The National Licensure Examination for Veterinarians (NLEV) is a national examination developed by the Nepal Veterinary Council, as pre-requisite for NVC registration. This National Licensure Examination for Veterinarians (NLEV) is required for all new graduates of Bachelor of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandary (B.V.Sc. & A.H.) or B.V.Sc. or D.V.M or M.Sc. (Vet.). The examination is geared towards testing knowledge and skills in relation to the job functions most commonly required by entry-level veterinarians. The examination determines eligibility to earn a title of registered veterinarians, to begin his/her service as a professional veterinarian.

1. PREPARED BY
Dr. Sushil Neupane
Dr. Santosh Yadav
1

2. 2
Introduction
Theriogenology: Clinical practice of veterinary obstetrics and gynecology, and
andrology.
 Obstetrics And Gynecology: two surgical–medical specialties dealing with the
female reproductive organs in pregnant and non-pregnant state, respectively.
 Andrology: Deals with physiology of male reproductive system and its
endocrinology.
Female reproductive system of cattle
Os coxae

3. Terminologies and Related Information
Balanitis: Inflammation of glans penis
Posthitis: Inflammation of prepuce
Balanoposthitis: Inflammation of glans penis and prepuce
Phimosis: Unable to normally protrude the penis
Paraphimosis: Unable to retract the penis into the prepuce
Diphallus: Double penis
Phallocampsis: Deviation of penis either ventral or lateral or spiral
Rainbow Penis: Ventral Deviation
Corkscrew Penis: Lateral Deviation
Testicular degeneration: large no. of primary abnormality
Testicular hypoplasia: Giant cells, medusa cells, high incidence of cytoplasmic
droplets
3

4. Terminologies and Related Information
Azoospermia: no sperms
Oligospermia: decrease in sperm concentration
Artificial Insemination
1780 A.D. : Lazzaro spallanzani (Italian scientist)- AI in bitch.
1990 A.D. : Ivanoff (Russian)- used AI as a technique for breeding.
Fructose: Normal sugar providing energy to spermatozoa in ruminants
Sorbitol: Sugar alcohol can be oxidized to fructose and provides source of energy
Inositol: Boar semen
Ergotheionone: Boar, Stallion
Glyceryl phosphoryl choline: Epididymal Secretion
Monoestrous: Wild animals
Polyestrous : Cow, Sow
4

5. Terminologies and Related Information
Regular estrous cycle: Cow, sheep, mare, bitch, sow
Spontaneous Ovulators: Ovulation takes place but CL formed will not be
functional until mating
Induced ovulators: ovulation and CL formation depends upon the mating has
occurred or not (Cat, Rabbit, Mink)
Uniparous/ Monotocous: One ovum, one fetus(cow, mare, sow)
Multiparous/ polytocous: 3-15 ova, 3-15 fetus (dog, cat, sow)
Nullipara : Female that have never conceived/ carried young one
Primipara: Conceived for the first time (1st gestation period)
Pluripara: conceived previously 2 or more times earlier
FSH and LH required for antrum formation
Young animals: slight shorter length of estrous cycle
5

6. Terminologies and Related Information
Capacitation initiated in the uterus and completed in isthmus of oviduct
Hyaluronidase: Bull acrosome
Arylsulfalase: Boar acrosome
Syngamy: Fusion of male and female pronuclei
Pheromone: Volatile Substance secreted or released outside the body and
perceived by the olfactory system of other individuals of the same species.
Boar: Saliva( Sub Maxillary gland), Preputial pouch : 2 attractants, 3 α
androstanol, 5 α androstenone
Flehmen response: Bull, ram, stallion
Delayed ovulation, silent estrus, anovulation may be due to β carotene deficiency
Early Embryonic mortality occurs 8-19 days after breeding
Card test: rapid, accurate test for field screening of brucellosis.
Leptospirosis: Gargety milk
6

7. Terminologies and Related Information
Gonadal Sex Determination
XX: medulla inhibited and cortex develops: female
XY: Cortical development inhibited : testes develops : male
Primary sex cords: Ancestors of spermatozoa
Secondary sex cords: Ancestors of oocytes
Oviduct: Opening of infundibulum “ ostium tubae abdominal”
Opening of utero tubal junction “ ostium tubae uterinum”
Cattle: Caruncle- arranged in 4 rows (70-120 in number)
True water bag(2nd bag): amnion
Mare: cruciform or T shaped
Bitch and queen entire uterus lies in the abdominal cavity
Portion of cervix projects in to the vagina : Portio Vaginalis
7

8. Terminologies and Related Information
Fornix: absent in sow, prominent in mare
Pregnancy diagnosis also known as cyesiognosis
White heifer disease due to sex linked recessive gene is commonly seen in white
short horn cattle
Uterine tubal patency test: Phenolsulphonpthalene (PSP) dye test
Follicular cyst: nymphomania (bullers), multiple in both ovaries, relaxation of
sarcosciatic ligament- upward displacement of coccyx- “sterility hump”
Luteal cyst : often single, anestrous, adrenal virilism
Hydroallontois: Bloated bull frog like calf
Signs of approaching parturition in mare: Waxing of teat, patchy sweating
Fetus decides the day of birth and dam decides the time of birth
Bitch: Placentophagy
Sow: Foetophagy
8

9. Terminologies and Related Information
Uterine involution completed by
Cattle:26-52 days after following parturition
Mare: 32 days
Bitch: 4-5 week
Post partum uterine discharge: lochia
Foal heat: 5-12 days after post partum
Bitch: the post partum Lochia is green in color is due to uteroverdin- breakdown
product of haemoglobin
Uterine incision is closed by double row of lambert or cushing suture
Feeding sweet clover to sheep: Hyperestrogenisim can leads to uterine prolapse.
Downers cow: clinically parturient paresis but unable to rise after 24 hrs and two
calcium infusions
Creeper cow: cow becomes alert and gains control following calcium injection but
remains recumbent due to inability to use hind quarters
9

10. Terminologies and Related Information
• Synthetic analogues of GnRH: Buserelin (Receptal), Fertirelin (Ovalyse),Gonadorelin
(Fertagyl)
• Post partum heat in pigs: 3-5 days
• At the time of deep freezing: 30 million sperms/ml
• At the time of AI(Post Thaw): minimum 10 million sperms/ml
• Buck spermatozoa quite susceptible to cold shock
• Buck semen: Presence of egg coagulating enzyme (phospholipase A) prevents the
storage at 5°C in yolk containing diluents
• Equilibrium of semen: 5°C for 6 hrs to enable glycerol action
• Sealing powder: poly vinyl alcohol
10

11. 11
Presentation(P1) Relation of the spinal axis of the fetus to that of dam.
(longitudinal/ transverse and anterior/posterior)
Position(P2) Relation of dorsum of the fetus in longitudinal
presentation or the head in transverse presentation to that
of quadrants of maternal pelvis.
(dorso-sacral, dorso-pubic)
Posture(P3) Relation of the extremities or the head, neck and limbs of
the fetus to the body of its own.
(Shoulder flexion, hip flexion )

12. Development of Gonads
Both sexes have male (mesonephric) and female (paramesonephric) genital ducts
and a urogenital sinus.
The mesonephric (wolffian) duct persists after the mesopnephros disintegrates.
A paramesonephric (mullerian) duct develops along the ventrolateral coelomic
surface of the mesonephros.
Testicular hormones determine which duct system develops.
Male duct development requires testosterone, produced by interstitial cells.
Female duct development is suppressed by an inhibitory hormone released by
sustentacular cells.
12

13. Hormones
Chemically hormones may be:
Protein: Polypeptide or glycoprotein:
Oxytocin, FSH, LH
Steroid: Cholesterol derived: Testosterone,
estrogen, progesterone
Fatty acid: Arachidonic acid derived:
Prostaglandin
Amines: Tyrosine or Tryptophan derived:
Melatonin
13
Regulation Of Hormones

14. 14
Secreted hormone Produced by Effect
Prolactin-releasing
hormone (PRH)
Parvocellular
neurosecretory neurons
Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary
Prolactin-inhibiting
hormone (PIH)
Dopamine neurons of the
arcuate nucleus
Inhibit prolactin release from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GNRH)
Neuroendocrine cells of
the Preoptic area
Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) release fromanterior pituitary
Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release
from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Magnocellular
neurosecretory cells
Uterine contraction
Lactation (letdown reflex)
Melatonin
Magnocellular
neurosecretory cells
Controls gonadotrophic activity according to
duration of day length in mare and sheep
Hypothalamic Releasing/Inhibiting Hormones

15. Reproductive Hormones
Oxytocin
First hormonal peptide to be synthesized found in the animals.
Rapid birth
Two sites of origin: ovary, hypothalamus
Contraction of oviduct, milk letdown
Ovarian oxytocin : luteal function- acting on endometrium-induce PGF2α in turn
leads to the lysis of CL.
Estrogen enhances responsiveness of smooth muscle to oxytocin.
GnRH
Release of FSH,LH
LH
Pre ovulatory LH surge
Maintains activity of CL
Stimulates leydig cells.
15

16. Reproductive Hormones
FSH
Growth and maturation of graffian follicle
Spermatogenesis- up to secondary spermatocytes
Acts on receptors of sertoli cells leads to production of ABP
Spermiation
Secretion of inhibin from granulosa cells of ovary and sertoli cells of testes
Prolactin
Luteotropic properties in dogs, mice, rats
Maternal behavior
Functions as metabolic hormone in lower forms of animals
Follistatin:
Inhibit secretion of FSH (as inhibin) and also binds activin and neutralize, thus
modulate secretion of FSH.
16

17. Reproductive Hormones
Relaxin
Protein hormone secreted by the corpus luteum
Helps to soften the cervix and to relax the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
and causes appropriate smooth muscle relaxation during parturition.
In males, it is secreted by the testes, and encourages the motility of spermatozoa
within semen.
Inhibin
A polypeptide/protein hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the ovary and the
sustentacular = sertoli cells of the testis
Inhibits secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary
It exerts negative feedback control on the hypothalamus and pituitary.
17

18. Placental Hormone
PMSG (Pregnant Mare’s Serum Gonadotropin)
Can be isolated from blood, not found in urine
Endometrial cups of pregnant mare-found by 40th day of gestation and persists till
85th day of pregnancy
Important for maintenance of pregnancy in mare
Clinical Use: superovulation, anestrum
More of FSH like activity
HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Syncytio trophoblastic cells of placenta of primates
More of LH like activity
Cinical Use: induce ovulation, cystic ovaries
Placental Lactogen
GH like activity
Imp. regulators of maternal nutrients to the growing factors 18

19. Gonadal Hormone
Estrogen
Sexual receptivity in female
Secondary sexual characteristics
Ductal development of mammary gland
Attachment of embryo to uterine wall
Anabolic Effect
Negative feedback mechanism to the GnRH
Development of female reproductive tract
Clinical Use: induction of heat, induces milk
production in heifer
Progesterone
Source: Ovary, placenta, adrenal, testes
Inhibits uterine contractions
Increases endometrial secretions
19
Ovary

20. Gonadal Hormone
Progesterone
Maternal behavior, nest building
Induction of lactation
Clinical Use: treatment of ovarian cysts not responding
to GnRh, habitual abortion, cervico-vaginal prolapse,
early embryonic mortality
Testosterone
 A steroid hormone
Produced primarily in the interstitial cells of the testes in
response to LH
Development and maintenance of male secondary sexual
characteristics
Sperm production and libido (sexual desire)
20

21. Other hormones
Prostaglandins -
Any of the group of ~20 potent local hormone
 Produced in various tissues, are derived primarily from arachidonic acid (a cell
membrane phospholipid)
Control of blood pressure, contraction of smooth muscle, and modulation of
inflammatory and immune responses
Synthesis is inhibited by aspirin and other NSAIDS.
21

22. 22
Hormone Chemical
Structure
Mol. Wt.
Dalton
Carbohydrate Sialic Acid Half Life
LH Glycoprotein 28000-34000 12-24% 1-2% 0.5 hr
FSH Glycoprotein 32000-37000 25% 5% 2 hrs
hCG Glycoprotein 38000 32% 8.5% 11 hrs
PMSG Glycoprotein 68000 48% 10.5% 26hrs
Progesterone Steroid 22-36 min
Oxytocin Polypeptide 1.5-2 min
Characteristics of Different Hormones

23. 23
Feedback Mechanism Of Hormones. Hypothalamus-Pituitary Communication

24. 24
Character Cow Ewe Sow Mare
Shape Almond Almond Berry Kidney
Weight 10-20 3-4 3-7 40-80
Mature Graffian 1-2 1-4 8-12 1-2
CL Shape Spheroid Spheroid Spheroid Pear
Maximum Size CL* 10 days 7-9 days 14 days 14 days
Regression of CL** 14-15days 12-14 days 13 days 17 days
Comparative anatomy of ovary in adult females of farm animals
Note
*: days from ovulation after which maximum size is obtained.
**: days from ovulation after which regression starts.
Functional Ovary Right Right Left Left

25. 25
Comparative anatomy of reproductive tract in adult non pregnant females
Organ Cow Ewe Sow Mare
Oviduct length 25 cm 15-19 cm 15-30 cm 20-30 cm
Uterus type Bipartite Bipartite Bicornuate T shaped
Horn Length 35-40 cm 10-12 cm 40-65 cm 15-25 cm
Body Length 2-4 cm 1-2 cm 5 cm 15-20 cm
Endometrium Caruncles Caruncles Longitudinal fold Longitudinal fold
Vestibule Length 10-12 cm 2.5-3 cm 6-8 cm 10-12 cm
Ovarian Cysts: are follicle like ovarian structures that are 2.5 cm in diameter or
larger and present more than 10 days and result in aberrant reproductive function
 Ovulatory cyst or non pathogenic cyst: Cystic Corpora Lutea
 An-ovulatory cyst or pathogenic ovarian cyst: Follicular cyst and luteal cyst

26. 26
Estrous cycle of farm animals
Pro- estrual bleeding: bitch
Post- estrual bleeding: cows
Follicular Phase: Proestrous, Estrus
Luteal Phase: Metestrus, Diestrus

27. 27
Species Length of cycle Length of estrus Time of ovulation
Nature of
heat
Ewe 16-17 days 24-40 hrs 30-36 hrs from beginning of estrus Seasonal
Goat 21 days 20-36 hrs 30-36 hrs from beginning of estrus Polyestrous
Sow 19-20 days 48-72 hrs 36-48 hrs from beginning of estrus Polyestrous
Cow 21-22 days 12-18 hrs 10-12 hrs after end of estrus Polyestrous
Buffalo 21-24 days 6-18 hrs 10-12 hrs after end of estrus Polyestrous
mare 20-25 days 4-8 days 10-12 hrs before end of estrus Seasonal
Bitch 2 cycle per year
8 days proper
estrus
1-3 days after onset of estrus proper Seasonal
Queen 18-27 days 1-2 days after the onset of estrus Polyestrous
Camel 10-20 days 1-7 days ovulation is sequel to coitus Polyestrous
Reproductive Cycle of Domestic Animals

28. 28
Duration of Pregnancy

29. Method of Pregnancy Diagnosis
29
Visual Laboratory Clinical
Return to estrus Hormone- P4, E2,
Relaxin
Rectal palpation
Increase in udder size Pregnancy assay
protein
Abdominal
Ballotment
Increase Fetal Movement
(6 months)
Radiography
Tail cocking in camel (14-
15 days of mating)
Ultrasonography

30. Method of PD: Rectal Palpation
30
Time To be Palpated
19-20 days after AI Fully developed CL on one ovary
Between 35-40 days of
Pregnancy
Asymmetry of horns
Fetal fluid fluctuation
Slipping of fetal membrane
Palpation of amniotic vesicle
65 days of Pregnancy Palpation of cotyledons
80-120 days of Pregnancy Fremitus /thrill/whirr in middle uterine
artery
5 month of pregnancy No structure palpated
6-7 month of Pregnancy Uterus is palpated

31. Stages of labor and related events in farm animals
31
Stages of Labor Mechanical
forces
Period Related events
1st stage/
dilatation of
cervix
Regular
uterine
contraction
Beginning of
uterine contraction
until cervix is fully
dilated and
continuous with
vagina
Maternal restlessness
Elevated pulse and respiratory rate
Relaxation and dilation of cervix
Change in fetal position and posture
Chorioallantois enters into vagina
2nd stage/
expulsion of
fetus
Strong uterine
and abdominal
contraction
From complete
cervical dilation to
delivery of fetus
Abdominal contraction starts
Ferguson's reflex
Maternal Recumbency and straining
Rupture of chorioallantois and
escape of fluid from vulva

32. Stages of labor and related events in farm animals
32
Stages of Labor Mechanical
forces
Period Related events
2nd stage/
expulsion of fetus
Strong uterine
and abdominal
contraction
From complete
cervical
dilation to
delivery of
fetus
Appearance of water bag(amniotic)
Rupture of water bag and delivery
of fetus
3rd stage /expulsion
of fetal membrane
or placenta
Uterine
contraction
decrease in
amplitude
After delivery
of fetus to
expulsion of
fetal membrane
Loosening of placenta from
endometrium
Straining ceases
Expulsion of placenta

33. Average duration of stages of labor in farm animals (hours)
33
Animal Dilatation of
cervix
Expulsion of
Fetus
Expulsion of
Placenta
Cow and
Buffalo
2-6 0.5-1 6-12
Ewe 2-6 0.5-2.0 0.5-8
Mare 1-4 0.2-0.5 1
Sow 2-12 2.5-3 1-4
Position of Fetus in Uterus
Late gestation:
Cow: 95% anterior presentation
Mare: 99% anterior presentation
Ewe: 95% anterior presentation
Bitch: 70% anterior presentation
Swine: 54% anterior presentation
Free martin:
Infertile female with modified/underdeveloped
genital tract born co-twin or in greater multiples
with a male with which it has exchanged whole
blood.

34. 34
Species Implantation (Days after conception)
Cow 22-35 days
Mare 36-38 days
Ewe 16-18 days
Sow 13-20 days
Implantation of Embryo in Domestic Animals

35. 35
Classification of placenta
Species Gross shape of
placenta
Microscopic
structure
Loss of maternal
tissue at birth
Mare and Sow Diffuse Epitheliochorial Non deciduate
Ruminant Cotyledonary Syndesmochorial Non deciduate
Dog and cat Zonary Endotheliochorial Deciduate
Human and Monkey Discoidal Hemochorial Deciduate

36. 36
Cell Layers Separating Fetal & Maternal Blood

37. 37
Tissues
Epithelial-
chorial
Syndesmo-
chorial
Endothelial-
chorial
Hemo-
chorial
Hemo-
endothelial
Maternal
Endothelium + + + -- --
Conn. Tissue + + -- -- --
Epithelium + -- -- -- --
Fetal
Endothelium + + + + --
Conn. Tissue + + + + --
Epithelium + + + + +
Species
Pig
Horse
Ruminant
Bitch
Queen
Human
Rat
Rabbit
Histological Classification

38. 38
Animal Day of MRP Day of Attachment
Cow 16 to 17 22-35
Mare 12-16 36-38
Ewe 12-13 16
Doe 17 16-18
Sow 12 18
MRP and Days of Attachment in farm animals
Note
MRP: Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy
MOET: Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer
GIFT: Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer
DIPI: Direct Intra Peritoneal Insemination of Semen
ICSI: Intra Cytoplasmic Semen Injection
Sexual Differentiation
 Feline embryo: 30 days of gestation
 Porcine: 30 days of gestation
 Ovine: 35 Days of gestation
 Bovine: 45 Days of gestation

39. Testes
Mediastium testes absent in stallion
Connective tissue capsule-Tunica albugenia
Medial Septum of testes- Dartos
Blood testes barrier-Primary-Peritbular cells-prevent auto
immune reaction
Secondary-junctional complexes between sertoli cells
Testes : 4-6 degree Celsius lower than body temperature
Extra Gonadal Reserve(EGR): epididymis, vas deferens,
ampulla
Time require to complete a cycle of seminiferous epithelium
(Spermatogenesis)
Bull:14 Days Ram: 10 days
Horse: 12 days Boar: 9 days
39

40. Testes
RUT: Certain definite period of sexual excitement in some wild
animals (camel, elephant)-spermatogenesis occurs in this period.
Ampulla and Vesicular gland absent in this period
Yellowish Color of bull semen is due to riboflavin
Bulbourethral gland absent in dog
Sigmoid Flexure- Pre scrotal : Boar , Post Scrotal: Bull, Ram
Retractor penis muscle controls sigmoid flexure
Glans Penis
Bull: Pointed
Ram: Urethral Process Boar: Absent
Stallion : Prominent Urethral Process, groove: Fossa glandis
Dog: Two parts: Bulbus glandis , Pars longa glandis
Cat: Short, terminal parts having several spines 40

41. Testicular Biometry in Domestic Animals
41
Species Shape Weight(gm) Length
(cm)
Diameter(cm) Plane
Bull Elongated 200-500 10-15 5-8.5 Vertical
Stallion Oval 200-300 7.5-12.5 4-7 Horizontal
Ram Elongated 200-400 7.5-11.5 3.8-6.8 Vertical
Buck Oval 200-400 7.5-11.5 3.8-6.8 Vertical
Boar Elliptical 500-800 10-15 5-9 Vertical
Dog Round to Oval 7-15 2-4 1.2-2.5 Oblique
Cat Round to Oval - 1.2-2 0.7-1.5 Oblique

42. 42
Seminal Characteristics
Characteristics of
Component
Bull Ram Boar Stallion Cock
Ejaculate Volume(ml) 5-8 0.8-1.2 150-200 60-100 0.2-0.5
Sperm
Concentration(million/ml)
800-2000 2000-3000 200-300 150-300 3000-7000
Sperm/ Ejaculate(Million) 5-15 1.6-3.6 30-60 5-15 0.6-3.5
Motile Sperm % 40-70 60-80 50-80 40-75 60-80
Morphologically normal
sperm %
65-95 80-95 70-90 60-90 85-90
pH 6.4-7.8 5.9-7.3 7.3-7.8 7.2-7.8 7.2-7.6
Ejaculate/week 4 20 3 3 3
Living cells/insemination 10×10^6 120×10^6 1200×10^6 100×10^6 60×10^6

43. Method of Collection of Semen
Vaginal Method
Masturbation Method
Artificial Vaginal Method
43
Massage Method
Electro Stimulation
Breeder Bag Method
Parts of Artificial Vagina
 Outer cylinder
 Inner rubber liner
 Rubber cone
 Graduated Semen Collection Tube
 Rubber muff
 Valve
Collection Frequency of Semen
Cattle: Twice a week (if one ejaculate/collection and A.I. with deep frozen semen)
Once a week (two ejaculate/ collection)
Ram: 3-5/day for 4-5 days than 2-3/day
Buck: 2-3/day alternatively
Boar: Every other day

44. 44
Examination and Evaluation of Semen
1. Macroscopic and physical test
Volume
Consistency
Specific gravity
Gross activity
 Color
 Osmotic pressure
 Electro conductivity
2. Microscopic Test
 Counting of sperms
a. Hemocytometer
b. Optic index
c. Absorpsiometer
d. Opacity Method
e. Blomcolorimeter
 Motility of spermatozoa
a. Mass activity
b. Individual activity
 Live dead count
 Morphological abnormality
3. Chemical test
 Fructolysis
 Respiration co-efficient
 Methylene blue reaction
 Catalase test
 Hydrogen ion concentration
 Resazurin reduction test
 Cold shock test

45. Transportation of Sperm
During estrus secretion of
sulfomucins from apical
portion of cervical mucosa
produces sheets of viscous
mucus.
Secretion is towards lumen and
flows in caudal direction. Less
viscous sialomucins are
produced in the basal crypts of
the cervix.
Spermatozoa found in the basal
region are oriented in the same
direction transverse the cervix
towards the uterus trough these
‘Privileged Pathways (PP)’ of
low viscous sialomucins.
45

46. 46
Sperm Maturation
Capacitation
 Takes pace in uterus and
oviduct (isthmic region)
 Sperm surface components are
modified or removed by
genital tract secretions causing
the phospholipid bilayer to
become destabilized,
permitting acrosomal
activation.

47. 47
Sperm Maturation
Acrosome Reaction
 Fusion of the sperm plasma membrane
with the outer acrosomal membrane
followed by the extensive vesiculation
over the anterior segment of the
acrosome.
 Zona-mediated acrosome reaction and
spontaneous acrosome reaction.
 Attachment of sperm head to outer
zona pellucida is zona binding

48. Coitus
The term coitus or copulation refers to the insertion of the erect penis of the male
into the vagina of the female with subsequent ejaculation.
In general coitus is
1. prolonged in pigs, stallions and dogs (camels - 24 hours),
2. but rapid in bulls, rams, bucks and tom cats.
Copulation and the events leading up to its completion may be divided into the
following phases.
1. Sexual Arousal
2. Courtship (sexual display)
3. Erection
4. Mounting 48
5. Intromission
6. Ejaculation
7. Orgasm-like reaction
8. Dismount

49. 49
Animal Inseminated
Volume
Insemination Time Deposition
Site
Cattle 0.2-1 ml 8-16 hrs. after onset of estrus Uterus, cervix
Sheep 0.05-0.2 ml 10-24 hrs. after onset of estrus Cervix
Horse 20-50 ml Every 2 days during estrus Uterus
Pig 50 ml 12-30 hrs. after onset of estrus Uterus
Artificial Insemination of Domestic Animals with Frozen Semen
Dimension of French and German straw
Straw Length (mm) Dimension (mm) Volume (ml)
French Medium 135 2.8 0.5
French Mini 135 2 0.25
German 65 2.8 0.25

50. 50
Animal Length(cm) Diameter(cm) Temperature(°C)
Bull 30-40 6-6.4 42-45
Buffalo bull 20-30 6 39
Stallion 90-120 18-20 41-45
Ram 20 5.5 42-45
Buck 15 5.5 45-45
Boar 18 6.0 42-45
Peculiarities of Artificial Vagina
Testicular Descent
Bull: 106 days of gestation
Horse: Near birth
Ram, Boar: 70 days of gestation
Dog: 3-4 days post natally
Spermatogenesis
Bull, Ram, dog: 60-70 days
Stallion:40-45 days
Boar: 50-60 days

51. 51
Animal Period of ovum/blastula Period of embryo Period of Fetus
Cow From fertilization to 10-12
days
From 13 days to 45
days
From 45 days to
calving
Ewe From fertilization to 10 days From 11 days to 34
days
From 34 days to
lambing
Mare From fertilization to 11 days From 12 days to 55-
60 days
From 55 days to
foaling
Gestation stage in domestic animals
Animal Act of Parturition Act of Mating
Cow/Buffalo Calving Serving
Goat Kidding Serving
Sheep Lambing Tupping
Pig Farrowing Coupling
Horse Foaling Covering
Dog Whelping

52. 52
Abortion in Domestic Animals
Diseases Organism Time of Abortion
Vibriosis Vibrio fetus Venralis Early embryonic death
Trichomonosis Trichomonos foetus First trimester
Fungal abortion Aspergillus fumigatus 5th-7th months
Epizootic bovine abortion Psittacosis, Chlamydia 6th-8th months
Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes Last trimester
Brucellosis Brucella abortus Last trimester
Leptospirosis L. pomona, L. hardjo,
L. grippotypphosa
Last half of gestation
IBR-IPV Herpes virus All 3 trimesters of
pregnancy

53. Abnormalities of Fertilization
Super fetation: Pregnant female comes in estrus and conceives.
Super fecundation: Female in estrus release many ova which are fertilized by sperms
from different males.
Wondering of ova: Trans-uterine migration of ovum.
Telogony: Misbelief among dog owners that a bitch once conceived by a mongrel dog
her subsequent pups would have mongrel characters.
Pseudo Pregnancy: mostly seen in dogs
Pelvimetry: Deals with measurement of diameters of pelvis
Pelvic inlet: Cow and sow : elliptical
Mare and bitch: round
Gluteal Paralysis: mare
Obturator paralysis: cow, mare
Peroneal paralysis: cow
53

54. Obstetrical Operation
Mutation : fetus is returned to it’s normal presentation, position and posture by
repulsion, rotation, version and extension or adjustment of extremities.
Forced Extraction
Fetotomy or embryotomy: reduce the size of fetus by either division or removal of
certain of its parts for its vaginal delivery.
Cesarean Section:
Dystocia: Means difficult birth
Cow: fetomaternal disproportion
Mare: Lateral deviation of head
Ewe and doe: fetomaternal disproportion
Sow: Primary uterine inertia
Bitch: Primary uterine inertia
54

55. 55
Fetal Mummification: Fetus dies within the uterus, autolysis occurs without putrefaction
and absorption of placental and fetal fluid, involution of maternal placenta and
mummification occurs.
Two type;
Haematic mummification: Cow
Payraceous mummification: Sow, Bitch and Cat
Fetal Maceration: Fetus dies after ossification within the uterus and fetus undergoes
microbial digestion or putrefaction in the fluid of uterus till the mass of bones remains.

56. Uterine torsion
Uterine torsion: twisting or revolving of the gravid uterus on its longitudinal axis.
Develops during the late first stage or early second stage of labor
Common in cows and buffaloes; relatively high in surti buffaloes
Occasionally in ewe and goats; rare in mare, bitch, cat and sow
56

57. 57
Post cervical
Involvement of vagina
Pre cervical
Involvement of uterus

58. 58
Items Hydrallantois Hydramnios
Incidence 85 - 95 % 5 - 15 %
Rate of development Rapid, within 1 month Slow, over several months
Shape of abdomen Round and tense Piriform, not tense
R/E of placentomes and fetus Cannot be palpated Can be palpated
Gross characteristics of liquid
Watery, clear, amber coloured,
transudate
Viscid, may contain meconium
Fetus Small seldom malformed Malformations present
Placenta and placentomes
Allantois chorion diseased and
abnormal with placentomes
hypertrophied and reduced number
Placenta, allantois chorion and
placentomes normal
Refilling of cavity after removal of
excess fluid
Rapid Does not occur
Occurrence of complications Common Uncommon
Outcome Abortion or maternal death common Parturition at approximately full term

59. Dropsy of Fetus
59
Fetal hydrocephalus Meningocoele Fetal ascites
Fetal anasarca

60. 60
Anomalies of Development
Six- Legged Calf Achondroplasia(BulldogCalf) SchistosomusReflexus
GlobosusAmorphus Cyclopia ConjoinedTwins

61. 61
Anomalies of Development
Lion Fetus Multiple limbs PerosomusElumbis
Ankyloses Double Headed Monster Hydrocephalus

62. 62
Anestrous
Physiological
cause
Anovulatory
anestrous
1.Prepubertal
anestrous
2. Lactationaql
anestrous
3. Postpartum
anestrous
Ovulatory anestrous
Gestational
anestrous
Pathological
cause
Congenital or
hereditary
anestrous
1. Free martin
2. Ovarian aplasia
3. Ovarian hypoplasia
Acquired anestrous
Ovulatory
anestrous
1. Sub-estrous
2. Unobserved estrous
3.Persistent corpus
luteum
Anovulatory
anestrous
1. Anovulatory
anestrous I
2. Anovulatory
anestrous II
3. Anovulatory
anestrous III
Cause of Anestrous

63. Vagino Cervical Prolapse
• Vagino-Cervical prolapse: usually involves a prolapse of the
floor, the lateral walls and a portion of the roof of the vagina
through the vulva with the cervix and the uterus moving caudal,
• most commonly in the cow and ewe.
• Observed during last 2-3 months of gestation, when large amounts
of oestrogenic hormone being secreted by the placenta.
• Intra-abdominal pressure and due to hereditary or genetic factors.
• Vulvar truss is of practical value.
• Vulvar tape retention sutures
• Buried or "hidden" purse string type suture, Buhner's method.
63
VCP in Goat
Buhner’s mehtod