explain the meaning of something and explain the
meaning in a logical way
Outline Present the main features or the general principles
of a subject only and emphasize their structure or
arrangement

The Essay’s HiddenValue
• Test critical and academic writing skills
• Have broad understand and able to analyses
• Demonstrate understanding of theory and practice of topic
• Expect reading, research, use of standard academic conventions of
presentation i.e. spelling, grammar, punctuation, references and
bibliography

Essay title question Convergence represents a cultural shift as
consumers are encouraged to seek out new
information and make connections among
dispersed media content (harry jerkins). Discuss
the current technology of media convergence
with reference to specific examples of new
media cultures and the relations between media
producers and consumers
Academic standards Reading, research, organization, structure,
presentation u
Understanding the subject area Engaging with the subject of new media studies
Theory and practice Thinking about the relationships between
technology and cultural change
Mind mapping – study plan – study – develop case study –review notes and draft writing – organize and
structure writing – finish off
Implicit demand of Essay

Writing an Academic
Essay
The Purpose and Process of
AcademicWriting

Parameters
•We will not exhaust every aspect of academic writing
•We will focus on the overall process of writing an
academic paper
•We will not focus on rules
•We will instead focus on strategies

Define
The word “essay” is derived
from the Latin verb “exigere”,
which means to:
• Examine
• Test
• Drive out
• What could the purpose of an
essay be given this definition
• Discover knowledge
• Make a point
• Persuade the reader
• Share information
• Synthesis Information
• Analyze a topic
• Document your observations
• All of the above

Think ofWriting
Step by Step Process
• Read and Research
• Brainstorm Ideas
• DevelopWorkingThesis and Outline
• Write Rough Draft
• Review for Content
• Revise Rough Draft
• Review for Grammar and Mechanics
• Revise Second Draft
• Continue Reviewing and Revising as Needed
Where to get info
• Read texts related to your topic
• Use brainstorming techniques like:
• Listing ideas
• Clustering or mind mapping
• Free writing
• Discuss the issue with others
• Research the topic

Reading aText
Compare these two images about Japanese
Concentration camps duringWorldWar II.The first is by
American photographer Ansel Adams.The second is a
cartoon byTheodor “Dr. Seuss” Geisel.

• Ansel Adams
• Uses photograph
• Creates sympathy
• Documents history
• Subtle
• Politically motivated
• Captures humanity
• Shows us the suffering
• Emphasizes helplessness
• Focused on the individual
Contrasting theTwoTexts
• Dr. Seuss
• Uses cartoon
• Stirs animosity
• Used for propaganda
• Exaggerated
• Politically motivated
• Uses stereotypes
• Makes characters look happy
• Emphasizes danger
• Focused on the larger view

Clustering
What is Clustering
• Write your main point in the center
of the page and circle it
• As ideas come to you, branch off
from the main point
• Think of the cluster as a tree, each
idea branching off a previous idea
• Do not censor or edit yourself
Cluster Example

Develop aWorkingThesis
• A thesis comes at the end of the introduction
section of your paper
• It lets the reader know exactly what overall point
you are trying to make
• It should be specific, not general
• It can be used by the reader and the writer as a road
map for the rest of the paper
• It is not fixed; it can and should evolve as your ideas
evolve
• What you present in the paper should not deviate
from what you promise in the thesis
• Establishes expectations

Thesis Examples
• Dr. Seuss’ propaganda cartoons during
WorldWar II reduced Japanese
Americans to stereotypes, played on
the fears of the American public during
a time of war, and focused on the broad,
generalized issues of the situation
rather than the individual circumstances
of the people involved.

Developing an Outline
• Once you establish a thesis, use it to help
you develop an outline of the paper
• An outline will:
• Help you organize your ideas
• Keep you focused
• Save time
• Keep in mind there are several ways to
approach writing an outline
 Thesis
 Main Point
 Supporting Point
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Main Point
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Main Point
 Detail
 Detail
 Conclusion

Writing the Rough Draft
• Now that you have a thesis and outline, you may begin
writing your rough draft.
• As you write this rough draft, keep the following strategies
in mind:
• Organize information in your body paragraphs
• Hook the reader in the introduction
• Keep your paper coherent with transition words and sentences
• Wrap up your paper with a strong closing
• Utilize academic writing conventions
• Follow the writing process

Writing the Rough Draft
Introduction
• The purpose of the introduction
paragraph is to:
• Bait the reader
• Contextualize your argument or
topic
• Provide necessary background
information about the topic
Strategies to Bait the Reader
• Ask a question
• Tell a story
• Use a quote
• Provide interesting statistics
• Share an anecdote
• Make a provocative statement

Give Context in the Introduction
• What does the reader need to know to understand
this paper?
• Historical background
• Issues relating to the topic
• Important authors and texts you will be referring to
• Cultural issues
• Why this topic is important or relevant

StartYour Body Paragraphs with ClearTopic
Sentences
A topic sentence:
• Comes at the beginning of a paragraph
• Presents the most important point you want
to make in that paragraph
• Is specific (or not so broad it would require a
full essay to explore)

Use Compelling Supporting Points to Support
YourTopic Sentence
Supporting points are examples or pieces of evidence that support
the claim you have made in your topic sentence.They can be:
• Facts
• Examples
• Anecdotes (Stories)
• ExpertTestimony
• Quotes
• Observations
• Statistics

Make Sure to Elaborate with Concrete Details
•Once you have listed your
supporting points, you can now
elaborate on them by adding details
or explaining what you mean further.

Example
Topic Sentence: Dr. Seuss emphasized the danger posed by
Japanese Americans duringWorld War II.
Main Point: His pictures show a parade of smiling Japanese
marching down theWest Coast collecting explosives.
Detail: Each box ofTNT these cartoon characters carry plays
on the often irrational fears Americans felt toward Japanese
Americans after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

An Alternative: Using the PIE Formula
• Another useful strategy to organize
information is to use the PIE formula
• PIE
• P = Point =The main point you want to make
• I = Illustration = A quote or paraphrase from the text
• E = Explanation =Your explanation about what the
quote or paraphrase means

UseTransitions to Create Coherence
• Use transition words or sentences to bridge ideas so the
reader does not get confused
• First
• Second
• In addition
• Nevertheless
• In contrast
• Furthermore
• Therefore
• Etc.

Strategies for a Conclusion
• Re-state your thesis statement in a different way
• Make a strong closing comment
• Use any of the strategies for the introduction
• Wrap up the paper with a neat bow tie

Academic Conventions:Things to Avoid
• Avoid use personal pronouns like “I”, “We”, and “You”.
• Avoid not use contractions like “isn’t”, “they’re”,
“wasn’t”, etc.
• Avoid slang
• Avoid a personal tone
• Avoid vague ideas
• Avoid plagiarism

Academic Conventions:
Things to Do
• Do address both sides of an argument
• Do cite your sources
• Do use a formal tone
• Do take a stand
• Do use concrete details
• Do give yourself time to develop your paper
Things to Remember
• Every writing assignment is practice for the next
one
• Writing takes time
• Go through every step of the process
• Focus on your ideas first
• Focus on grammar and spelling last
• Get feedback from a peer, instructor, or tutor

Words to Note

ReportWriting

ReportWriting
• Structure of reports (General, Progress)
• Logical presentation of reports, headings, sub headings,
numbering
• Use of visual in report writing
• Report presentation skills, critical thinking, discussions, analysis
etc.

What is ReportWriting
(Himanashu Sehrawat 2013)
• A means to convey some information to others.
• An organized, factual, objectives presentation of information
• Using objective systematic pattern, not influenced by my
personal feelings,
• Report is a comprehensive documents and covers all aspects of
the subject matter of study.

Reports and Essay
Similarities
• Formal style
• Careful proof reading and real
presentation
• Introduction, body and conclusion
• Analytical thinking
Differences
• Presents information not argument
• Is meant to be scanned quickly by reader
• Uses numbered heading and sub heading
• Uses short, concise paragraphs and dot – point where
applicable
• Uses graphics where possible tables, graphs and
illustrating
• May need an abstract/ executive summary
• Does not always need references and biography
• Is often followed by recommendation and/or appendices

Reports presentation
???
• Its recounting certain events or information
• Reports are conveyed in writing, speech,
television or film.
• Reports are administrative necessity
• Reports is always written in a sequential
manner in order of occurrence
Flow
Types of
Reports
• ?
Formal • 1
Informal • 2

Informal Reports
• Function is to inform, analyze and
recommend
• Memos, letter, very short international
documents like financial report, monthly
activities report, research and development.
• Differs from formal due to length and
formality
• Written according to organizational style
• Tends to be more controversial in tone ,
deals with everyday problems
Examples
• Progress report
• Personal evaluation
• Financial report
• Feasibility report
• Literature review
• Credit report

Formal report
(Tulika Paul 2017)
• Its purpose is the collection and
interpretation of information
• Its language is complex and used at
official level
• Written on account of a major project
• New technology , visibility study,
advisability study, an annual report, year
old review
• Types
• Informational reports
• Analytical reports
• Recommendation report

Informational report
• Presents results so reader can understand a particular problem or situation
• Present information on the status of current research or of project
• Present an update of the operation on a division
• Explain how your organization or division is doing something
• Presented the results of a questionnaire or research

Analytical reports
• This type goes beyond presenting results
• Present results, analyze these results and draws conclusion based on those results
• They attempt to describe why or how something happened, then explain what this
means.
• Like informational reports they may be written in formal or informal language
• Explaining cause a problem or situation , what it means, explain potential results of
a particular course of action and suggest which options, actions or procedures is
best

Recommendation reports
• This type advocate course of action.They present results and conclusions
that support the recommendation
• Its identical to an analytical report
• Answers what should we do about a problem, should we or can we do
something, should we change the method or technology we use to do
something?

Plan for preparation of formal report
• Identify readers
• Determine your purpose
• Formulate specific questions
• Conduct research to answer the questions
• Draw valid conclusions (for analytical or recommendation reports)
• Decide on recommendations (for recommendations)
• Write the report

Narrative report
• Most widely used
• Information written in logical manner or sequence
• All the case studies or formal narratives are written in this format, it follows a
sequential manner of description
• All steps are to be followed accordingly
• E.g.
• Specialized reports
• Accident report
• Non chronological report

Report – Format
• The title page including logo, name department, purpose
• Acknowledgement – list people and organizations who helped
• Content page listing all sections
• Abstract / executive summary of major points, conclusion and recommendations, overview
of report
• Introduction explain the problem , why report was made
• Body main section of the report, review of literature, methods, results, discussion, findings
and significance.
• Conclusion draws the implication, findings, significance, relevance of study discussed
• References

Value of Reports
• Effective means of communication
• Provides feedback
• Prepared for information and guidance of others connected to matter and
problem,
• Report provides reliable data for planning and decision process
• Treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making
• Provide previously known or unknown information
• Gives clarity made visible through the unknown

NonVerbal
Communication

NonVerbal Communication
The study of nonverbal communication started in
1872 with the publication of "The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals" by Charles Darwin.
Darwin began to study nonverbal communication as
he noticed the interactions between animals such as
lions, tigers, dogs etc. and realized they also
communicated by gestures and expressions. For the
first time, nonverbal communication was studied
and its relevance questioned.
According to Wikipedia. “Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals
through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and the distance
between two individuals. It includes the use of visual cues such as body language (kinesics), distance
(proxemics) and physical environments/appearance, of voice (paralanguage) and of touch (haptics). It can
also include the use of time (chronemics) and eye contact and the actions of looking while talking and
listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate (oculesics)”.

NonVerbal Communication Methods
• Body movement and postures
• Gestures, Eye contact ,Touch , Space,Tone
of voice , Pay attention to inconstancies
NonVerbal Communication is (www.lifesize.com) speaking without saying a word, most experts
agree that between 70 to 93 percent of all communication is nonverbal. One of the most well-known
research projects on nonverbal communication was led by Dr. Mehrabian in the 1960s. Ray
Birdwhistell concludes that nonverbal communication accounts for 60–70 percent of human
communication, although according to other researchers the communication type is not quantifiable
or does not reflect modern human communication, especially when people rely so much on written
means.

NonVerbal Communication – Face
• Facial expressions.The human face is
extremely expressive , able to convey
countless emotions without saying a
word.
Happiness
FearAnger
Sadness

Posture – the position someone holds their
body when standing or sitting
Gesture- body movement esp. of hand or head to
express an idea or meaning

Space Space
• When we discuss space in non verbal context,
we mean the space between objects and
people. Space is often associated with social
rank and is an important part of business
communication. People from diverse cultures
may have different normative space
expectations.

NonVerbal Communication – cnt.
Touch
• Touch is a very powerful means of
communication. Lightly touching a persons
hand can convey your concern and affection to
them.

Take note of inconsistencies Actions Speak

Oral Communication

Oral presentation
• How to make a good oral presentation?
• Before: planning, research, audience analysis, dress, rehearsing etc.
• During: use of paralinguistic, use of non-verbal ques
• After: Revising, correcting mistakes, attending to comments
• Oral presentations-audience analysis, the role of the audience in oral
presentations
• Barriers to oral communication
• Practical oral presentations, role play

Definition
• Oral communication implies communication through mouth.
• It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or
telephonic conversation, speeches, communication implies communication
through mouth.
• It includes individuals conversing presentations and discussions
• Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter
is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required.
• Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is
significant so as to build a rapport and trust.

Oral presentations
Advantages
• It is more powerful. It is more effective that is
with the help of various tones, pitch and
intensity of voice as discussed in previous
presentations one is able to convey shades of
meanings.
• It is time saving.There is immediate feedback
• It is very easy ,there is no need for stationery
thus we can also say it is cheap
• Correction of errors is also done easily within a
short period of time.They are inclusive
Disadvantages

Oral presentations
Disadvantages
• There is usually no record because it is hard to take
notes when someone is speaking continuously
• It has a limited use that is it cannot be lengthy ,receivers
get bored easily
• Confused speech , receiver might fail to get the
meaning of the speech due to may habitual productions
of the speaker.
• Can be difficult due to nervousness
• There are high chances of bias ,examiners can favor the
confident one even though the person has no data

Dyslexia
• A disorder involving difficulty in learning
to read or interpret words, letters and
other symbols.
• Oral presentations are easier and inclusive
• Even for people with dyslexia. Students
with dyslexia favor oral assessments and
they find them easy
• During the course of a case study at
Edinburg University, UK, by Campbell at al
(2012) on Performance of students in
oral versus written assessment, a third
year student was interviewed on how he
felt about the oral assessment …..

CV/ Resume

CurriculumVitae /Resume
• A Resume is a document created and
used by a person to present their
background, skills and
accomplishment. Resumes can be
used for a variety of reasons, but most
often they are used to secure new
employment. A typical resume
contains a summary of relevant job
experience and education.Wikipedia
• The CV presents a full history of your
academic credentials, so the length pf the
documents is variable. In contrast, a resume
presents a concise picture of your skills and
qualifications for a specific position, so
length tends to be shorter and dictated by
years of experience generally 1-2 pages.
• In the USA and Canadas CV’s are known as
resumes

How to write CV
• Make sure you know when to use a CV (www.citycv.co.uk )
• CV is there to win you an interview and it should be written with only that objective in mind.
• It may be used to remind you what you have done. Record purposes
• Help you identify any weaknesses in your skills, work experience of qualification.
• Most lucrative marketing material you will ever create.
• Opens doors, network and opportunities
• Pick the best format
• Add your contact information
• Start with a cv personal profile/ cv summary/ or cv objectives
• List your relevant work experience and key achievements
• Build your cv education section correctly

Can A Resume Replace CV
• A resume is a brief summary of your skills and experience over
one or two pages, a CV is more detailed and can stretch well
beyond two pages.
• The resume will be tailored to each position the cv will stay put
and ant changes will be in the cover letter
www.theundercoverrecruiter.com >cv-vs-resume

Academic Keys

Additional Skills
•Listening
•Taking Notes – SQ3R/ SQRRR

Skilled NoteTaking And Note Making
These skills are applied in 3 different classes or
phases of learning which are
1.Before lecture
2.During lecture
3.After lecture

1.Before lecture
• Read assigned materials before
lecture
• Scan(run though or examine sequent part by part to avoid
confusion during the lecture)
• Gives one also a better and clearer understanding of the new
things that are being introduced in class
• Review notes from previous lecture
• This helps one to create a link between the ideas in the previous
lecture and also new ideas to be brought about in the upcoming
lectures.This also avoids confusion and misinterpretation of new
concepts , therefore this brings about a better understanding of
what one is going to read about.
• Sit in front to stop you sleeping and
pay attention

What to DO?
• Listen to the contributions made by others
• Ask questions for better clarity or unclear
things
• Begin notes for each lecture on a new page
• Diet healthy Mind and Healthy Body =
Success
• Date each page of your notebook as well as
date and number each handout. Its makes
reviewing a bit easier and to avoid confusion
• Applying scanning (reading technique) on
chapter being studied. Identify difficult
Topics and pay attention 135Mandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020

Why take Notes?
• To master the information
• To activate background knowledge
• To increase engagement
• The students feel more in control of their learning
• It is useful for taking notes both in lectures and from textbooks or
other print material.

Reading - SQ3R/ SQRRR
SQ3R is a reading comprehension
method named for its five steps
• Survey
• Question
• Read
• Recite
• Review

SQ3R
• Put briefly, SQ3R is a strategy for reading and studying. It is a sequence
designed to increase retention and understanding by encouraging the
reader to use each stage of the reading process (Before, During, and after)
intentionally, moving from small details to large ideas and back again.
• By setting a purpose for the reading, asking questions, taking notes, and
reviewing both notes and text in relation to one another, readers are able to
delve more deeply into a text compared to merely reading or even reading
and responding (in a learning journal, for example). (Dartmouth University,
SQ3R strategy).

SQ3R
• Step 1: Survey : Skim through the book and read topical/sub-topical headings and sentences. Read
summaries at the end of chapters and books.Try to anticipate what the author is going to say.Write these
notes on paper, then look it over to get an overall idea.
• Step 2: Question:Turn paragraph headings into questions (e.g. “Basic Concepts of Reading” to “What are
the Basic Concepts of Reading?”).Write these questions out.
• Step 3: Read: Read with alertness to answer the questions you came up with.Write notes, in your own
words, under each question.
• Step 4: Recall:Without looking at your books or notes, mentally visualize, in your own words, the high
points of the material immediately upon completing the reading
** More time should be spent on recall than reading
• Step 5: Review: Look at your questions, answers, notes and book to see how well you did recall. Finish up
with a mental picture of theWHOLE*
• Adapted from F.P. Robinson. Effective Study. NewYork: Harper and Bros. 1948. Chapter II

Why How to
Survey • It gives you the big picture
• It helps you decide what’s important
• You can connect information to what
you already know
• It prepares you to read
• Look over the material: title,
preview, headings, visuals, bolded
words, summary
• Read the summary if possible
• Think about background
knowledge or information
Question • It helps you stay focused on the
reading
• It gives you a purpose (looking for the
answer) and creates interest
• It’s good practice for quizzing yourself
on topics
• Turn headings into questions
• Ask What?Who?Why? How?
Read • It’s how to get information from the
text
• It’s good preparation for your lectures
and discussions
• It’s an essential part of the test
preparation
• Look for answers to your questions
• Write in the margins
• Underline or highlight important
concepts
• Break up the reading into chunks
• Take breaks when needed

Why How to
Recite • It helps you retain information after
you read it
• It checks for your level of
understanding
• It’s a way to interact with the text and
stay focused
• Say it out loud in your own words
• Write a summary of the
paragraph or section
• Writing notes of notecards for
information
• Create a concept map or graphic
organizer of the ideas and how they
relate
Review • It helps you retain information from
reading to reading and week to week
• It helps you prepare for exams,
papers, and related assignments
• Look over your notes and quiz
yourself on the information
• Make connections between
readings and notes from class
• Revisit your notes and the text
weekly (or more frequently) and test
yourself on new and old material each
weekMandebvu GSL Communication Skills, 2020 141

Now Practice
Note taking  SQ3R Applied
1) Prepare your notepaper by creating a
two-column table. The left-hand
column should take up about 1/3 of your
writing space, leaving the remaining 2/3
for recording information. Use only one
side of each sheet of notepaper.
2) 2) Summarize and paraphrase (restate in
your own words) the facts and ideas
presented. Record definitions as stated
or written.
3) Indicate changes in topic with headings
or by leaving a space between topics
4.Number, indent, or bullet key ideas
presented with each topic.
5.Aim for telegraphic (brief) sentences,
abbreviations, and symbols.This will
increase your note taking speed.
6.Write legibly so your notes make
sense to you later.
7. Edit as soon as possible

Next Step 2 and 3
Step 2 Question
• Formulate test questions based on
the information recorded in notes
and write them in the recall clues
column on the left-hand side of
notes. Questions should focus on
specific definitions and “big ideas
Step 3 Recite
Recitation means explaining the
information in the notes out loud, in
your own words. The information
should be triggered by the test
questions in the recall clues column.
2) Purposes of recitation: a. Improves
learning: a powerful technique for
anchoring information in the long-
term memory. b. Ensures
understanding. c. Facilitates retrieval

Step 4
Use recall clues to stimulate your memory and recite the relevant information. c. Check your
answers. This gives you immediate feedback on how well you have learned and are able to
retrieve the information. If you have difficulty recalling the information or if your answers are
incorrect, learn and recite over again. Reflection has to do with thinking about the information you are learning.
1) One way to reflect is to look for connections with your own experiences and
observations and with other facts and ideas discussed in class.
2) Another way to reflect is to ask questions like: How do the main ideas fit
together into a “bigger picture”? How do these ideas fit in with what I have
already learned? What do I agree with? What do I disagree with? Which ideas are
clear? Which are confusing? What new questions do I have?
3) Summarize your notes to gain clarity

Reference List
• CSI Harare – Training on Referencing in academic writing
• Cornell University Note Taking, by Crazy Scientists 2014
• Dartmouth University, SQ3R strategy 2020
• Fiona Campbell and Jenny Westwood Mark Huxham, 2012,Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education
• Fook J. 2002, social work; critical theory and practice: Sage
• Himanashu Sehrawat 2013 What is Report Writing www.2.slideshare.net
• Joughin G. 2007. Student conceptions of oral presentations. Studies in Higher Education 32, no. 3: 323–36.
• Lemme I, 2005 A Guide To Tertiary Level Writing, Fourth Edition, Elise Hoowood, New York USA, pge 79
• Kublin,K.S, Wetherby,A.M, Crais,E.R and Prizant,B.M.(1989)Prelinguistic dynamic assessment: A transactional perspective(pp 285-312)
• Middletone L. 1997, the Art of assessment; Birmingham, venture press
• Tomaszewski Michael, CPRW, www.zety.com/blog/time-management
• Tulika Paul 2017, Formal report Writing www.2.slideshare.net
• University of Technology Sydney Library2013
• Warren,S.F, Yoder,P.J (1998).Facilitating the transition from preintentional to intentional communication(pp 365-384)
• www.apareferenceing.com
• www.citycv.co.uk
• www.google.com/images
• www.theundercoverrecruiter.com >.cv-vs-resume
• www.managementstudyguide.com
• http://www.mindtools.com/what-is-time-management

ThankYou
Pinnet Mercy Consultancy
PO Box BW 184, Borrowdale
Harare, Zimbabwe
+263 775 058 802
www.pmconsultancy.co.zw
www.gamumandebvu.co.zw

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