This Power Point Presentation has been made while referring to the research books written by eminent, renowned and expert authors as mentioned in the references section. The purpose of this Presentation is to help the research students in developing an insight about the Scaling in Research.

1. By
Dr. Shaloo Saini
Assistant Professor, MKCE
(CT Group of Institutions, Jalandhar, Punjab)

2. Scaling
 Scaling is the extension of the concept of
measurement because the result of measurement is a
scale which comprises of a set of numerals on which an
object’s score is placed using a certain rule of
assignment.
 Scaling refers to the procedure for attempting to
determine the quantitative measures of subjective
abstract concepts.

3. Scaling
In Scaling numbers are assigned to various degrees of
opinions, attitude and other concepts through two ways:
i. By making a judgement about some characteristics of an
individual and then placing him directly on a scale that
has been defined in terms of that characteristics.
ii. By constructing questionnaires in such a way that the
score of individual’s responses assigns him a place on the
scale.
A Scale is a continuum where one end indicates the lowest
level of the phenomena and the other end indicates the
highest level.

4. Definition of Scaling
According to Allen L Edwards “ Scaling is the procedure
for assignment of numbers or other symbols to a
property of objects in order to impart some of the
characteristics of numbers to the properties in
question.”

5. Scale Classification BasesThe Scales can be classified on the basis of six key
decision areas:
1. Objective of the Study
2. Nature of Response
3. Degree of Subjectivity
4. Number of Dimensions
5. Scale Properties
6. Scale Construction Techniques

6. 1. Objective of the Study
 A Scale may be designed with the objective of measuring the
characteristics of the respondent who completes it.
 For example scale design on an Organisation’s development
programs. The respondent’s score may be used as an indicator of
respondent’s favourable for unfavourable attitude towards the
organisation. In this situation emphasis is on measuring the
attitudinal difference amongst the respondents.
 A Scale may also be designed to use respondents as judges of the
object or stimuli presented to them.
 Using the above example again, the respondents can be asked to
score the development programme started by the Organisation.
In this the objective is to measure the difference among the
stimuli that is the development programme started by the
Organisation.

7. 2. Nature of Response
 The scale can be classified as ‘Categorical’ or ‘Rating Scale’ and
‘Comparative or Ranking Scale.”
 Categorical scale obtained the responses from a respondent by
asking him to score and object or attitude without any direct
reference to other objects
 For example they may be asked to rate the taste of a newly
launched soft drink on a 5 point rating scale.
 Comparative scales ask respondents to compare two or more
objects for example they may be asked to rank two soft drinks
brands on their taste giving I to the drink that taste better than
the other.

8. 3. Degree of Subjectivity
 Scale may be developed on the basis of whether we
measure subjective or personal preference or we measure
known preference evaluation.
 In case of ‘Preference’ measurement the respondent is
asked to choose the object solution or person that he
personally favours.
 Whereas in ‘Non Preference’ measurement looks for an
objective evaluation by the respondent. He is asked to
evaluate which objective has more of some characteristics,
which solution optimises the resources or which person
performs the best without reflecting any personal
preference towards object or solution.

9. 4. Number of Dimensions
 Scale can be classified as ‘Unidimensional’ or ‘Multidimensional’.
 In Case of Unidimensional scaling only one attribute or attitude of the
respondent object is measured
 For example a teacher’s professional competence maybe judged on
work experience. Several items may be used to measure his work
experience and by combining all these scores into a single measure the
teacher may be placed on a linear scale of work experience.
 In case of Multidimensional scaling the respondent or object is
measured in an attribute space of dimensions
 For example the work experience variable may be better expressed by
three distinct dimensions nature of work, place of work and length of
work experience.

10. 5.Scale Properties
The Scale can also be classified on the basis of data properties
possessed by each scale. They may be classified as a
 Nominal Scale: which is used for just classification
purpose
 Ordinal Scale: gives the relationship of greater than or less
than but no distance or origin
 Interval Scale: like temperature that possesses order and
distance but no unique origin, and
 Ratio Scale: that may possess order distance and unique
origin.

11. 6.Scale Construction Techniques
 Arbitrary Approach: The scale is developed on an Ad Hoc basis and is designed largely on
the researchers own subjective selection of items it is most popular scale.
 Consensus Approach: As against are searches subjective selection third uses a panel of
judges who evaluate each item on its suitability for inclusion into the scale. Those items
that find consensus among the judges form a scale.
 Item Analysis Approach: A set of individual items is developed for a pilot test and given
to a group of respondents. Total scores of each respondent are evaluated and then
individual items are analysed to determine which have the ability to discriminate
between respondents with high total scores and low total scores
 Cumulative Scales: These scales are formed on the basis of their confirmatory to a
ranking of items that is associated with ascending or descending power. A person who
agrees with an item placed on the extreme end indicates that he is in agreement with all
the items on less extreme
 Factor Scales: These scales use certain factors to establish relationship between items the
correlation between the items is accounted to the presence of common factor between
them.

12. Scaling Techniques
Scaling Techniques
Comparative Scaling
Techniques
Paired Comparison
Rank Order
Constant Sum
Non Comparative
Scaling Techniques
Continuous Rating or
Graphic Rating
Itemized Rating
Likert Scale
Semantic
Differential Scale
Stapel Scale
Simple/Multiple
Category Scale
Verbal Frequency
Scale

13. Comparative Scaling Techniques
 Comparative Scales involve direct comparison of stimulus objects.
 The data from Comparative Scale is interpreted in relative terms and
are measured on ordinal scale.
 This technique is a non-numeric scaling technique as Ordinal data
cannot be used for numeric operations.
 These techniques are easy to understand and apply.
 The respondent is forced to choose between the stimulus objects for
example respondent are asked whether toothpaste of Brand A or brand
B. They have to choose one of the brand even if there is very small
difference in their liking of the two brands.
 The main disadvantage of comparative scale is its inability to generalize
beyond the stimulus objects for example if we want to compare third
brand of toothpaste C with the previous once we have to conduct a new
study.

14. 1.Paired Comparison
 In this method the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two
objects for example between flavour of a new soft drink and an established brand of soft
drink.
 When the comparison is between more than two objects, there more than two
judgements need to be expressed. Therefore the number of judgements required in a
paired comparison is given by the formula:
N= n (n-1)/2 where N= Number of Judgements and n= number of objects to be judged.
 For example if there are 10 suggestions for bargaining proposals available to a workers
union there are 45 paired comparisons that can be made with them. Where N happens to
be a big figure there is risk of respondents giving ill considered answers or they may even
refuse to answer.
 Paired Comparison provides ordinal data but can be converted into interval scale by the
method of ‘Law of Comparative Judgement’ developed by L.L. Thurstone and ‘Composite
Standard Method’ given by J.P. Guilford.

15. 2. Rank Order
 Under this method of Comparative Scaling the respondents are
asked to rank their choices.
 This method is easier and faster than the method of Paired
Comparison
 For example with 10 items it takes 45 paired comparisons to
complete the task whereas Rank Order method simply requires
ranking of 10 items only.
 The problem of Transitivity (such as A prefers to B, B to C but C
prefers to A) is also not there in case of method of Rank Order.
Moreover a complete ranking at times is not needed in which
case the respondent may be asked to rank only their first choice
out of all the choices in the overall items.

16. 3. Constant Sum
 Constant sum scaling technique is used to assess the relative importance attached by a
respondent to the stimulus objects.
 The respondent gives certain points to each stimulus object out of a fixed sum of points.
This fixed sum is usually taken as 100 but it could be some other value also.
 For example a family planning a holiday fixes its budget of Rs 50000. They wish to plan
the expenditure on Transport, Accommodation, Refreshment and others the constant
sum of this expenditure is 50000 which could be divided as:
Transportation= 10000
Accommodation= 20000
Refreshment= 15000
Others= 5000
 The data obtained here is numeric but cannot be generalized beyond the list of stimulus
objects. So this data is considered as ordinal data. This technique distinguishes the
objects in less time. However it is not useful with uneducated people or with large
number of objects.

17. Non Comparative Scaling
Techniques
 In Non Comparative Scales each object is scaled
independently of the other.
 For example the respondents are asked to give
preference scores on a 1-6 scale to Brand A of the
toothpaste.
 Here 1= not preferred at all and 6= highly preferred.
Similar scores can be obtained for brand B and C.
 Due to the facility of the numeric data and wide
applications the Non Comparative Scales are widely
used in research.

18. 1. Continuous Rating or Graphic
Rating
 Continuous Rating or Graphic Rating: The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is
commonly used in practice.
 Under it the various points are usually put along the line to form a Continuum and the
rater indicates his rating by simply making a tick mark at the appropriate point on a line
that runs from one extreme to the other.
 Scale points with brief descriptions may be indicated along the line their function being
to assist the rater in performing his job.
 For example we can use five points graphic rating scale when we wish to ascertain
people's liking or disliking on any product:
How do you like the product? (Put a tick mark)

 This type of scale has several limitations. The respondents may check at almost any
position along the line which in fact may increase the difficulty of analysis. The meanings
of the terms like ‘Very Much’ and ‘Some What’ may depend upon respondent’s frame of
reference so much so that the statement might be challenged in terms of its equivalency.
Like Very Much Like Some What Neutral Dislike Some What Dislike Very Much

19. 2. Itemized Rating
 Itemized Rating: Scale having number or brief
description of each category is provided. Categories
are ordered in terms of scale positions. The
respondents select one of the categories that best
describes the stimulus object. The commonly used
itemized rating scales are:
 A-Likert Scale
 B-Semantic Differential Scale
 C- Stapel Scale

20. A. Likert Scale
 Likert Scales or Summated Scales are developed by utilising the item analysis
approach where in a particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it
discriminate between those persons whose total score is high and those whose
total score is low.
 Those items or statements that best meet this sort of discrimination test are
included in the final instrument.
 Likert Scales are the Summated Scale that are frequently used in the study of
social attitudes this contains number of statements which express either
favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the given object to which the
respondent is asked to react.
 The respondent indicates his agreement or disagreement with each statement
in the instrument.
 Each respondent is given a numerical score and the score for each item is
summated to measure the respondent’s attitude, in other words the overall
scores represents the respondents position on the Continuum of favourable or
unfavourableness towards an issue.

21. B. Semantic Differential Scale
 The SD scale was developed by Charles E. Osgood, G.J. Suci and
Tannenbaum (1957).
 This scale measures the psychological meaning of an object to an
individual.
 This scale is based on the presumption that an object can have different
dimensions of connotative meanings which can be located in
multidimensional property space, or what can be called the semantic
space in the context of S.D. scale.
 This scaling consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually of 7 points
by which one or more respondents rate one or more concept on each
scale item. For example the S.D. Scale items for analysing candidates
for leadership positions candidates for leadership position may be
compared and may be scored from +3 to-3 for each parameter:

22. C. Stapel Scale
 Stapel Scale: This scale was developed by John Stapel.
 This is a unipolar rating scale which usually 10 categories numbered from – 5 to+5.
 This scale does not have the Zero or the neutral point.
 The respondents rate how each term describes the object by selecting the appropriate
number.
 Positive number means the term describe the object accurately, while the negative
number implies that the term describes the object inaccurately. +5 means the highest
degree of accuracy while-5 means highest degree of inaccuracy.
 For example respondent may be asked to rate how accurately the terms (i) tasty food (ii)
fast service and (iii) good ambience describe the quality of the restaurant.
 Method is applicable when the responses are rated on a single dimension.
 The method is very economical and data can be collected over telephonic interview also.
However some researchers think that this method is confusing and is of not much use.

23. 3.Single/Multiple Category Scale
 The scales are known as dichotomous scales.
 These have two or more mutually exclusive responses.
 Like yes and no /true and false to choose of the given
categories.
 For example Do you like to play cricket? Yes or No; Which
vehicle do you have? Car, Bike, Scooty or any other.
 The collected data is on nominal scale.
 This method is very easy and very popular on internet
survey.

24. 4. Verbal Frequency Scale
 This scale is used when the respondent is unable or
unwilling to give the exact numbers in the answer.
 For example: How often do you eat out? Frequently/
Sometimes/ Rarely/ Never.
 This Scale provides only an approximation of
frequency and so the data is on ordinal scale.

25. Summary
 Scaling refers to the procedure for attempting to determine the quantitative measures of
subjective abstract concepts.
 According to Allen L. Edwards “Scaling is the procedure for assignment of numbers or
other symbols to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of
numbers to the properties in question.”
 The bases for the scaling procedures or the number assigning procedures can be broadly
classified as objective of the study, Nature of Response, Degree of Subjectivity, Number
of Dimensions, Scale Properties and Scale Construction Techniques.
 The Scaling Techniques are broadly classified into Comparative Scaling Techniques and
Non Comparative Scaling Techniques.
 Comparative Scales involve direct comparison of stimulus objects and in Non
Comparative Scales each object is scaled independently of the other.
 The Comparative Scaling Techniques are Paired Comparison, Rank Order and Constant
Sum.
 The Non Comparative Scaling Techniques are Continuous or Graphic Rating Scales,
Itemized Rating, Simple/Multiple Category Scale and Verbal Frequency Scale.

26. References
 Bajpai N. (2015). Measurement and Scaling. In Business research
methods (pp. 43). Nodia: Pearson Education.
 Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P. S., & Sharma, J. K. (2012). Measurement scales.
In Business Research Methods (8th ed., pp. 341). New Delhi: Mc. Graw
Hill Education (India).
 Edwards, Allen L.(1957) Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction, Appelton-
Century Crofts, New York.
 Gupta S.K. & Rangi P.(2017). Measurement and Scaling. In Research
Methodology (4th ed., pp4.20).Punjab: Kalyani Publishers(India).
 Kothari C. R. & Garg G.(2019). Measurement and Scaling. In Research
Methodology Methods and Techniques( 4th ed., pp.66-87) New
Delhi: New Age International Publishers(India).
 Torgerson W. S. (1958). Theory and Methods of Scaling, New York: John Wiley
and Sons Inc.

27. Thank You
This Power Point Presentation has been made while
referring to the research books written by eminent,
renowned and expert authors as mentioned in the
references section. The purpose of this Presentation is
to help the research students in developing an insight
about the Scaling in Research. I hope the students will
find this presentation useful for them.
All the Best
Dr. Shaloo Saini