academic-vocabulary-in-use-with-answers.pdf

C A M B R I D G E
Academic
Vocabulary j n
Use
50 units of
academic
vocabulary
reference and
practice
Self-study and
classroom use
Michael McCarth
Felicity O'Dell

Academic
Vocabulary in
Use
50 units of
academic
vocabulary
reference
and practice
Self-study and
classroom use
Michael McCarthy
Felicitv O'Dell I P C A M B R I D G E
• ^ - • • ^ • • ^ y w m^^mm « : * U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

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C o n t e n t s
Acknowledge men is 5
To the student and the teacher 6
W o r k i n g w i t h a c a d e m i c v o c a b u l a r y
I W h a t is special about academic English: discipline, virtually, quantify
1 Key nouns
3 Key verbs
4 Key adjective;
5 Key adverbs
6 Phrasal verbs in academic English
7 Key quantifying expressions
5 W o r d s w i t h several meanings
'
-
> M e t a p h o r s and idioms
W o r d c o m b i n a t i o n s
10 N o u n s ami the w o r d s they combine w i t h
11 Adjective and n o u n combinations
12 Verbs and the w o r d s they combine with
13 Prepositional phrase:
14 Verbs and preposition;
15 N o u n s and prepositions
l f j Fixed expressions
A t a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s
17 Applications and application forms
IS College and university: the U K system
19 Systems compared: the US and the U K
20 Academic courses
21 Study habits and skills
22 O n l i n e learning
Ways o f t a l k i n g a b o u t ...
23 Sources
24 Tacts, evidence and data
25 N u m b e r s
26 Statistics
27 Graphs and diagrams
2& M o n e y and educatior
29 Time
30 Cause and effect
theory^ model, pattern
attempt, establish, explain
relevant, abstract, significant
comparatively, eventually, simf/ly
put forivard, go through, write up
a substantial amount, in excess of no fewtti
than
set, accommodate, issue
shed light on, remain in the dark, the battle
against
heated debate, pivotal role, lo collate ressdts
important contribution, major concern,
widespread support
loosely based on, examine the evidence, suggest
an alternative solution
in conjunction with, on behalf of, for the most
pari
focus on, consent to, account for
dissertation on, rationale for, progress towards
in a variety of ways, with the exception of.
be that as it may
•jntry requirements, referee, deadline
student union, tutorial, research student
dormitory, freshtnan, fraternity
diploma, credits, defer
leading speed, mind map. rote learning
online community, username, subject header
lirimary source, draw on, body of literature
distort the. facts, hard evidence, empirical data
random, tally, estimate
standard deviation, correlate, proportion
Die chart, intersect, decline
student loan, cijst of living, receipt
century, simultaneous, in tlie near future
'rigger, give rise to, chain reaction
Academic Vocabulary in Use 3

O p i n i o n s a n d ideas
31 T a l k i n g about ideas
32 R e p o t t i n g w h a t others say
33 Analysis of results
34 T a l k i n g about meaning
35 Research and study aims
36 T a l k i n g about points of view
37 Degrees of certainty
F u n c t i o n s
3& Presenting an argument
39 Organising your w r i t i n g
40 M a k i n g a presentation
41 Describing research methods
42 Classifying
43 M a k i n g connections
44 C o m p a r i n g and contrasting
45 Describing problems
46 Describing situations
47 Processes and procedures
48 Describing change
49 Evaluation and emphasis
50 Summary and COnclusior
Reading a n d vocabulary
1 Good friends 110
2 Australia 11 1
3 The W o r l d W i d e W e b 112
4 The h u m a n brain 113
"5 Nanotechnology 114
$ Interna Clonal law: an overview ' l ' l j
R e f e r e n c e
movement, hypothesis, stance
pinpoint, cast doubt on, implication
deduce, outweigh, critical
transparent, comprehend, misinterpret
objective, to further, instigate
impartial, ideology, hold views
tendency, likelihood, allegedly
beyond the scope of, furthermore, the extent tc.
which
with a focus on, at this point, respectively
Otidress a topic, handout, take questions
carry out a procedure, case study, replicate
component, consist of, marital status
correlate with, mutual, interaction
distinction, similarly, whereas
experience difficulties, deal with, resolve a
problem
context, integral, stable
simulation, to supplement, output
expansion, diminish, perceptible change
inadequate, contradictory, acknowledge
bring to a dose, in the final analysis, finally
1 F o r m a l and i n f o r m a l academic w o r d s and expressions H i
2 N u m b e r s j units of measurement and c o m m o n symbols 1 20
3 British and N o r t h A m e r i c a n academic vocabulary 122
4 Spelling variations 126
5 W o r d formation 128
6 Abbreviations 132
Key 136
List of phonemic symbols 16£
Index 167
4 Academic Vocabulary in Use

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
Authors* acknowledgements
lhe authors wish tu thank their colleagues at Cambridge
University Press, especially Martinc Walsh, Caroline Tbiriau
and Koirin Burke, whose wise expertise and support have
been iiivnlnablt throughout this proiet-tr We are also very
grateful fur the thorough and useful input provided by
Bernard Seal from Cambridge University Press New York.
We thank Alison Silver for the profess! una I job she carrier
jut so efficiently in preparing the final manuscript for
production and printing. Linda Matdiews too deserves our
:lianks lor organising ibe produciion schedules for i he honk.
We 'rlu&I 3-lsO thank the lexicography and computational
ream at Cambridge University Press whose work with the
Cambridge International Corpus, the Cambridge Learner
Corpus and the CAKCODE corpus of spoken English
^developed at the University of Nottingham in association
with Cambridge University Press), enabled us to make a
fully corpus-informed selection of the academic vocabulary
ive fiiCuS 0" in these rn;i1erials.
We acknowledge with gratitude the pioneering work on
academic word lists done by Avcril Coxhcad. [n planning
this hook we made considerahle use of her lists at
i [ :ri://l ¡1 n K uage- rnasseyrii d//sin ttta wV indexrsh tml.
Also, as always, we thank our domestic partners for their
patience and support during die writing of this hook
Michael McCarthy &l Felicity O'DeV.
Cambridge, April 20D7
Publisher's acknowledgements
Uevelopment of this publication has made use of the
Cambridge international Corpus (CIC). The CTC is a
computerised daul>ase of comernporary spoken find wriuei
English which currently stands at over one billion words. It
includes British English, American English and other varieties
^f English. 1: also includes the Cambridge Learner Corpus,
developed i ' 1
oolUi bora Hon with the University of Cambridge
liSOL Examinations. Cambridge University Press has built
up the CJC to provide evidence a hour language use thai
helps IO produce better language leaching innterialSr
The authors and publishers would like to thank all the L L l
professionals who reviewed the material:
Sue Argent, Long Dalmahoy, Scodand; Jennifer Bixby,
C ilifornia, USA; jane BoLLomley, Manchester, UK; Cherrv
Campbell; California, USA; Anthony Cosgrove,. London, UK;
Kosie Canne, London, UK; Ludmila Corodetskaya, -Moscow
Russia; Mark Krzanowski, Loudon, UK; Joseph -McVeigh.
Vermont, USA; Julie Moore, RrisioL UK; hrendan 0 Se,
Cork, Ireland; Barbara Koosken, lilburg, The Netherlands.
The authors and publishers would like io thank ihc
Following for permission to reproduce copyright material in
Academic Vocabulary in Use- While every effort has been
made, it has not been possible to identify the sources of all
the material used and in such cases the publishers would
welcome inform;itioji from Copyright hoMerS.
Cambridge University Press for the extracts on p. 14 (3A
second next) from Mechanics 1 {International} by Douglas
Qnadling, copyright f) 2002; p. J12 'The World Wide Web'
from lelecummuuicalions by Stuart Kennedy, copyright ©
201)Li p. ¡41 sentences from Cambridge Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, reproduced hy permission of Cambridge
University Press; NewScientist for tlie excracis on p. 25 (8.4;
from NewScienirsi, 30 March 2UU6±p. 113 'The Human
Brain' by Helen Philips, from NavScientist, 4 September
2006; p. 114 'Nanotechnolcpgy' by John Pickrell, from
t^ewSciatht, 4 September 2006, reproduced by permission
•f NcwSdcndst Magazine; Scientific American for the
?xtrac:s OJI p. 27 {9.3) 'ShuLung down AlzheimerV hy
Michael S, Wolie, from Scientific American, 5 May 2006:
t>- 110 'Cood liiends' by Klaus Manhart, from Scientific
American^ April/May 2006, reproduced by permission of
Sciemilic American Inc. All righis reserved; Nature for die
extract on p. 3 f (15,4) from Mature Vol, 441, 4 May 2006:
published by Nature Publishing Croup; Indiana University
for the extract on p. .i.i (21.4), copyright © 2004, die
1'rustees of Indiana University, reproduced by permissioi
if Indiana University; the Wikipedia website for thu extract
on p. 70 (.11A) http;'/enLwikipedia.org/wiki/-Main_Page;
ResCen, Middlesex University for the te*i on p. 78 (.15B|
From the Kescen Research website http;//wwWrmdn,ac,uk/
rcsccn/main pagcsfprofileiitrnl, reproduced hy permission of
the Centre lor Research into Creation in the Performing Art'
(ResCen) at Middlesex University; Thomson Learning for thi
ZKtract on p. I l l 'Australia* from World of Earth Science
(Vol i) hy K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth (Editor),
aipyright © 2003, reprinted with permission of dale, a
Llivision of Thomson Learning; wvvWrthomsonrights,com:
Legal Information Institute for the adapted text on p. ¡15
'Tniernaiional law: an overview' from Lite website www.law.
runiell,edu/wex/index.pbp/irLternational_law, copyright Lega
Information Institute 1996-2007, reproduced by permission
of Legal Information Institute.
Photographs
I'he publishers arc grateful to the following for permission
to reproduce copyright photographs and material;
o. 20 © Thomas Erickc/Corbis; p. 36 © Robert fc.
Daeininrich/Stone/Certy Images; p. 66 © John Henley/
CORttlS; p. 74 © age fotostock/SnperStock; p. 76 © Held
King/Corbis; p. 77 © Jerry Schatzbtigf'CORIilSj p. 88 ©
.LtrageinO/Coi'his.
Illustration;
Kiim^e Design pp. 35, 40, 44, 60, 61, (.2, JSj
AcodemjcVocobuJary in Use i

To t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e t e a c h e r
W h o is the book f o r ?
This b o o k is for anyone w h o wants or needs to learn the h i n d o f English w h i c h is used
in academic contexts. Ir deals w i t h the kinds o f language used in academic textbooks
and articles as well as in lectures and seminars. It also presenrs vocabulary relating tc
being a student at ;i university or college in that ir covers such topics as Application;
and application forms. Money and education and Academic courses associated w i t h
university life. It w i l l be particularly useful for students preparing for IF.I.TS or any other
examination aimed at assessing whether candidates* English is at a high enough level to
study in an academic institution where English is the medium o f instruction. It w i l l be
helpful for people w h o need to attend - or mdtrcd give - lectures and presentations in
English or [0 participate in international conferences, Tt w i l l enable students w h o have to
prepate assignments or write up a dissertation in English to do so in a much more natural
and appropriate way.
W h a t kind of v o c a b u l a r y does the book d e a l with?
The book presents and practises the kind o f vocabulary that is used in academic speech
and w r i t i n g regardless of w h i c h discipline you are concerned w i t h . So it considers
ivords and expressions like concept, cast doubt on, put forward a theory and come to a
conclusion. Tt does not deal w i t h the specialist vocabulary o f any particular subject such
as medicine or physics. Such specialist terms arc often relatively easy to master - they
will be explained and taught as you study the subject and these words may indeed
sometimes be similar in English and your o w n language. However, it is [he m o r e general
w o r d s used for discussing ideas and research and f o r t a l k i n g and w r i t i n g about academic
w o r k that you need to be fully familiar w i t h in order to feel c o m f o r t a b l e in an academic
environment. Despite the fact that they are much more frequent than specialist w o r d s ,
[hese more general w o r d s are often felt to be more difficult to leatn. It is, therefore,
extremely useful to approach them in the systematic w a y suggested by this book.
One positive aspect o f this k i n d o f academic vocabulary is that there are relatively few
differences depending on whether you are studying in L o n d o n or N e w Y o r k , D e l h i or
Sydney, Johannesburg, D u b l i n , Wellington, Singapore or T o r o n t o or indeed any othet
ulace where you may be using English for academic purposes. Academic English rendí
[o be a rruly international language and the units o f the b o o k focus on vocabulary that
w i l l be essential f o r you regardless o f where y o u are studying n o w or may scudy in
die future. There arc some differences between the words used to describe people and
places and these are highlighted in Units I S and 19. References 3 and 4 also focus on
^ome vocabulary and spelling variations. In the units o f the b o o k we use British English
spelling conventions except when q u o t i n g texts w h i c h originally used American spelling.
M u c h o f the vocabulary in the book is neutral in the sense that it is equally appropriate
for both w r i t t e n and spoken contexts. We indicate those instances where a w o r d or
expression is t o o f o r m a l for use in Speech or too i n f o r m a l for use in academic w r i t i n g .
6 Academic Vocabulary rn Use

How was the vocabulary for the book selected?
The academic vocabulary focused on in this book was aJJ selected f r o m language identified
us significant by rhe Cambridge International Corpus of w r i t t e n and spoken English and
ilso the C A N C O D E corpus of spoken English developed a: the University of N o t t i n g h a m
in association w i t h Cambridge University Press. These enormous corpora include large
collections of written and spoken academic text and so it was possible to identify' language
that is distinctive for academic contexts. We also made considerable use of the Cambridge
Learner Corpus, a corpus of tens of thousands of learner scripts f r o m students taking
Cambridge E S O L exams all over the w o r l d . F r o m this corpus we were able to learn what
kinds of errors students taking, f o r example IELTS, were typically making.
In planning this b o o k we made considerable use of Averil Coxhcad's w o r k on developing
icademic w o r d lists. H e r lists can be f o u n d at htrp://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/
index.shtml and we w o u l d highly recommend that students of academic vocabulary
Investigate this site
How is the book organised?
The b o o k has 50 two-page units. The left-hand page presents the academic vocabulary
to be focused on in the unit. You w i l l usually find examples of academic vocabulary
presented in context w i t h , where appropriate, any special notes about their meaning and
usage. T h e right-hand page checks that y o u have understood the i n f o r m a t i o n on the left-
hand page by giving you a series of exercises practising the language t h a i was presented.
The units are organised into different sections. The first i n t r o d u c t o r y section includes
nine units w h i c h look at basic aspects of academic vocabulary such as w h a t is special
about academic vocabulary, key verbs and key q u a n t i f y i n g expressions. T h e second
section devotes seven units to h o w words typically combine w i t h one another in
academic English. 'iTie t h i r d section has six units focusing on aspects of life at academic
institutions. The f o u r t h section provides eight units discussing ways of t a l k i n g about such
things as numbers, time and cause and effect. T h e n wc have seven units e x p l o r i n g aspects
nf opinions and ideas and finally there are thirteen units w i t h a functional focus such as
organising a text, comparing and contrasting and describing change.
Towards the end of the book you w i l l find six reading rexrs relating to different academic
disciplines w i t h exercises based on the vocabulary in those texts, We hope that you will
find these useful examples of h o w to use texts to expand your knowledge of academic
vocabulary in English and w o u l d recommend that you read these texts and do the exercises
:m them even i f they relate to an academic subject that is very different f r o m your o w n .
There are six reference sections dealing w i t h some key areas where we felt it w o u l d be
useful for y o u to have lists of items that could not be presented as fully in rhe m a i n body
of the h o o k , i.e. Forma} and informal academic words and expressions; Numbers, units
of measurement and common symbols; British and North American academic vocabulary.
Spelling variations; w b r J formation and Abbreviations, Where appropriate, rhese reference
sections provide space f o r yon to add further examples of your o w n .
A t the end of the book there is a Key w i t h answers to all the exercises and an Index of all
the key w o r d s and expressions, indicating the units where they can be f o u n d . T h e
pronunciation is provided for standard British English.
How should I use this book?
We recommend that you w o r k t h r o u g h the nine i n t r o d u c t o r y units first so that you
become familiar w i t h key aspects of academic vocabulary and h o w best to study it. After
that you may w o r k on the units in any order that suits y o u .
^cfiifefK Vocabulary in Use 7

W h a t else do I need In order to improve my academic vocabulary?
You need a notebook or file in w h i c h y o u can write d o w n ah the academic vocabulary
that you study in this b o o k as well as any other w o r d s and expressions that you come
across elsewhere. In y o u r vocabulary notebook it is i m p o r t a n t to record such things as:
• examples of the w o r d or expression in use
• typical w o r d combinations - y o u might, for example, note d o w n adjectives or verbs
typically associated w i t h a n o u n that y o u w a n t to learn or nouns, adverbs or prepositions
associated w i t h a verb
• any special featuies of the w o r d { e g . is there a n y t h i n g special about its g r a m m a r or
pronunciation, or Ls it particularly characteristic of either w r i t t e n or spoken English?),
You may also find it helpful to record such things as:
* any other i n f o r m a t i o n that might help yon to learn the w o r d (e.g. is it similar to any w o r d
in y o u r o w n language, or does it, perhaps, share a r o o t w i t h a w o r d that y o u alieady
know?)
• any additional vocabulary that learning this w o r d may help yon to learn (e.g. does a verb
have a related n o u n , or w h a t is the opposite of an adjective?)
• any extended uses of the w o r d being focused on (e.g. can it be used metaphorically, or doe:
the same w o r d have other meanings in the w a y that so m a n y English w o r d s d o : ) .
One very i m p o r t a n t aspect of learning vocabulary is to organise the w o r d s and
ixpiessions you meet; this w i l l help vou remember them better. Y o n can do this in
a number of ways. I n recording w o r d s many learners find it helpful to include little
diagrams such as word bubbles^ f o r example:
Or word forks, for example:
to idftivtify the
C*-|^IF,
•fdctors
AA iiotfitflt
ft nijvGrifl'
,tl£
You also need to have access to a g o o d dictionary. We strongly recommend the Cambridge
Advanced Learners Dictionary as this provides exactly the k i n d of i n f o r m a t i o n that you need
in order to be able to understand and use English vocabulary. T h r o u g h its example sentences
it provides you w i t h the i n f o r m a t i o n you need about h o w the w o r d is used in practice and
w h i c h other w o r d s it typically combines w i t h . The dictionary also helps yon w i t h difficult
items such as phrasal verbs, for example, Indicating whether the object can come before the
particle (set up the apparatus f set the apparatus up; go through a set of calculations, but not
go a set of calculations through). This dictionary is available as a book and on a C D - R O M
and can also be accessed online at www.dictionary.camhridge.org. You w i l l need a specialist
dictionary telating to y o u r o w n subject area as well. Y o u r teacher may also be able to
recommend other dictionaries for y o u r specific needs.
E Academic Vocabulary in Use

As w e l l as w o r k i n g t h r o u g h ilie units in this b o o k y o u should read as m u c h English as you
can in [he subject areas that arc mosl relevant For y o u , IF you arc new to Studying in English,
you could start by reading a t e x t b o o k aimed at students a[ a slightly l o w e r level t h a n y o u
ire at as far as the subject area is concerned; or you m i g h t prefer to read die latest articles
in your field f r o m a j o u r n a l or the internet- I f you have easy access to ihe web, then there is
m enormous wealth of material available f o r you to study and learn f r o m ; m a n y universities
and other academic institutions have extensive webs ires, f o r example, as do professional
jtganisations and journals.
>o, g o o d luck w i t h y o u r w o r k in academic English. We hope that the materials in this b o o k
will help you to enjoy and to benefit fully f r o m your studies. Wc hope you w i l l be able to
jhate ideas in a creative, exciting w a y w i t h scholars f r o m all over the w o r l d and we w i s h you
ihe very best f o r a successful and r e w a r d i n g academic life in English.

r W h a t is special a b o u t a c a d e m i c English?
Everyday words and academic uses
M a n y words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
also used w i t h a slightly different meaning, w h i c h may he specialised.
everyday or academic use meaning academic use meonfng
Standards of discipline in
schools have declined.
ability to control
oneself or ocher
people
Nanotechnology is a relatively
new discipline.
area ol study
Underline your family
name on che form.
draw a line
under it
The research underlines the
importance of international trade
agreements.
gives emphasis to
The lake was frozen solid. not liquid or gas We have no solid evidence that
radiation has caused the problem.
certain or sale; of a
good standard
B Vocabulary and academic style
• In w r i t i n g , academics use many expressions w h i c h are neutral, but they also use rather
formal expressions w h i c h are not c o m m o n in everyday language. K n o w i n g whether an
expression is f o r m a l or just neutral is i m p o r t a n t .
neutral mare formo/ neutrûf mûre formal
in short, briefly, basically in sum, to sum up try attempt
only 5ole(ly} mainly/mostly primarily
almost / more or less virtually typical oí characteristic of
However, very informal vocabulary may he used in spoken academic stylos in classes and
lectures, I,earn to understand Such language when you hear it but be Careful not to use it ir
essays and w t i t t e n assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informal language.
L
O K . Have a shot at d o i n g task number 3.' fmore f o r m a l : T r y / A t t e m p t to do , . , ]
'There's no w a y schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more
formal: Schools cannot in any way be held . . . ]
• Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a vocabulary
notebook (see page 8} and learn the differences between similar w o r d s , as w e l l as typical
w o r d combinations (underlined here).
The building is a p n m c example of 1920s architecture, {excellent in quality or value.
The group's p r i m a r y concern is to protect h u m a n rights, [ m a i n / most i m p o r t a n t
Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of i n f o r m a t i o n into n o u n phrases rather than spreading it out
over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released
ovet a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The
accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage.
It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a w o r d , for example:
noun verb odjetíívefsí odverbfs}
accident accidental accidentally
quantity/quantification quantity quan titative/quan cifîabl e quanclratlvely/quancl flably
Finally, be aware of 'chunks' or phrases w h i c h occur frequently, and learn them as whole
units. Examples: in terms of in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc. (.See Unit 16.)
Academic Vocabulary in Use

Exercises
I . I Each, w o r d in the b o x can be used in t w o ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically
academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same w o r d f o r b o t h sentences and
m a k i n g any necessary grammatical changes.
generate m m solid confirm Identify underline character pose nature focus
1 A She loves to for photographs in f r o n t of her fabulous house.
E T h e events _ _ _ a threat to stability in the region.
1 A It was difficult to ._ _ the camera on the flower as it was so small.
B We should our attenlion on the most i m p o r t a n t issues.
3 A I called the airline and _ m y reservation.
B T h e data m y hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health
4
- A T h e p o w e r plant _ _ _ electricity for the whole region.
B This issue always a great deal of debate a m o n g academics.
5 A T h e murderer was f r o m fingerprints discovered at the scene.
B Tn this theory of history, progress is closely _ _ w i t h technology.
6 A She became interested in _ conservation.
B The first lecture in the series was on the of h u m a n communication.
7 A Jim's a very interesting _ , I hope you meet h i m ,
B T h e book attempts to explain the fundamental of social life.
8 A I saw her TO her husband and whisper something in his ear.
B Let us n o w _ _ _. _ to the subject of t o w n planning,
9 A H e always every new w o r d when he^s reading.
E T h e study _ _ the fact that very little research exists,
10 A T h e l i q u i d became _ _ _.. as the temperature was lowered.
B T h e study lacks evidence and therefore its conclusions are d o u b t f u l .
1.2 Else more f o r m a l alternatives to the words in bold- M a k e any necessary grammatical
changes.
1 The b o o k is m a i n l y concerned w i t h the problem of policing the internet.
2 A l m o s t every school in the county had reported problems w i t h the new system
3 T h e w o r k of the Institute is n o t only devoted to cancer research.
4 Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the t w o events.
5 W e tried to find a new way of understanding the data,
6 The study is a really g o o d example of the w a y sociologists collect their data.
7 The reaction is typical of the w a y large corporations keep c o n t r o l of their markets.
5 There's no w a y L o n d o n can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and w o r k .
1.3 Read the text and then answer the questions.
The production of plastics depends heavily on petroleun", but a novel way of making
plastics ou: of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil. The discovery that i chemical
in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance skr.ilar in structure to the
material obtained from pelrcleum has led Eo [he claim tha'. plastics could soon be
produced cheaply us:ng ihe new method.
1 Underline t w o verbs w i t h adverbs aftet them w h i c h i t w o u l d be useful to learn as pairs.
2 Underline t w o adverbs next to each other w h i c h it w o u l d be useful so learn together.
3 W h a t are the n o u n forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim}
AcadpmicVoçabuiary in Use I I

Key nouns
This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Units
10, 11 and 15.
A General nouns referring to ideas
example (wid prepositions underlined} comment
She wrote an article on tho subject of cbss. thing which is being discussed, considered or studied
T h e theme of the poem is emigration. main subject of a tafk, book. etc.
The students were given a list of essay topics. used to refer to what one |
$ studying or writing about
There was: a lively debate on the issue oJ
globalisation in the seminar yesterday-
subject/problem which people are thinking/talking about
Political theory Is a popular undergraduate subject-
Einstein s: theory of gravitation has been
questioned recently
statement of the rules on whrch a subject of study is
based or, more generally, an opinion or explanation
The model s?f climate change presented In the
Stern Review seems to be becoming a reality.
a représenta don ol something as a simple description
which might be used In calculations
The book is called'The Nature o f Intelligence*. main characteristic of something
Human behaviour is based on tho principle of
leasr effort
basic idea, or rule that explains how something happens
or works
B More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena
example (with prepositions underlined) CQfrrmerrt
Repetition is an important aspect of speech
development in children.
one individual part of a situation, problem, subject,
etc.
Automatic backup Is a feature of the new software a typical quafity of something
The political motives for the government's actions are
beyond the scope of this essay.
range of a subject covered by a book, discussion,
class, etc.
The study revealed a pattern o j results which
could be interpreted In either of two ways.
showed a regularly repeated arrangement
During 2005. the number of violent attacks
Increased to an alarming degree.
amount or level
Nouns referring t o ways of thinking, processes and activities
Read these titles o f academic b o o t s and articles. N o t e the key nouns and their prepositions.
Micro-organisms in waler: their significance' and iden UN r a t i o n 2
Renewable energy: a critical assessment3
ol recent research
The Case* fnr Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Inwards a New Approach5
Perspectives6
on Ecological Management: A study nf public awareness7
of river ntilluilor
Citizens' Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union
Epidemiological research into3
asthma and allergic disease: establishing a siandardistd methodology*
1
importance 7
ability ti? establish the identity of something 3
judgement o f the amount, value,
quality ot importance o f A
arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something
* way uf considering something 6
different particular o r individual ways of considering
something 7
having special interest in o r experience o f something, and .so being ivclf informed
e
research is often also used w i t h the preposition on q
a system of ways of studying something
fteseofefr Is uncountable. Don't say IJiey corned out some interesting rerttrrches.To make it
^ -i plural you can just say 'studies', or'research studies' or'pieces of research'.
Academic Vocabulary ~'n Use

Exercises
2.1 L o o k at A . Choose the most appropriate n o u n to complete each sentence.
1 Environmental topics / issues / principles should he at the top o f today1
* political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three f r o m a choice o f ten essay subjects I theories I
topics.
3 There are still people w h o are reluctant to accept Darwin's model I topic i theory oi
evolution.
4 The professor decided to rake m o r a l courage as the issue I theme I model f o r his
inaugural lecture.
5 T h e L o n d o n underground map is best understood as a model / principle / topic showing
h o w the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation oi
:heir distances f r o m each other.
6 T h e Peter Issue / Principle / Theme states that members o f a hierarchical g r o u p w i l l
usually end up being p r o m o t e d to the point ai w h i c h they become incompetent.
2 . 2 There are six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph. Can von correct t h e m :
2 . 4
Die study showed that local police can play an important role in
crime prevention. It makes a strong case of boosting the numbers of
community police officers although i t warns against increasing police
presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodological was
based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their
y i i w s j i i hov; best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement
this recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least it
serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.
2.3 L o o k at these titles o f academic books ( A - H ) . T h e n match t h e m to their subject areas (1-8).
A. T h e N a t u r e o f Democracy
B T h e Significance of Dreams
C T h e Features of Glaciated Landscapes
D T h e Assessment o f Language Skills
L A n A p p r o a c h to Tree Verse
F T h e Identification of Bees
G Perspectives on M o d e r n T a x a t i o n
11 N e w Perspectives on Cleopatra
1 economics
2 education
3 literature
4 history
5 geography
•j psychology
7 politics
Î zoology
M a t c h the beginning o f each sentence w i t h the most appropriate ending.
scope o f your research.
1 T h e study revealed a regular
2 T h e research focuses on one particular
3 T h e writer makes a powerful
4 The writers take an origma'
5 U n t i l recently there was little
S I t h i n k you should broaden the
7 'lb date, there has huen little research
8 There are many important
awareness of the p r o b l e m ,
issues facing the w o r l d today.
.nto the environmental effects o f nanopartides.
approach to their theme.
aspect of m o d e m society.
pattern or changes in temperature.
case f o r restructuring parliament.
Academic Vocabulary m Use 1 ]

Key v e r b s
in [his unit w c l o o k at some i m p o r t a n t verbs in academic English.
Verbs for structuring academic assignments
L o o k at these tasks w h i c h students have been given. N o t e the key verbs.
Discuss some of [he problems involved In investigating attitudes to diet and health.Write a critical
review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could conduct7
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Starting from rest; an aircraft accelerate? to its take-off speed of 6Q m s 1
in a distance ol 900 metres.
Illustrate^ this with a velocity-tirne graph. Assuming4
constant acceleration, find^ how long che take-off
run lasts. Hence calculate6
the acceleration
The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstrates' that we can identify* ideals that
are trans-national and trans-cultural,' How far Is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event
which supports or challenges9
the statement
Examine1 0
how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide1 1
statistical
evidence where necessary and include a discussion of likely future trends.
1
which are part of/included in i
organise and do J
draw something in order to explain
something A
accepting something to be true 5
discover by calculating (see 6} b
judge the
number or amount o i something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers
7
show, make clear B
recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are
' questions whether it is true 1 0
look at or consider carefully and in detail " give
More key verbs
These extracts f r o m academic books contain other key verbs.
In developing, methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify1
ways ol
establishing2
quality of life into two main types.
The length of time spent o n the tasks may account f o r ]
the decrease in motivation w h i c h was
seen4
in many of the participants.
The data presented5
in Chapter 3 showed6
that the age of the subjects was not the main factor.
)l!iical theory attempts7
to build bridges between different schools ot political thought
divide things into groups according to their type 2
discover or get proof o f 3
explain 4
SLC is
^ften used in the passive in academic style 5
given fi
proved 7
(formal) tries
Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs
Often in academic style> a verb +- the noun f o r m o f the key verb is used.
verb verb + noun exampte
explain give/provlde/offer an explanation
(of/for)
The model provides an explanation for the differences
between the two sets of data.
explore carry out an exploration (of) Kumar carried c u t an exploration of music genius.
emphasise place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe give/provide a description (of) The book gives a description of modern Europe.
. f The verbs affect and effect are different. To affect means to influenceh to effect means to
Jrf make something happen 1 to bring, about. The burning of foss/i /irefc has neg<raVety affected
W * ihe global ciimate. The procedure has been successful and bos effected o return To norma/
ftrncliorring of the engine. See Unit 30 for more on affect and effect.
Academic Vocabulary in Use

Exercises
3.1 M a t c h each verb f r o m A in the b o x o n the left w i t h its s y n o n y m f r o m the b o x on the right.
affect attempt calculate challenge demonstrate compute distinguish give influence
Identify Include investigate provide involve question show study try
3.2 Choose the best verb f r o m B or C to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct
f o r m .
1 As can _ _ _ f r o m Table TI> participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2 Different authors have .._ f o r the President's actions in different ways.
3 M e n d e l attempted to devise a system f o r _ _ _ the many different tvpes of pen
plant that he grew,
4 It is often most effective your data in a chart or table.
5 The data we have collected _ _ _ that there has been a d o w n w a r d t r e n d with
regard to j o b satisfaction over the last 50 years.
£ The aim of the research is .. a new software application w h i c h will help
aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft,
7 T h e archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques exactly
h o w o l d the hones are.
R Charles D a r w i n attempted _ _ _ _ the existence of different species in terms of.
evolution.
3.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.
1 Grcig's article supports Park's theory, Greig's article challenges Park's theory.
2 Describe the new t a x regulations. Discuss the n e w tax regulations.
3 Lodht provides new data. L o d h i considers new data.
4 T i t o v a conducted f o u r sets of experiments, Titova examined f o u r sets of experiments.
5 Lee established w h y such changes occur. Lee investigated w h y such changes occur
6 O k a z assumed that the data were reliable. O k a / proved that the data were reliable.
7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration. Find the magnitude of the deceleration.
& T h e events effected economic development. The events affected economic development.
3.4 Rewrite each sentence using the w o r d in brackets and make any necessary changes to other
words.
1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures f o r this period, (PROVIDES;
2 Bevan explored the relationship between f a m i l v background and political ambition.
( K m c R A T I O N )
3 T h e b o o k describes the life and times of A b r a h a m Lincoln, (DESCRIPTION)
4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition,
( m i s )
3*5 I n academic style, n o u n phrases can often be used instead of some of the key verbs,
gpj Complete each phrase w i t h the appropriate n o u n . Use a dictionarv i f ncccssarv,
1 investigate = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an _ _ _ ._. on
_ _ into/of 5 attempt = make an . to/at
1 illustrate = provide an _ of 6 classify = make, provide a _ _. of
3 analyse = provide, carry o u t an . _ of
Using the tasks In A as a model, prepare some assignment topics for students studying any
subject that you are familiar with.

Key adjectives
For any adjective it is useful to k n o w whether it is typically followed by a specific preposition
and whether it has any synonyms (adjectives w i t h a similar meaning) or antonyms (adjectives
of opposite meaning).
A Adjectives and prepositions
Here are some extracts f r o m academic texts, w i t h adjectives followed by to or of.
ILanguage development is ennreived as j
Language development is ennreived as } Same af the responses to the questionnaire
relative1
Io one's own past performance. w e r e specific9
!o young male respondent
c relative tc that of others. 0 t h e r s w e r i ? common5
to al< the respondents.
How can we make science relevant7
to f We need lo plan technologies which are
environmental policy? Poor communication i appropriate^ lo die needs of small farmers,
between scientists and politicians is 1 It was typical o f the farmers in ihc study that
characteristic1
of the situation today, J they had a negative attitude to technology.
1
true to a particular degree when it is being compared w i t h other things 1
connected w i t h what
is happening or being discussed i
(rather formal) typical of * Only found in 5
belonging to or
shared by t w o or more people or things 6
suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion
Adjectives and their opposites
Ixiok at this abstract f r o m a dissertation on drug abuse. I n most cases you can w o r k out the
meanings of the opposites (which f o l l o w each numbered adjective), based on the definitions.
:annot discuss druc. abuse as an abstract problem without considering concrete- example
of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple7
issus; it usually results from a
complex sel of circumstances. Both quantitative^ and qualitative research is necessary to cjain
a lull picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain an accurate picture
of the causes and results- of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often
result from purely quantitative studies. A significant* amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the
notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not Insignificant in promoting such fears.
The dissertation concludes that rough£
estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made
more precise by properly defining addiction.
1
existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a form that can he seen or felt
1
having or made of only one or a few parts 1
based on numbers and statistics; opposite: usually
research using non-number-based methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc, 4
important oi
noticeable 5
fairly correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate
Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns
There was an apparent' discrepancy between the t w o sets of results.
We noted a potential1
problem w i t h the experimental design w h i c h we had to deal w i t h first.
The p r i n c i p a l 1
cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.
The research used a rigorous4
methodology w h i c h had been tested on m a n y occasions.
seeming to exist or be true 2
possible when the necessary conditions exist 3
first in order of
importance 4
careful to look at or consider every part of something to make certain it is correct
Remember to say typical o f NOT typical fsr. Learn adjectives with the prepositions that
often follow them, as In Ar
Acudentjc Vocabulary in Use

Exercises
L o o k at A , Correct the preposition errors in these sentences,
1 A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar p o w e r is n o t relevant w i t h an essay that
required you to focus on w i n d turbines.
2 It is typical to [he disease f o r it to start w i t h an itchy rash.
3 This methodology is n o t appropriate about the k i n d of research you arc planning
4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic f r o m the writer s stvle.
5 Relative w i t h previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation Is quite
persuasive.
6 T h e dark hair and eyes are c o m m o n f o r all people f r o m the region.
R e w r i t e each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in italics.
1 Karlsson checked the figures and agreed w i t h me that they were accurate.
2 The solution to the problem is a simple o n e
3 M a k e rough calculations before you begin to w r i t e up your results.
4 T h e a~my played a significant role in events.
5 Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms.
M a t c h the adjective on the left w i t h the n o u n it often combines w i t h on the right.
1 apparent methodology
2 rigorous problem
3 principal discrepancy
4 potential cause
N o w use one of the combinations f r o m 4.3 to complete these sentences,
1 There is an _ in your figurcs.
2 Management's refusal to listen to the w o r k e r s ' demands was the of the riots.
3 T.amaque devised a w h i c h has since been used successfully by many o t h c i
researchers in the field.
4 Wc spotted a _ w i t h our procedure and so we changed it m t w o areas.
Choose the best adjective* f r o m the b o x to complete these sentences,
qualitative complex potential rigorous specif c
1 The plant is difficult to g r o w and needs very _ conditions to survive.
2 H i s tutor was critical of his w o r k f o r n o t being _ enough.
3 Tn the past the northern tribes l o o k e d on the tribes of the south as enemies.
4 We chose a approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally.
5 A set of circumstances led to a civil war in l f i y 7 .
When you come across any of die key adjectives from this unit in your reading, note it down in a
phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective.

Key adverbs
This u n i t deals wich just some o f che adverbs t h a i are particularly frequent in an academic
context. Y o u w i l l find m o r e in other units t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k .
Adverbs that compare
meaning example
comparatively/
relatively
In comparison wirh something else Our sample was relatively/
comparatively small.
especia lly/particu larly more than usual The process was not especially/
particularly difficult.
specially more than usual (spoken English only)
for a specific purpose
The exam was specialty hard this year.
We used specially designed equipment.
somewhat (opposite;
considerably)
(slightly formal) a little, slightly When we tested younger boys, we
obtained somewhat/considerably
different results.
primarily mainly Amir is primarily interested in bio-physics.
mostly/largely almost completely (but not totally so) The research was largely/mostly
successful.
directly (opposite:
indirectly)
without anything else being involved The illness is (in)directly linked to poor
housing.
Adverbs that relate to numbers or time
There are approximately 2 0 varieties of bird in this species. | roughly, aboutl
There arc precisely 43 different managerial posts i n the company, [exactly]
Interviewees frequently misunderstood one o f the questions, [often]
We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. |in the e n d , after some time]
Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment, [finally, after other things have been c o m pieced
Adverbs that relate to how things are stated
Mall's latesf ariicle essentially1
differs hem his earlier work in that it is explicitly2
critical of the
government. Generally^ his disapproval of [heir policies was only conveyed implicitly' in his
previous writing, bu; here he specifically condemns their handling oFa number of Issues.
1
referring to its main ch.iracteristies; also basically 1
openly
4
not directly, suggested or implied rather than stated
Adverbs that restrict o r limit
usually, also o n the whole
merely = exactly and nothing more; The medication will merely make the symptoms
bearable; it will not cure the disease.
simply N o t e that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the risks of this
approach would senn to outweigh its advantages, [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas
shnply, ir. a ivay appropriate for the layman, [easily; someone w h o isn't a specialist in the
held] The exam results were simply dreadful, (absolutely, w i t h o u t doubt)
hardly ever = almost never: The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the outside world.
EvejiOjjrJ/y means 'in the end'. It docs not mean 'pcrhapsypossibly'-
We will perhaps/possibly (NOT eventually) discover life on other planets in the future.
Eventually [in the endj, we were able to interview oil 20 children involved in the test

Exerc/ses
5. I L o o k at A and B. E x p l a i n the difference between ihc sentences in each pair.
1 Heitirich's experiments were mostly successful.
T-Tdnrich's experiments were most successful.
2 T h e results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances.
The results were especially surprising given the circumstances,
3 First-year students are directly affected by the n e w rules relating to t u i t i o n fees.
First-year students are particularly affected by the new rides relating to tuition fees.
4 T h e study is p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h urban alienation.
The study is ultimately concerned w i t h urban alienation.
5 The team eventually obtained tin predicted results.
The team frequently obtained unpredicted results.
5.2 Choose the more appropriate adverb f r o m the options.
W h a t you are saying is essentially i merely true. T o put it basically / simply, there is
specially / basically no significant difference between the t w o writers' theories. However,
one of them writes in a simply I precisely dreadful style while the other has eventually I
possibly a more impressive style than any other contemporary scientist.
5.3 Change the sentences using adverbs w h i c h mean the opposite of the underlined ones.
1 There were r o u g h l y 350 people living in the village in 195ft.
2 Parents seldom complained that rhe school authorities failed to i n f o r m them of changes
3 We investigated the p r o b l e m and initially found some small errors in the calculations.
4 T h e temperature was exactly half a degree lower than the average
> Singh (1 PPJi) is explicitly criricaf of existing theories of economic g r o w t h .
6 Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or w i n d .
7 Senior citizens almost always use the internet to communicate w i t h one another.
8 T h e disease is directly linked to environmental factors.
5.4 Underline the adverbs in these texrs. T h e n answer the questions.
Marine conservationists are currently attempting
to save the world's coral reefs. One plan is to
literally glue the damaged reeis back together,
using coral artificially raised in underwater
labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from
human activily as well as from events occurring
naturally, such as hurricanes and tsunamis.
A recent UN report warns that 30% of the
world's coral reels have been completely
destroyed or are severely damaged.
Scientists have recently discovered that ants
can remember how many steps they have
taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening
the legs of ants, the team observed that
short-legged ants apparently became lost and
could nat easily find their way home to the
nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically
travelled 5 0 % further than they needed to and
were also temporarily unable to find the nest.
It seems ants can definitely count their steps.
1 W h i c h adverb means 'in the same way'?
2 Find t w o pairs of adverbs that mean the opposite of each other.
3 W h i c h adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'?
4 W h i c h adverb means "more and more'?
5 W h i c h adverb could be substituted by seriously^
6 W h i c h adverb means ' f o r a limited t i m e ' i
Find an ankle of interest to you in your discipline and underline all the key adverbs.Then check
thac you understand their meaning.
Academic Vocofju/ory in Use I ?

Phrasal verbs in a c a d e m i c English
Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more i n f o r m a l spoken and w r i t t e n English,
[hey are also not u n c o m m o n in an academic context. You w i l l hear them used in lectures anc
will read them in serious journals. F r o m this unit only go/look back over and w o r k out are
not appropriate for a f o r m a l w r i t t e n assignment.
Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound
more f o r m a l than their phrasal verb equivalent but both are appropriate when w r i t i n g or
talking about academic subjects. Vary your language by using both.
phrasat verb synonym exampfe
put forward (an idea/view/opinion/
theory/plan)
present In her latest article Kaufmann puts f o r w a r d a
theory which is likely to prove controversial.
carry out (an experiment / research) conduct
constitute
1 intend t o carry out a aeries of experiments.
make up
conduct
constitute Children under die age of 15 make up nearly
half of die country's population-
be made up of consist of Parliament is m a d e up of two houses.
point our observe, Grenne points out that the increase in life
expectancy has led to some economic problems.
point up highlight The study points up the weaknesses, in the
current school system.
set out (to do something) aim In his article Losanov sets out to prove chat ,„
set out describe The document sets, o u t the terms of the treaty.
go into discuss In this book Sergeant goes i n t o the causes of the
Civil War in soJile depth.
go/look back over revise, review * Please go/look back over this term's notes.
go through check Go through your calculations carefully.
* Revise is the BrE synonym and review the A m E synonym. [Revise in A m E only means to edit
or change something to make it better; revietv is not used in BrE in the context of preparing for
i test as focused on here,}
Carrying out research
After completing her first degree in zoology Meena w e n t on
to1
apply to graduate school. She wanted to w o r k o n ?
animal
behaviour at a well-known institute in New Zealand, She set u p ]
a
series of experiments investigating how bees communicate. She has.
noticed some curious behaviour patterns but has not yet w o r k e d
out- 1
why her bees behave as they do. What she has observed
seems to go against' current theories of bee behaviour. When she
has completed all her research she will have to w r i t e it all upf i
.
do something after doing something else 1
study, w o r k in the field of 1
prepared> arranged
' come to a tone his Eon about 5
not be in agreement with &
(of an important document) write in
a final form
Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. For example, a good
dictionary tells you when the ob|ect can be used before the particle (e.g. write, your resuJte up) and
when it cannot (eg. rJiis goes florist cyaept-toeorjes).
¿0 Academic VocatiuJciry in Use

Exercises
6.1 R e w r i t e the sentences replacing the underlined w o r d in each sentence w i t h a phrasal verb
f r o m A . N o t e that b o t h versions o f each sentence arc equally appropriate,
1 We conducted a series o f experiments to test out onr hypothesis.
2 Before the test you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 o f your textbooks.
~h la his article on the American Civil W a r Kingston discusses the reasons w h y ihe situatior
developed in the w a y it d i d .
4 Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development o f language in his latest hook.
5 'I he psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way.
6 Please check y o u r w o r k again carefully before handing it In.
7 In rhis article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the
Vikings.
3 W o m e n n o w constitute over half the student population in most universities in this
country.
6.2 Fill in the missing words in this paragraph-
A s parL of m y M A I've been d o i n g DOIIIR r e s e a r c h on language a c q u i s i t i o n . I've been
w o r k i n g ( I t h o w y o u n g c h i l d r e n learn i.heir m o t h e r tongue. I've been
c u r r y i n g (2) some experiment.1
; to see h o w m u c h r e a d i n g to y o u n g
c h i l d r e n effects t h e i r language d e v e l o p m e n t . I've h a d a g r e a t .supervisor w h o has
helped m e set (3) m y e x p e r i m e n t s and .she's also pointed (4)
lots of interesting7
things in my data t h a i I hadn't n o l i cod myself. I'm busy w r i t i n g my
w o r k (S) n o w and I t h i n k 1 should he able to p u t (6) some
useful ideas. H's been really fascinating a n d 1 hope 1 may bo ablo Lu gu 17)
to do a. docl.orale in the s a m e fluid ;illliuugli 1 c e r t a i n l y nover sot (8) l u do
a Hhl)
6.3 M a t c h the beginning o f each sentence w i t h the most appropriate ending.
6.4
1 Feudal society was made
2 Carlson was the first to put
3 Her results appear to go
4 T h e investigation pointed
5 It t o o k h i m a l o n g time to w o r k
li T h e geography hook sett
f o r w a r d a convincing theory w i t h regard to this question.
up the flaws in the school's testing methods.
out the solution to the algebra p r o b l e m .
"jut a lot of basic i n f o r m a t i o n about ail the w o r l d 1
:
":o un tries.
against what she had f o u n d in her earlier studies,
up of clearly defined classes o f people.
Answer these questions.
1 W h a t s o n o f things m i g h t a scientist carry o u t :
1 If you w;int to study something in more depth, w h a t m i g h t you go on to do after getting
a first degree?
3 W h a t d o postgraduate students Ly pit: idly h;ive to write up at the end o f their studies:
4 W h a t sort o f things do good students regularly l o o k back over?
5 W h a t sorts of things do scholars typically put f o r w a r d hi their lectures or articles?
6 W h y is it sensible to go through any maths calculations that you had to make as p a r i o f s
research study before you d r a w any conclusions?
Academic Vocabulary fn Use 11

Key q u a n t i f y i n g expressions
Q u a n t i f y i n g expressions are i m p o r t a n t i n academic English as i t is often necessary to
comment o n figures o r Trends. Y o u w i l l find more useful language f u r t a l k i n g about [lumbers
in Units 2 5 a n d 26 a n d i n Reference 2, w h i c h focuses o n measurement -
Number and amount
t.earners of English often choose the w r o n g n o u n rehiring to quantity. For example, y o u
say a great (not -birge) deal ( i n f o r m a l ! n r 3
large/great a m o u n t o f an uncountable noun
such us miMteyr interest o r influence However, y o u say a large number of a plural noun
such as articles* books or words. Both a number and an amount can be described as small,
considerable, substantial, significant, enormous, total, surprising, excessive [LOO much/many],
fair [quire a l o t ] a n d reasonable (acceptable],
B Other nouns relating to quantity
t h e size af o u r s u r v e y w a s relatively s m a l l scale. We s e n t auï 2,5QQ q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
Tn t o t a l 1
. A l t h o u g h a c o u p l e 1
o f people d i d n o t r e s p o n d , t h e b u l k * of t h o s e s e n t
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h a v e c o m p l e t e d t h e m . The s u r v e y s h o w s t h a t , a s a w h o l e 4
, t h e
population is b e c o m i n g m o r e a w a r e o f the i m p o r t a n c e of r e c y c l i n g . Only o n e of* o u r
r e s p o n d e n t s said t h a t he r e c y c l e d less t h a n he used t o
J
1
i n all 1
t w o or three, a few 3
the majority * considered as a group rather Lhun individually
5
notice h o w respondents is in the phirali i t is a common error to write A singular noun after ittie
of.,. {rcsfion/ic'tsfsurveys/canclusiiins, etc.)
Comparing numbers and quantities
example
m tt-coii ol
fewer zinc
fewer / le»
and less
Tore and
Tiara
nore or ICH
io fewer than
Results exceeding S cm were ctmntated I r a n the
survey.
People who drive in excels of the [.peed limit will be
fined.
Fewer and fewer people are graying in rhe same jot
throughout their liveSnTbung people are becoming less
and less interested In pollUej.
There is more and more Interest In rhe topic
People arc becoming more and more aware of the
environment
The experiment was more o r l e « 3 success.
No fewer than 700 peopk <esponded.
(formal) m o r a higher than
means over, u^ed mainly ir
official or legal writing
a steadily declining/decreasing
number of. decreasing!)
a steadily Increasing amount of.
increasingly
(slightly informai) means
mosdy or appropriately
,ied to 'L:yest the number
was irecpectedly large
Mote the significant difference between few and a few and between little and a little.
Few [Nor many] peopJe enjoy X'i music. A few [Some] people enjoy ft. We hod Jirtle [not
inuchf response to our survey. Wfi hod o NttJe [some] response to jurr survey. In other words,
few/littJe has a more negative tone than a few / a little.
AiodemicVocabulary in Use

Exercises
Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the w o r d s in italics.
f I n a number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the d r u g , surprise
2 T h e analysis demanded an .._ _ _ a m o u n t of computer time, exceed
3 _ _ _ _ numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter, consider
4 The course requires a .. a m o u n t of p r i o r knowledge of computers, reason
5 The survey t o o k a _ _ _ _ a m o u n t of research time and costs were high, substance
6 The t w o dams can h o l d in _ _ _ _ of t w o cubic kilometres of water, exceed
7 In _ _ _ , 12 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are n o w closed to deep-se^
fishing, totality
Ü Groups f o u r people were considered too large f o r the experiment, exceed
3 N o _ _ _ than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year, few
lO En a _ number of cases, surface damage was noticed- signify
l l i e sentences b e l o w are typical of spoken English- Replace the underlined words to make
ihcm sound more appropriate for a written assignment.
1 T h i L b u I k of our w o r k is concerned w i t h carbon imissions.
2 We have noticed that fewer and fewer students are j o i n i n g the course,
3 Our team spent, a fair a m o u n t of time getting funding for the research.
4 I n a couple_of cases, we could not find any reason for the outbreak.
5 We spent a great deal of time on the project,
(j As you repeat the experiment, use less and less water each time.
Read the text ami answer the questions*
For some years now, scientists have been using a powerful new machine t o recreate the
conditions t h a t existed at the birth of the universe. The machine generates a massive number
oi hot, dense, bursts of m a t t e r and energy, simulating w h a t happened in the first few
microseconds of the beginning of the universe. After no more than ten microseconds, the
particles of m a t t e r joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or
less everything w c see In the universe today.
1 W h i c h expression explains h o w long scientists have been using this machine?
2 W h i c h expression tells us h o w m a n y bursts of matter and energy the machine generates?
3 W h i c h time period does the machine simulate?
4 "Which expression states how long it was before the particles of matter joined together?
5 W h i c h expression in the last sentence means approximately3
.
Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.
There have been a small number of studies investing tiny The impart of email on interpersonal
mmmuniratkins. None of the studios has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting
trends in patterns of email use. From one of the older studies it seems that moreand more
people send in excess ei BO emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior
citizens use email a lot more frequently than younger people do.
Find five quantifying expressions from one ol your textbooks and write your own senronce?
E ^ H using them.

To W o r d s w i t h several m e a n i n g s
Set
M a n y words in English, have m o r e than one meaning. The w o r d set, for example, is one
w o r d w i t h a particularly large number of distinctly different meanings. As our focus is
academic English, some key uses of set are illustrated by these examples.
a) Set the instruments to zero, [get something ready so iL can be operated]
b) 1 w o u l d like to set some g r o u n d rules f o r the course, [establish]
-) T h e decision set a number of changes in m o t i o n , [caused no be in a stated c o n d i t i o n '
d) We must set a time for our next meeting, [ a r r a n g d
s) Concrete sets as it cools, [becomes solid]
f) T h e students entered the r o o m and immediately set to w o r k , [started w o r k
g) T h e condition is associated w i t h a particular set of symptoms, I g r o u p l
h} We have a number of set hooks to study in our literature class, [that must be studiedl
More academic meanings for familiar words
E Tere are some more words w h i c h in an academic context may have a different meaning f r o m
those you are familiar w i t h f r o m y o u r knowledge of general English-
word academic meonmg(s) examp/e
accommodate (verb) change to allow something to ftt In He had to adapt his theory to
accommodate new information.
contract (verb) shorten, become smaller As the metal cools It contracts.
occur (verb) exist Some valuable minerals occur
naturally in these rocks.
reference (noun) author or book mentioned in a piece of
writing to show where information was found
You must provide a list of
references at the end of your
assignment.
revolution (noun) complete turn (e.g. of a wheel) Time is measured by the revolution
of the earth around the sunr
structure (noun) way In which parts ol a system or object are
organised or arranged
The structure of this clement is
particularly complex.
Words w i t h several different academic meanings
M a n y academic w o r d s have specific meanings according to their discipline. Channel, for
example, has specific meanings in electronics, linguistics, biology, physics and geography.
So you w i l l , of course, need a specialist dictionary f o r your o w n subject.
Other words, e.g. issue and point have several generally i m p o r t a n t academic meanings
The writer takes issue w i t h Kivamc's interpretation. |raiscs arguments against]
I n your essay you should address a number of key issues, [topics]
Have y o u seen the latest issue of the Maloysian Medicol Jonrtidl? [edition]
Jackson raises Some interesting points in his article, |opinions, ideas, i n f o r m a t i o n !
T h e writer takes a long time to get to the p o i n t , [most significant p a r t i
If yoji come across a word that pou think you know but It does not seem to make sense in that
conte>it. check to see whether it has another distinct meaning. If so, write it down with both (or all)
its meanings in your vocabulary notebook.
¿4 Academic Vocabulary in L/se

Exercises
8. J W h i c h meaning given in A Joes set hqvc in these examples:
1 If yon don't set to w o r k immediately you w o n ' t finish the task b y the end o f term.
2 Before we start I'd like everyone to set their watches to precisely the same time.
3 Professors will set a date f o r the Submission o f assignments relating to their o w n courses.
4 "We expected the m i x t u r e t o set q u i c k l y but i t had not hardened b y the m o r n i n g .
5 before leaving the area, the retreating a r m y set the f a r m buildings on fire.
6 The engine's performance has set a new fuel c o n s u m p t i o n record,
7 D u r i n g the first semester, music students have to study a number of set pieces,
li There are a whole set of issues that need to be discussed.
8.2 Choose a w o r d f r o m l i t o complete each sentence. Change the f o r m i f necessary.
I "When you are d o i n g research i t is sensible to keep good records of all your ._ _
as it can he difficult to locate sources later
Z This medical c o n d i t i o n is most likely to _ _ _ _ in fair-skinned people,
3 I n first gear the engine makes ten for every of the wheels.
4
- Weahhy the theme of the anthology, is general enough to a wide variety of
approaches,
5 T h e of society in Ancient Rome can be said to resemble that of the modern USA.
fi They carried out an experiment to check whether the g o l d or expanded
ander a range of different conditions.
8.3 W h i c h w o r d could £ t in each o f these sets o f phrases?
1 discuss the f o l l o w i n g 3 take w i t h
underline the key _ the latest o f the New Scientist
make some t h o u g h t f u l _ a controversial _
2 to a precedent 4 a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
a o f exercises the English
a h o o k to one's energies into
8.4 Read tins test about some new medical software. For each underlined w o r d give the
meaning in the text and one other meaning- Use a dictionary to help you i f necessary,
A simulator s h o w i n g h o w outbreaks of infection might spread around the w o r l d w o u l d be
of great assistance i n the struggle to contain such diseases. Researchers at the World Health
Organization maintain that to effectively confront emerging infectious diseases, they need
a significant amount of computing power. A global epidemic simulator w o u l d mimic climate
simulators w h i c h monitor the movement of weather systems. It w o u l d record w h e r e disease
outbreaks occur, where they are heading and, crucially, w o u l d allow scientists to test out
virtual mitigation measures to see w h i c h might w o r k best on the ground.
8,5 Jokes are often hased on words having several meanings. Explain this joke.
A neutron goes into a bar, orders a drink and asks hoiv much it will be.
The barman replies: ' f w you, sir, no charge.7
Look at a textbook on an academic subject of special interest to you. Lock lor some of the
words in cliis unir and decide which meaning they have in your text.
AcatfemicVocobulofy in Use 25

9 M e t a p h o r s a n d i d i o m s
A metaphor 15 a w a y o f using language w h i c h describes something by indirectly comparing
it to something else w i t h similar characteristics. For example, y o u might say an academic
'aiAacks' or 'demolishes' someone's theory or argument, just as an army can a Hack an enemy
;)L" w o r k e r s can demolish a building. If a meraphor is used so often t h a t the original force
of the comparison is lost then it may be called an i d i o m . For example, people often use the
i d i o m 'I'm snowed under w i t h w o r k at the moment*. Originally this was a metaphor based
on the idea o f a great deal of w o r k having the characteristics o f 'snow' (deep, overwhelming
everything else and m a k i n g movement difficult). However, this expression has been used sc
frequently that h no longer gives people a mental picture o f snow.
Metaphors and idioms referring to light and darkness
The present experimental data may shed (new) light on1
the f o r m a t i o n o f the planets.
Views o n depression have changed i n (the) fight of recent studies of the brain.
Novelists, poets and essayists often use hisiorv to illuminate* their understanding
of h u m a n behaviour. The book provides an illuminating discussion o f h o w languages change.
A n i m a l models can he used to elucidate4
basic principles o f the developmental origins of
adult diseases,
I'he report revealed the g l a r i n g 4
discrepancy between paticms' needs and w h a t the health
service can offer Lhem, and highlighted6
lire need for a new approach.
The report shines a light o n 7
the questions surrounding child care and provides crucial data
Substance abuse continues to destroy individuals and communities, and researchers remain in
the d a r k 0
about whaL can ensure successful recovery f r o m addiction.
The book dealt w i t h economic policy in the shadow o f 9
the Civil War o f 1994-1999
provide an explanation for it w h i c h makes it easier to understand. We t a n also say i j s i or
throw light (in 1
because of 1
show more clearly something that is difficult to understand
4
explain or make clear (from [he Latin hicidus meaning 'clear'} s
something had that is very
obvious {to gitire means to shine too brightly) £
emphasised something important 7
focuses
on a
continue in a state o f not knowing something ?
in a situation where something bad h j ^
happened or Is happening
B Metaphors and idioms referring to war and conflict
L o o k at these extracts f r o m lectures where the speakers use such metaphors, and idioms.
'Critics opposed to D.H. Lawrence
attacked bis novels on various
grounds, both trivial and Important •
Bui despite the apparent diversity
of opinion, Lawrence's critics were
united on what they SJW JS several 1
serious problems.'
J
I n the last two poems
we see the poet becoming
increasingly detached
from the material world, ]
r e t r e a t i n g 1
more into his J
o w n mind than before.' t
'Parents and teachers
need to maintain a
united front3
on the
question of bad conduct
at school.1
'Critics opposed to D.H. Lawrence
attacked bis novels on various
grounds, both trivial and Important •
Bui despite the apparent diversity
of opinion, Lawrence's critics were
united on what they SJW JS several 1
serious problems.'
'[[h
s 11 si-fill at the present timP.
to look at Japan's expirriLucc
in the battle uist air
pollution, and it's a battle no
nation tan afford to lose.'
'Lawsuits can certainly f
affect the value of a
company, and f i r m s need |
strategies to c o m b a t the I
o n s l a u g h t 3
of lawsuits.'
'In the fast ten years or
so,children have i>ccn
b o m b a r d e d w i t h *
increasing amounts o f
violence In the media/
'[[h
s 11 si-fill at the present timP.
to look at Japan's expirriLucc
in the battle uist air
pollution, and it's a battle no
nation tan afford to lose.'
* foreed to experience, subjected ti:
26 Academic Vocobu/ary in Lfst

Exercises
Choose a w o r d f r o m the b o x to complete each sentence.
elucidate glaring highlight illuminate light
remained shadow shed thine
1 The results o f the investigation a lighL on the pressures o f the global
economy on farmers in developing countries,
2 U n t i l recently, scientists have _ _ in the dark as no the causes o f the disease, hut
a recent breakthrough promises to _ _ _ _.. new light on the p r o b l e m .
3 O u r whole n o t i o n o f time and space has changed in the ._ o f recenl
developments in physics.
4 These communities have lived for decades in the _ _. _ _ of poverty and social
deprivation.
5 The collapse of the bridge the need for a m o m rigorous analysis o f the
effects of constant traffic movements.
f> T h e team carried out a series o f experiments in an attempt to the mysterious
processes at w o r k in the organism.
7 T h e article helps to _ for the o r d i n a r y reader some o f the m o r e difficult
references in Shakespeare's plays.
3 T h e professor f o u n d some _ errors in one student's calculations.
Rewrite these sentences using metaphors o f conflict instead o f the underlined w o r d s .
1 Scientists w h o don't agree w i t h this theory have recently attacked its basic assumptions.
2 Governments need to remain in complete agreement on the issue o f economic migrants.
3 N o w a d a y s , we eel a huge number of advertisements every time we w a t c h T V or open n
magazine.
4 G. J. F r a n k i n has recently moved away f r o m the view that economic processes cannot be
altered, and is n o w m o v i n g towards a different approach.
5 The efforts against crime w i l l fail w i t h o u t police and c o m m u n i t y cooperation.
S The protests were a response to the devastating su.ddcn.large number o f trade restrictions
on small produccrs.
L o o k ai this t c * t and underline key words and phrases w h i c h construct the main metaphor:
the h u m a n b r a i n is a computer'.
Shutting dotun Alzheimer's
The human brain İa a remarkably complex organic computer, taking in a wide variety of sensory ex
periences, processing and storing this information, and recalling and integrating selected biis at the
right moments. The destruction caused by Alzheimer's disease has been likened to the erasure of a
hard drive, beginning with the most recent files and working backward. As the Illness progresses,
aid as well as new memories gradually disappear until even loved ones are no longer recognised.
Unfortunately, the computer analogy breaks down: one cannot simply reboot the human brain and
reload the files and programs. The problem is thai Alzheimer's does not only erase information; it
destroys the very hardware of the brain, which is composed of more than 100 billion nerve cells
[neurons], with 100 trillion connections among! h em.
Look at some ol the textbooks you use. Can yau find any examples of metaphors or idioms
there rclaiing to light and darkness Or war and conflict?

N o u n s a n d t h e w o r d s t h e y c o m b i n e w i t h
Nouns often combine w i t h specific verbs, for example entry out research, pay attention, or
with specific adjectives, for example medical research, undivided attention.
Adjective + noun
noun adjectives that often combine wilh it example
contact useful, valuable, personal, constant, close,
frequent, intermittent'
1 made some useful contacts at the
conference.
debate considerable, heated^, intense, public,
animated1
After die lecture diere was a heated
debate.
element
[= factor]
crucial, decisive, fundamental Timing is a crucial element of the
experiment-
elements
E= parts]
Conflicting, contrasting, constituent4
There are conflicting elements in the
artist's work.
energy excess, sufficient nuclear Wind turbines create sufficient energy
for the town s needs.
phenomenon common, isolated, natural, recent, universa Such anti-social behaviour is a recent
phenomenon.
results conflicting, (inconclusive, unforeseen5
.
preliminary6
, encouraging, interim7
Our preliminary results were
encouraging.
role
sample
decisive, challenging, conflicting, influential,
key, pivotal8
Student activists played a pivotal role in
the riot.
role
sample random, representative A representative sample of the
population was surveyed.
in ... terms absolute, broad, relative, general, practical,
economic
People arc better off in economic
terms.
way alternative, efficient fair, practical. . It is important to treat pour research
convenient, proper, acceptable • subjects In a fair way.
' f r o m time to time z
strong, often angry 3
lively 4
that combine to make something
E
not expected 6
firs: 7
remporary 3
important
Noun + verb
M o s t of the nouns in the tabic above are also strongly associated w i t h specific verbs.
You can come into contact w i t h someone or something or y o u t a n establish, m a i n t a i n , break
off or lose contact.
Academics may engage in debate or contribute to a debate. You talk about the debate
surrounding an issue.
You can combine, differentiate or discern ¡ recognise] the elements of a chemical compound.
You consume |useh conserve, generate | create"!, save or waste energy.
Phenomena emerge or occur and students w i l l try to observe, investigate and then explain
those phenomena.
Academies collect, collate [organise] and publish their results. Sometimes results are
questioned or invalidated [shown to be w r o n g ] . Occasionally they are even falsified!
lióles may be defined or strengthened. People or factors t a n play a role or take on a role.
You can take or provide or analyse a sample.
You can discover, devise [think u p ] , w o r k out or develop a w a y to d o something.
1
Whenever you notice a noun that seems to be key as far as pour own studies are concerned, write
it down with the adjectives and Verbs it is typically associated with.

Exercises
10.1 Answer these questions about the adjective + n o u n combinations in the table in A ,
1 Put these types o f contact i n order of frequency - frequent, constant, intermittent.
1 W h i c h o f these is a representative sample and w h i c h is a random sample; a sample chosen
by ehanee, a sample chosen as typical o f the p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e :
3 W h i c h adjective describes the opposite of a common phenomenon';
4 W o u l d y o u he pleased i f you d i d some research and got inconclusive results:
5 W h a t adjective other t h a n key can be used w i t h role to give a similar meaning?
E
> W h i c h suggests that [here is m o r e energy - excess or sufficient energy?
7 Can you name three people w h o play an influential role in a child's development?
S I f t w o o f the f o u r constituent elements o f most language exams arc reading and speaking,
what are rhe olfier two?
10.2 Fill in the gaps in these sentences w i t h a verb f r o m B . Change the f o r m where necessary,
1 I first into contact w i t h Abdul w h e n I started m y d o c t o r a l research in 1987.
1 The country so m u c h energy that we d o n r _ enough to meet all
mir needs.
3 The space race an i m p o r t a n t role in post-war politics.
4 I n her research project Diana the phenomenon o f extra-sensory perception
but she was not able to come to any significant conclusions.
5 A l t h o u g h Hans's rivals attempted to his results, they met w i t h no success.
li Cireen's poetry successfully .... elements f r o m a number o f different traditions.
10.3 M a t c h the beginning o f each sentence w i t h the most appropriate ending.
1 I t t o o k the team a l o n g time to devise surrounding the issue of global w a r m i n g .
2 D u r i n g the w a r we h a d to break a b l o o d sample for analysis.
3 There has been a lot of heated debate the role of project leader.
4 fan H a r t m a n n was invited to take on to the debate on c l o n i n g .
5 Part o f m y role was to collate o f f contact w i t h colleagues abroad.
6 T h e d o c t o r wanted me to provide seems to he emerging.
7 Scientists all over the w o r l d contributed the key elements in a graph.
S A new and unexpected phenomenon a w a y ro solve their problem.
9 Using shading helps to differentiate the results o f our experiments.
10.-1 Choose the best w o r d f r o m the b o x to fill each o f the gaps.
conflicting crucial define discern engaging
h cared Interim maintaining practical proper
publish random taking
1 She obtained her results by a sample o f the p o p u l a t i o n ,
2 Before we go any further we must each o f our roles m o r e precisely.
3 We must decide w h a t is the _ _ way to proceed, in .._ terms.
4 T h e group succeeded in contact l o n g after they had all left college,
5 M y trip to Africa was the element in m y decision to w o r k in conservation.
&
" Specialists in the field o f bio-engineering have been _ in debate
on this issue f o r some time.
7 E am t o l d that Smythe is about to _ some results.
iS Professor Powell was able to some elements in different
accounts of the incident.
Academic VocubuJary in Use 29

A d j e c t i v e a n d n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n s
i his unit focuses (in a number of adjective t- noun tí im bin a rions w h i c h are particularly frequent
İn academic contexts.
Adjectives suggesting importance
•o)eci/ve comment some of the nouns fl frrguenity jjoes with
Important significant can convey the aim* meaning and
born adjectives often go with these nouns
aspect, contribution, diltervnct, implications,
point, question, reason, elcmrnc
(ígnificant can also mean large in ilze and as such goes
with these nouns
increase, reduction, number, proportion
major the opposite, m i n o r also often goes with
these nouns
role, changes, problem, factor, issue, concern,
difference, theme, contribution, point
enormous'
considerable
enormous can mean very large or very
important; considerable means, large or of
noticeable Important {i.e. sNghdy less strong
than enormous)
amount, expansion, number, range,
diversity, difference, variation, extent,
degree, impact, power influence,
significance, inures t
.ir T i c u 1 ar means special interest, attention, significan»» •nporonce,
concern
N o t e that a feature of academic w r i t i n g JS that İt often uses an adjective + noun phrase tc
suggest importance of some k i n d instead of just using an adjective, e.g. Marx's contribution
is of particular significance instead of Marx's contribution is very significant.
Adjectives suggesting frequency
Widespread means that something happens in many places or a m o n g many people. It often
:omhines w i t h such nouns as belief, acceptance, support, opposition, assumption, use. For
j x a m p l c . There is widespread support for government policy in urban areas.
C o m m o n can mean frequent, W i t h this meaning it often combines w i t h such nouns as
experience, practice, use, concern, f o r e',implc, It is increasingly common practice for UK.
teenagers to take a gap year before entvttwg umt ersiiy.
NotE that common can also m e a n "shaied* and as such it combines w i t h knowledge, ground,
feature, interest. F o r example. There is much common ground between the two writers.
Specific means relating to one t h i n g and not to things İn general, i t often combines w i t h
context, information, cüse, type, form, purpose, characteristics, conditions, example. For
example. The reaction occurs only under specific conditions
Other useful adjective and noun combinations
inevitable is often used w i t h w o r d s relating to results or changes such as consequence,
outcome, collapse, decline, conflict, effect, developments, [unavoidable]
Explicit corn bines w i d i w o r d s relating to h o w things are presented, e.g. reference, statement,
comparison, account, mention, [clear and exact, communicated directly]
Relevant combines w i t h w o r d s relating to evidence o f different types, e ^ , data, documents,
information, details, factors, [connected w i l h what j s being discussed]
30 doOdamJcWxnbtj/oFy in Use

Exercises
11,1 L o o k at t h e s e statements about some academics Complete each sentence w i t h an
appropriate adjective or n o u n . T h e r e may he m o r e than one answer.
1 Davison d i d a considerable _ o f research into earthquake prediction.
2 Rawlinson drew attention to the problem o f energy consumption.
3 Werner's w o r k had an enormous on rhe w a y we design bridges today.
4 A p r o p o r t i o n o f Thoma/'s w o r k was devoted to international law. Three
nf her live books were on the subject,
5 Prestyn made only a c o n t r i b u t i o n to modern psychology, but it was an
interesting one, noncthclcsS-
ft Bakkiv's w o r k has some extremely implications f o r our work today.
I I *2 Rewrite the sentences using adjectives f r o m the opposite page instead o f the w o r d s in b o k L
1 There is opposition among students in many places to the idea o f longer semesters,
2 T h e destruction o f the riverbank w i l l cause a decline w h i c h is b o u n d t o happen in the
numbers of small m a m m a l s .
3 School standards are a concern w h i c h occurs frequently among parents nowadays.
4 N o w h e r e in the article does the author make mention in a direct1 cleat and exact w a y
of the 20 cases w h i c h were never resolved.
5 There Is very little g r o u n d w h i c h is shared between the t w o ways o f addressing the
problem.
j The paper is too general and hicks examples w h i c h relate o n l y to individual things.
I 1.3 M a k e sure you k n o w the n o u n forms o f these adjectives. W r i t e them in the table. Use a
dictionary i f necessary.
odjectrre noun adjective noun
significant important
relevant valuable
interesting useful
frequeriT bnjad
I 1.4 T h e sentences below came f r o m lectures. Adapt them f o r use in an academic article b y
replacing the phrases in b o l d . Tn each case use an adjective f r o m the b o x combined w i t h a
n o u n f r o m 11.3 to make a phrase like of great interest.
huge high enormous great considerable
1 Johnson's w o r k is very relevant for any student of medical engineering.
2 The research w i l l be very valuable to anyone interested in economic planning.
3 It was an event w h i c h was terribly i m p o r t a n t in the history of L a t i n A m e r i c a n politics.
4 Partich's b o o k is an extremely b r o a d w o r k .
5 Sorlan's b o o k was a very significant w o r k in the development of political theory.
T This software will be quite useful in the analysis o f large amounts o f numerical data.
7 The method she outlines is verv interesting to anyone investigating sleeplessness,
S 'You k n o w ' is an expression w h i c h is very frequent in i n f o r m a l spoken English.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 3 I

Verbs a n d t h e w o r d s t h e y c o m b i n e w i t h
How verbs combine with other words
You should note a number o f things about verbs in an academic context, in particular
• any nouns often used w i t h the verb and whether the n o u n goes before or after the verb,
for example, the research/theory is based o n , to pose a problcm/questi on/threat
• any adverbs often used w i t h the verb, f o r example, mainly/partly/loosely based
• any prepositions f o l l o w i n g the verb, f o r example, to base something on something else
> i f the verb is often used in the passive, f o r example, be based o n , be associated w i t h
verb nouns adverts eXflmpfes
base (on) research, theory,
story, hypothesis
mainly, partly
loosely
The story was loosely based on a true event
which occurred in IS92,The theory is mainly
based on The writer's initial study.
associate
(with)
word, idea,
theory, term
generally,
commonly.
invariably
A decrease in consumer spending is generally
associated w i t h fears of instability.The w o r d is
commonly associated w i t h youth culture.
discuss idea, problem,
issue, question,
topic, theme
at length, briefly,
thoroughly
Wilson and Crick (I96B) discuss the problem
at length. Sim 5 article discusses the issue
thoroughly.
establish relationship,
connection
firmly, dearly.
Conclusively
Geologists have been unable 10 firmly establish
a connection between the two types of fossils.
Lopei conclusively establishes a relationship
between the two phenomena.
examine facts, evidence,
effects, aspects
briefly, critically,
thoroughly
VVe shall now briefly examine the evidence
for the existence ol dark matter. Our aim is to
thoroughly examine the effects of stress.
demonstrate existence,
need, effects,
importance
clearly,
convincingly
The study clearly demonstrates the
importance of support for dementia sufferers.
Harvey's work convincingly demonstrates
the need for a new approach to the problem.
identify
[with) [often
used in
passive)
causes, factors,
issues, properties,
needs, approach,
origin
correctly, clearly,
closely
This approach is closely identified w i t h the
work of H, Crowley during the 1950s.The article
clearly identifies the factors influencing the
decision to go to war.
More verbs in combination with nounst adverbs and prepositions
• pose - This inevitably poses a question concerning the stability of society. Parks poses a
challenge to Kahn's theory.
• suggest - T h e most recent results strongly suggest a different interpretation o f the
situation. T h e article suggests a new approach to the p r o b l e m ,
• list - Here I simply list the m a i n hypotheses/causes/features/characteristics; rhcy w i l l be
examined in detail below.
• refer - T h e book refers frcqucntly/specifically/in passing to the 1956 economic crisis.
• observe -This is due to the changes/trends/differences we observed earlier.
Remember, we say fursed an. NOT based in.We discus • profi/em i on isue, NOT discuss about
a problem / on issue.
Note any verb + preposition combinations that differ from those of your first language.

Exercises
I 2.1 Choose the most appropriate adverb for ihe verb in b o l d , and add it to the sentence- N o t u
the w o r d order used o n the opposite page,
1 Paulson's research demonstrated the need f o r a new approach to the study o f stress,
invariably convincingly closely
2 As was observed, there is a strong correlation between house prices a n d inflation,
closely critically earlier
3 I n the study o f language, 'tense1
refers to the coding o f time in the f o r m o f the verb,
specifically strongly briefly
4 Classical liberal economics is identified w i t h the theories o f M i l t o n Friedman,
thoroughly closely conclusively
5 Chapter 1 discusses the main issues, but they are dealt w i t h in greater detail in Chapter 2.
closely simply briefly
6 T o date, no research exists that establishes a connection between behaviour, personality
traits, and leadership traits. firmly t h o r o u g h l y critically
7 S E N T A is a computer p r o g r a m m i n g language based o n Logo,
strongly slightly loosely
8 Social research techniques were applied to examine the effects of the policy o n the poor,
strongly mainly critically
I 2.2 Complete each sentence w i t h a suitable n o u n . T h e r e may be more than one answer.
1 Here we list again the main o f the present study and show w h i c h have been
proven and w h i c h have been rejected,
2 T h e g r a p h enables us to observe recent broad _ _ in m o r t a l i t y tates.
3 T h e researchers concluded that it is still difficult to identify the _ _ o f the time-
related changes in h u m a n beings that we call ageing.
4 A seminar was held to discuss the _ _ _ _ _ o f children's rights in the light o f the
Convention o n the Rights o f the C h i l d .
5 W u demonstrated the _ _ _ _ _ for a comprehensive plan in preparation for a pandemic.
12.3 Complete each sentence w i t h three possible nouns- Use a dictionary i f necessary.
1 These figures lead me to suggest an alternative £1} _ {2) _ (3) _ _ .
2 It is clear that these developments pose a new {1) _ _ (2) (3} _.
3 Before we reach any conclusion, it is i m p o r t a n t to examine the (1) _ .. ._ _ (2)
(3) _ ,
I 2.4 Underline useful verb + adverb combinations in this text.
The world is lacing Q looming water crisis. Disputes over allocation have steadily increased in
ihe lost decade, and demand has grown rapidly. Woter is- likely to generate ihe same degree of
controversy in the 21& 1
century QS oil did in Ihe 20*. U we take no action now, new contlicis are likely
to occur periodically around Ihe world. At ihe momenl, instead of seeking solulions which directly
address multiple' needs, countries Focus o little too narrowly an local issues ond typically op! for
expensive and inferior solutions. What is needed are decisions which can be quickly implemented
and a debate which will seriously consider more than the short term needs of individual stales.
^ - i — • • • W • • - • - - — 1
12,5 Use one o f the combinations y o u underlined in 12-4 to complete each sentence.
1 Various measures were introduced last year to _ _ the issue o f identity theft.
2 T h e justice system needs to _ _ _ the impact o f a prison sentence o n offenders.
3 T h e number o f university applications has been _ _ over the last 50 years.
4 T h e article _ _ _ ..... o n one angle o f the p r o b l e m rather than t a k i n g a broad view.
5 T h e suggested measures should be _ _ to a v o i d further problems.
Academic Vbcobu/iiry in Use 33

I 3 P r e p o s i t i o n a l phrases
Notice the prepositional phrases in the texts below.
A book review
The Guide ro the Semi-Colon in English w a s w r i t t e n by Keith Pedant i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h 1
a team of researchers at Boardham University. I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h 2
previous
works on the semi-colon, this is a very substantial volume. I n a d d i t i o n to the
main text there are a number of appendices. These are to some e x t e n t 3
the most
useful parts of the book as, i n l i n e w i t h f l
modern linguistic practice, they provide
a w e a l t h of real data. I n spite of * its potentially dry topic, the book contains many
fascinating examples, in The sections dealing w i t h the history of the semi-colon
in particular. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o i f i
the final chapter, this book may be of some
interest to the general reader as w e l l as The specialist but on the w h o l e 7
is mainly
for those w h o have a professional interest i n punctuation marks.
working together with i
same meaning as in contrast to 1
notice also to a greater/] esser/
certain extent 4
following, same meaning as in accordance with 5
despite, not prevented by
6
not including (NK N O T c. 1 7
rpt] generally
A t a l k t o a genealogy club
Chairperson: N o w , at this stage1
in the proceedings it's my pleasure to introduce our speaker
tonight, Dr Anna K l e i n , the c o u n t r y ^ leading family history specialist. Anna :
I*d like to welcome you on behalf o f 1
all our members.
Anna Klein: T h a n k y o u . M y o w n interest in the subject came about as a result of
discovering some o l d letters in the attic at home. 1 f o u n d them by chance3
.
They'd been written by some relatives w h o :
d emigrated to Canada a hundred
years or so before and for me, as a ten-year-old then, they were by f a r 4
the
most exciting things 1 had ever read. They were, for the most part*, extremely
well-written a n d , f r o m then o n , I was determined to learn as much as 1 could
about m y family. I n other w o r d s 6
, 1 had started out on my genealogical
journey. I n some ways, T was very lucky. 1 was able to collect quite a bit of key
family i n f o r m a t i o n on the basis of the o l d letters and this enabled me to track
d o w n some relations living in M o n t r e a l . They, in t u r n , provided some contacts
w i t h Australian cousins and so it continued. In the process, I've learnt a great
deal, not o n l y about my o w n family, but also in ttTms o f 7
h o w TO approach
tracing one's family. I n most respects9
it's been a thoroughly enjoyable
adventure though there have been some difficult moments ...
1
now. also at this point 2
representing ( N b N O T on the part of) s
accidentally 4
very much
L
generally 6
to express something differently, often more simply 7
as far as [how to approach .,.!
was concerned B
considering most aspects of the experience
Note that on the one hand and on the o t h e r hand are used to contrast two different
ways of looking at an Issue. On the one hand flying is much more convenient than going by
train, but on the other hand. trrriVi trovJ Is often much more Interesting.
34 Académie Vocabulary in Ike

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