This document provides an overview of the origin and distribution of megalithic traditions in India. It discusses various theories that have been proposed about the origin of megalithism, including indigenous origins in South India as well as influences from maritime cultures. The document also examines traditions and legends connected to megalithic sites. Finally, it describes the major regions in India where megalithic sites are found, including South India, Vidarbha in Maharashtra, North and Central India, and Northeast India. It provides examples of different types of megalithic structures and discusses the cultural material found at these sites.

1. Origin and Distribution
of Megalithic Tradition
in India
Debajit Ghosh
Department of A.I.H.C & Archaeology
Deccan College PGRI, Pune

2. Introduction
 The meaning of the word ‘megalith’: Derived from two Greek
words; ‘megathos’/’megas’, meaning ‘huge’; and
‘lithoi’/’lithos’, meaning ‘stone’.
 The common phenomenon of the ‘life’ after death.
 Significance of the proper disposal of the dead.
 Social purposes.
 What does the term ‘megalith’ indicate in broader perspective?
Not just monuments comprised of huge stones but a ‘particular
culture or tradition’.
 No regional bounds; worldwide distribution.
 In India, Megalithic tradition falls under the time bracket of
Early Iron Age.
 Chronology: From about 1200 BCE-400-500 BCE.

3. Origin in Indian Context
 In India Babington first reported megaliths in his article
‘Description of the Pandoo Coolies of Malabar’ in 1823.
 Regarding the origin of megalithic tradition in India, there
are three broader areas of discussion.
1. Various theories given by different scholars.
2. Trying to understand the origin through literary sources.
3. A good number of interesting traditions and legends
connected with the megalithic monuments.

4. Different Theories
 Mainly two different school of thoughts:
1. Indian origin.
2. Non-Indian origin.
 Regarding the origin of Megalithic tradition in India,
there are various theories given by scholars. These are:
1. South Indian origin.
2. Maritime Influences.
3. Immigration by sea or southward movement.
4. Spreading from north to south.
5. Independent Origin of North and South India.
6. Other Theories.

5. South Indian Origin
 Proposed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.
 Evidences from the Excavation at Brahmagiri at Chitradurga
District, Karnataka in 1947.
 Period II falls within Megalithic cultural period.
 Iron objects and Black-and-Red ware.
 Pit circles and cist burials were predominant.
 Date: From 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE.
 Mentioned the possible resemblance of Indian megalithic types
with the megalithic structures of Western Asia and Europe.
 In one of the megaliths: 33 gold objects, 4 copper bangles, 2
carnelian beads and one conch shell. Reflection social
heirarchy.

6. Maritime Influences
 Gordon Childe first came with the theory of Maritime
influences.
 In Indian the culture probably came from west.
 Penetration of the culture far into the interior.
 Process of this expansion? Not clear.
 Maritime influences were responsible.

7. Immigration by sea or southward
movement
 This theory was proposed by C. Von Furer Haimendorf in
1953.
 Megalithic builders of south India: speakers of Dravidian
languages.
 Megalithic culture possibly immigrated into India by sea
or possibly these people moved southward along the west
coast of India.
 This culture superimposed itself on the indigenous
cultures.
 He visualizes the first point of contact on the west coast.

8. Spreading From North to South
 N.R. Banerjee : ‘The Megalithic Culture of South India’, a paper
presented in the International Conference of Asian Archaeology in
1961.
 Suggestion by him: Indian megaliths were probably inspired by
the carin circles of Baluchistan and Persian and Baluch Makran.
 Migration from north to south India.
 South Indian megaliths: Flourished between 700 BCE to 200 CE.
 His arguments were based around the antiquity of iron in India.
 Some counter arguments by K.N.Dikshit:
 Problem of inter-connection between time and space.
 Focusing on only two megalithic types.
 Independency of iron technologies of north and south.

9. Independent Origins of North and
South India
 K.N Dikshit focused on this possibility.
 According to him, Megalithic builders in Northern region
of India probably entered by land routes. Possibility of
taking sea routes is also there.
 In case of south India, western maritime communities
practising megalith-architecture through Persian Gulf and
Southern Arabia.

10. Other Theories
 According to Pande, Megalithism in Kashmir evolved out
of earlier Neolithic practices.
 According to Moorti, on the basis of the pre-iron age
burials some megalithic types( pit burials, urn burials) are
considered as indigenous.
 Parpola: Megaliths were Aryan in origin.
 McIntosh has suggested the increased dependence on
pastoralism as the factor in the emergence of megalithism
in South India.

11. Literary sources
 Some scholars tried to trace the origin of megaliths in
India in the literary sources.
 R.C Gaur worked on this.
 He mainly focused on Satapatha Brahmana.
 According to him, Megaliths: crude form of votive stupa.
 References in Sanskrit and Sangam literature.
 Limitations: Uncertain dates of literary sources. These
references might refer to the prevalence of megalithism in
some form or the other in the contemporary period.

12. Traditions and Legends
 Different traditions and legends grow because of lack no
knowledge about Megalithic remains.
1. The Pandavas
2. The Demons.
3. The Pygmies.
4. The Tribal People.
5. Some other traditions.

13. The Pandavas
 Legendary heroes of traditional India.
 Superhuman power.
 Given credit for the construction of huge megalithic
monuments, especially Dolmens and Dolmenoid Cists.
 Belief: Dolmens were constructed by them when they
were in exile.
 Different names are given to megalithic monuments
bearing different meanings: ‘pandavagullu’,
pandavaramane’, ‘pandurane’, ‘pandavakkuli’etc.
 Some parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.

14. The Demons
 In some places, megalithic monuments are ascribes to the
demons/ Rakshasas.
 Monuments are known as ‘Rakshaka gullu’, ‘Rakasi
gudi’, ‘Rakshasa guttalu’, ‘Rakshasa gudiam’etc.
 Size and appearance of the monuments.
 Skeletal dumps made by Rakshasas.
 Superstitions of local people.
 This belief is more popular in Andhra Pradesh.

15. The Pygmies
 It is believed that dolmens were built by an extinct race of
Pygmies.
 Popular belief in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamilnadu.
 Being threatened with a fire storm, they built these
monuments to escape the conflagration.
 Evidence came from skeletal remains discarded this idea
of pygmies.

16. The Tribal People and Other
Traditions
 Sometimes megalithic monuments are attributed to some
tribal kings or simply tribal communities.
 An example: Local belief at Naikund in Vidarbha region
in Maharashtra.
 Tamil Nadu: Animals are connected by traditions with the
megalithic monuments. ‘kuranguppattadai’; the workshop
of the monkeys.
 Also there is belief that there is rich treasure buried below
the megalithic monuments.
 Attribution to Jaina Ascetics.

17. Distribution of Megalithic Tradition
in India
 In India, megaliths have been reported from all over the
country.
 Sites are of three types: Burial, Habitational and
Habitational-cum-Burial sites.
 There are several types of megaliths.
 Two main category: Sepulchral and Non-sepulchral.
 Four broader regions of distribution:
1. Deccan and South India
2. Vidarbha region in Maharashtra.
3. North and Central India.
4. North-east and Eastern India.

18. Deccan and South India
 First discovery reported by Babington in 1823.
 Taylor, Breeks, Caldwell, Rivet-Carnac, Cunninghum,
Carlyle, Leshnik, Fergussion, Chakrabati, Subbarao, Deo,
Moorti etc. gave scholarly contribution.
 Sites located in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
and Kerala.
 Main types are dolmen, rock-cut caves, kuda-kallu, topi-
kallu, cist, stone circle, menhir, urn burials, extended
burials, sarcophagi etc.
 The site of Brahmagiri: It’s importance in understanding
the megalithic tradition of South India.

19. Courtesy: Joanna Sudyka(2011)
 Different groups of
distribution:
1. The southern tip: Mainly
urn burial; cist, stone circle
also.
2. From Madras to Mysore:
Mainly dolmen, cist and
stone circle.
3. Andhra Pradesh,
Telengana and some
portions of Maharashtra:
Menhir, cist, stone circle,
extended burials etc.
4. Kerala: Mainly rock-cut
caves.

20.  Ceramics: White painted Black-and-Red ware, Plian
Black-and-Red ware etc.
 Several iron implements.
 Some important sites: Brahmagiri, Hallur, Maski,
Sanganakallu, Tekkalakoda(Karnataka); Paiyampalli,
Adichennalur(Tamil Nadu); Kadanad, Porkalam(Kerala); ,
Ramapuram, Kesarpalli(Andhra Pradesh) etc.
 Probably a biological continuum of preceding neolithic-
chalcolithic population to iron age population.
 Chronology: 1100 BCE-100 BCE(McIntosh, 1985)
1300 BCE-200 CE(Moorti, 1989)

21. Courtesy: asi.nic.in
Adichennalur

22. Courtesy: karnatakatravel.blogspot.com
Brahmagiri

23. Different Types of Megaliths in South India
Rock-cut-cave Sarcophagi
Courtesy: http://www.asithrissurcircle.in
Courtesy: https://selfstudyhistory.com

24. Kuda-kallu Urn Burial
Courtesy: http://www.unbelievableinfo.com
Courtesy : asi.nic.in

25. Vidarbha Region in Maharashtra
 Vidarbha: Eastern part of Maharashtra; comprising 11 districts.
 Rich concentration of megaliths.
 Beginning of research by Hislop in 1864. Afterwards, Rivett-
Carnac, G.G.Pearse, Carey, Hunter, Thapar, Deo, Dikshit,
Mohanty, Thakuria, Sontakke, K.Pawar and other scholars
contributed.
 Burial types are stone circles, carin circles, menhir, dolmen,
sarcophagi etc.
 Important excavated sites are Bhagimohari, Khairwad,
Mahurjhari, Junapani, Naikund, Takalghat-khapa, Hirapur etc.
 Presence of horse skeletal remains, horse ornaments in burials
is special characteristic feature. Ubale: Horse skull.

26. Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

27.  Mohanty et al(2017) divided the early ironmegalithic tradition
of Vidarbha into four sub-divisions:
1. Early Iron Age settlements without visible megalithic burials.
2. Early Iron Age settlements with few burials in the rare
vicinity.
3. Early Iron Age settlements with large number of megalithic
burials.
4. Megalithic burial sites not as yet associated with settlement
but surrounded by arable and pasture land.
 The basic type of burials: Stone circles filled with carins;
located mostly on unproductive barren land, hill slopes and
rocky surfaces.
 10 types of carin circles identified till now.
 The C-14 dates and other cultural material suggests that at
least a part of the population continuously occupied the
settlement throughout the year and for centuries.

28. Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

29. Different Types of Carin Circles
Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

30. Specimen of Dolmen
Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

31. Double-chambered Dolmen From Hirapur
Copyright: Debajit Ghosh

32. Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

33. •Iron tools for various functions
were most important craft
production. Hoes, ploughshare,
sickles etc.
• Evidence of combined
workmanship: Example: A dagger
with iron blade and hilt skilfully
covered with a thin sheet of
copper enclosing a wooden frame.
•Ceramics: Black-and-Red ware,
Black-on-Red ware, micaceous
red ware, coarse red ware etc.
•Elaborated social organization.
•Chronology: 1000 BCE-300-400
BCE.
Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

34. Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

35. Courtesy: Mohanty et al(2017)

36. North and Central India
 Sites reported from Jammu and Kashmir Uttar Pradesh, Ladakh
etc.
 Several megalithic types are cist, stone circle, menhir etc.
 Menhirs at Burzahom, in the district Anantnag and in the
bordering area of Ladakh and Tibet seem to have extra-Indian
Affiliation.
 Dolmen is absent.
 The Vindhyan region, Adwa valley, Jangal Mahal, Kaimur
Range, Kumaun region, Leh etc. have rich concentration of
burial sites. Also Rewa, Sidhi district etc. of Madhya Pradesh.
 Main sites: Amahata, Munahi, Magha, Kakoria, Kotia etc.
 Ceramics: Red ware, Black-and-Red ware, Grey ware etc.
 Gold objects, bronze bowl, arrowhead etc.: Grave goods.
 Earliest date of iron came from sites from Uttar Pradesh.

37. North India with the location of the
Site of Magha
Courtesy: Google Maps

38. Courtesy: Dr. Kantikumar Pawar

39. Courtesy: Dr. Kantikumar Pawar

40. North-east and Eastern India
 North-east India comprises of seven states: Assam,
Megahlaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Mizoram,Nagaland and ripura.
 In 1872, remarkable effort was made by Godwin-Austen
in order to understand the stone monuments of Khasi hills
in Meghalaya.
 CB.Clarke, Haimendorf, David Roy, P.Binodini Devi,
J.J.Waty, S.N.Rao, B.Mutum, M.B.Singh, Sharma and
others contributed in the study.
 Rich concentration of megaliths in Khasi and Jayantia hill
region of Meghalaya district.
 Living megalithic tradition is main feature.
 Two broad groups: Funerary stones and Memorial Stones.

41. Courtesy: Google Maps

42.  Main eight categories within the funerary stones. They
have local names such as Mawkynroh(stone cist),
Mawbynna( set of five menhirs) etc.
 Main four categories within memorial stones. They also
have local names such as Mau-in-lu( stone of the salt),
Mau-mlu(upturned stone) etc.
 Main types are Menhir, carin , grave stone, dolmens etc.
 The core concept is unchanged here.
 Living Megalithic Heritage of India.

43. Courtesy: www.alamy.com

44. Living Megalithic Tradition
 Presently popular in North-eastern states, Orissa, Central
India, Kerala and Karnataka.
 Most of the past megalithic types are similar in present
tradition.
 Nagas in north-eastern India, Maria Gods in central India,
Savaras in south India, Valmikis in Andhra Pradesh etc.
are till now continuing megalithic practices.
 Funeral ceremony, community feast are very common
features.
 Legacy of Megalithic Tradition in India.
 Concept of death, soul etc.
 Similar belief till now; although change in customs.

45. Conclusion
 Traditions and legends: outcome of the knowing nothing about
the antiquarian remains.
 Although there are some positive aspects of traditions and
legends.
 No unanimity regarding the origin of megaliths in India.
 Different aspects Indian megalithic tradition must be came into
consideration for a thorough, systematic and analytical research
to try to solve the problem of the origin of Indian megalithic
tradition.
 In order to understand the distribution pattern in a systematic
pattern, the focus of research should be shifted from 'site' to
region/landscape.
 Changes need in research design.
 Extensive exploration and large scale horizontal excavations
are needed.

46. Acknowledgement
I want to thank Dr. Kantikumar Pawar for giving me the
opportunity to present this topic.
I am also thankful to every alive and passed away
scholars, personalities whose thoughts, ideas, articles,
theses, books etc. helped me both in direct and indirect
way; my friends Sayan Roy and Tanoy Sengupta who
helped me in collecting source material; and also the
online sources such as websites, blogs etc. in completing
my presentation.

47. References
 Dikshit, K.N. Origin and Distribution of Megaliths in India, 1997.
 Mohanty, R.K. Vaidya, Shantanu Kharakwal, J.S Sontakke, Virag
Thakuria, Tilok The Early Iron Age Megalithic Culture in Vidarbha
in Broader Perspective: A Pragmatic Observation, 2017.
 Deo, S.B. Problems of South Indian Megaliths.
 Mohanty, R.K. Selva Kumar, V. The Archaeology of the Megaliths of
India: 1947-1997, Indian Archaeology in Retroscope, Volume I,
Edited by Settar, S. Korisettar, R.
 Vahia, N. Mayank Menon, M. Srikumar Abbas, Riza Yadav, Nisha
Megaliths in Ancient India and Their Possible Association to
Astronomy.
 Gaur, R.C. Megalithic Tradition in India, 1997.
 Sudyka, Joanna The “Megalithic” Iron Age Culture in South India:
Some General Remarks, Analecta Archaeologica Resooviensia, 2011.