Integrated fish cum agri, horti, animal farming as a traditional known practices for sustainable Aquaculture diversification, increasing productivity and production per unit area, promoting poverty reduction and food security

1. Integrated fish farming: best known traditional
practices for sustainable aquaculture production,
poverty reduction and food security
BY:
Bhukya Bhaskar
Fisheries
Le Thanh Hai et al.2020)

2. Introduction
• In 2017, fish accounted for about 17% and 7% of the global
share of the animal and protein consumption respectively
(FAO, 2020).
• Worldwide, aquaculture is the fastest growing food
production sector, with an annual growth rate of 5.3 % per
year in the period 2001–2018, contributing to 46 % of the
global fish production, rising up from 25.7% in 2000, thus
expected to fill the gap of fish demands (FAO, 2020).

3. Basic Principles of Integrated Fish Farming:
• Integrated fish farming is based on the concept that ‘there is
no waste’, and waste is only a misplaced resource which can
become a valuable material for another product (FAO, 1977).
• In integrated farming, the basic principles involve the
utilisation of the synergetic effects of inter-related farm
activities and the conservation, including the full utilisation of
farm wastes.
• It is assumed that all the constituents of the system would
benefit from such a combination. However, in most cases, the
main beneficiary is the fishes which utilises the animal and
agricultural wastes directly or indirectly as food.
• As integrated farming involves the recycling of wastes, it has
been considered an economic and efficient means of
environmental management.

4. Fish as food and livelihood
• In 2015, the United Nation’s 2030 development agenda outlined 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in line with 169 targets that will guide national, regional, and
international agencies’ actions to achieve sustainable development over the next decade
[UNDP].
• In particular, SDG2 is committed to ending all forms of hunger including food and nutrition
insecurity.
• Fish is an important source of food for people, contributing about 17% of animal protein
intake and 7% of all protein consumed by the world’s population (FAO, 2020).
• More than 10% of the global population depend on fisheries and aquaculture for their
livelihoods (WorldFish, 2020; FAO, 2020).
• Fish consumption is increasing rapidly, having risen from 86 million tonnes in 1998 to 152.9
million tonnes in 2018 (FAO, 2000; FAO, 2020).
• The increased fish consumption is related to the growing human population in many
countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, which indicates the importance of a consistent
supply to meet nutritional and financial demands of a large portion of the worlds’
population (Chan et al., 2017; Chan et al., 2019).
• Currently, fish is one of the few food sources that is still obtained from the wild, with
capture fisheries accounting for about 54% of the world’s fish supply (FAO, 2020).
• More recently however, wild fishery has not been able to meet the growing fish demands
and many fisheries are now in a stagnant or even decline stage (Zeller and Pauly, 2005;
Costello et al., 2016).
• In the period 1961–2017, fish consumption has increased by 3.1% while the supply from
capture fisheries has almost remained stable (FAO, 2020).
• This has increased pressure on capture fisheries, which has led to overfishing of some
commercial fisheries

5. Aquaculture and its potential to meet the demands for fish
• The share of aquaculture to global fish production reached 46% in 2018 (Figure 1), rising from 26% in
2000.
• Regionally, the contribution of aquaculture to total fish production was about 17.9% in Africa, 17.0% in
Europe, 15.7% in the Americas and 12.7% in Oceania (FAO, 2020).
• The highest aquaculture contribution to fish production in 2018 was reported from Asia (Excluding
China), reaching 42%, rising from 19% in 2000 (OECD/FAO, 2019; FAO 2020).
• The expansion of the sector is due to increasing local demands from growing human population,
urbanization, growing incomes as well as investment in advanced farming technologies, such as
genetically improved fingerlings, intensive systems and high-quality feeds (Chan et al., 2017; Tran et al.,
2019; OECD/FAO, 2019).
• Aquaculture has therefore been, and expected to be a key fish producer to meet the ever-increasing
fish demands. However, global aquaculture production is not evenly distributed.
• Asia account for 89% of the total global aquaculture share with China contributing to about 58% of the
total share in aquaculture production in 2018, falling from 59.9% in 1995 (FAO, 2018; FAO, 2020).
• Africa contribute with about 2.7% of the world aquaculture production with Egypt, Nigeria and Uganda
being the first, second and third major producers, respectively (Halwart, 2020).
• Sub Saharan Africa (excluding Nigeria) contributed with only 0.37% of the total global aquaculture
production in 2018 (FAO, 2020).
• The reasons behind the low aquaculture production in SSA are related to lack of inputs, markets and
extension services (Kaminski et al., 2018; Adeleke et al., 2020).
• Despite its current low production, Africa’s aquaculture sector recorded a twenty-fold increase in
production, rising from 110,200 tons in 1995 to 2,196,000 tons in 2018 (Halwart, 2020).

6. Integration of agriculture and aquaculture
systems (IAA)
• Prein (2002) defines IAA as “concurrent or sequential linkages between two or more agricultural activities (one
or more of which is aquaculture), directly on-site, or indirectly through off-site needs and opportunities, or
both”. Generally, IAA systems are composed of three components which include agriculture, aquaculture and
the household.
• A) The agriculture component IAA farming is generally the introduction of aquaculture component into already
existing agriculture system, though it could be the other way around (Zajdband, 2011).
• The way in which aquaculture is incorporated in agriculture will depend on biophysical, social and climate
factors, which determine the type of IAA systems to be developed at each location in time.
• This systems are usually dominated by crop cultivation, but widely also include livestock keeping.
• A typical example of IAA is the combination of rice and fish farming in South East Asia, which also include
annual and perennial cropping, such as mixed gardens of vegetable and fruits on adjacent pond dykes and
sometimes livestock husbandry, especially poultry and pigs (Edwards et al. 1988; Huong et al., 2018).
• Few notable examples of IAA systems in Africa, involving integration of fish (especially tilapia and catfish),
livestock and vegetable have been reported in Malawi, South Africa, Ethiopia and Kenya (Melaku and Natarajan,
2019).
• The introduction of aquaculture in IAA systems may alter some management practice of the agriculture sub-
component.
• For example, introduction of fish in rice fields may reduce the use of agrochemicals to accommodate both fish
and rice (Berg, 2002; Berg et al., 2017).
• Additionally, introduction of aquaculture may result in establishment of vegetable and fruits or ducks on the
pond dike or adjacent fish pond, which benefit from pond water for irrigation and swimming (Edwards, 2008).

7. b) Aquaculture components
• The diversity in aquaculture systems is generally categorized based on their intensity and resource use.
• The level of intensification is subject to a wide range of factors such as fish stocking density, feeding practices,
labor, capital, energy and technology (Lazard et al., 2010). I
• AA systems are often somewhere between extensive to intensive type of aquaculture, and it often depends on
some kind of fertilization for production of phytoplankton and zooplankton as natural feed for the fish (Edwards
et al., 2000).
• Aquaculture can be further defined based on the structure used in the operation, including cage, pond and
tank farming systems.
• Most of the semi intensive aquaculture systems are practiced in ponds (FAO, 2020).
• Aquaculture in IAA systems generally involve culture of fish species feeding at lower trophic levels i.e.
herbivores or omnivorous species such as tilapia, carp and catfish.
• The choice of cultured species often depends on the local context and prevailing factors such as availability of
fish feeds and seeds, facilities and management practices (Edwards, 1998).
• Tilapia in particular is one of the suitable candidates in IAA systems as they can be produced even in rural areas
without the need for use of advanced technologies.
• As opposed to carnivorous species, tilapia is also known to grow well feeding on natural food from pond
fertilization and supplementation of on farm wastes, such as vegetable wastes, rice and maize bran (PootLópez
et al., 2009; Limbu, 2019).
• Different species can be raised together in a poly-culture system to allow efficient use of pond resources. In
Tanzania catfish is sometimes combined with tilapia in IAA systems.
• This helps to control pond overcrowding by catfish preying on O. niloticus fingerlings from prolific breeding of
tilapia, thus improving fish growth rate and yield (Shoko et al., 2015; Limbu et al., 2017).
• However, proper stocking density and species ratio should be taken into consideration when combining
different species as it may result into negative impacts because some species can shift their feeding habits and
consume others (Rahman et al., 2008).

8. Cont…
C) Household component
• Understanding of the socio-cultural dynamics of the household is very important for
introduction of aquaculture (Wetengere, 2011).
• This is because characteristics of the household have great influence on whether they do or
do not adopt IAA farming.
• A study by Bosma (2007) indicated that IAA adoption is mainly determined by family labor,
area of homestead and farmer’s relative income.
• Farmers’ income increases the ability to construct a fish pond which normally involve high
initial capital, which is often not affordable to the poorest farmers (Nhan et al., 2007).
• IAA farming is generally a family farming system, in a sense that household members are
the ones managing the farm and contribute with most of the labor, although occasionally
hired labor can be used (Wetengere, 2011).
• In addition to providing farm labor, household members are the consumers and sometimes
venders of different farm products.
• Nevertheless, household size and structure can have great influence on available labor as
well as consumers of the produce e. the workers-consumers ratio of family members (Bosma
et al., 2007).
• Farmers who adopted IAA farming were reported to have a more positive attitude towards
aquaculture due to the increased income provided by fish farming (Duc et al., 2008).
• The potential of IAA system to increase food and nutritional security of the household comes
from its ability to increase fish and crop production, and income generation for buying extra
food (Ahmed and Lorica, 2002).
• As the household is the major source of labor, the impact of IAA on creating job
opportunities is less important, unless practiced in intensified manner (Murshed-eJahan et
al., 2010).

9. Component interactions and benefits in IAA system
• Synergies, according to Edwards (1998), occur when “an output from one sub-system in an
integrated farming system, which may otherwise have been wasted becomes an input to
another sub-system, resulting in a greater efficiency of output of desired products from the
land/water area under the farmer’s control”.
• Thus, the fish in this case benefits from available on-farm remains which comes as wastes
from crops and livestock but can be used as fish feeds, and thus help to minimize the fish
feed costs.
• Being part of the system, the fish pond provides inputs, such as nutrient rich waste water
and sediments, that can be used for other agricultural activities, and thus help to reduce
inputs of synthetic fertilizers (Da et al., 2015).
• Fish stocked in rice fields can also serve as a biological control by preying on pests as
insects, snails and weeds, thus cut or reduce input of pesticides in the environment and also
the amount of water related diseases (Xie et al., 2013).
• The diversity of activities in IAA can be useful in terms of spreading the risk of potential
disasters, thus increasing the farm and household resilience.
• For example, when a diseases or drought reduce the yield of one of farm activity, the yield
from another component may serve as a backup.
• Water from the pond can be used for irrigation during periods of dry weather.
• Nutritionally, fish is widely recognized to be rich in high quality metabolites such as amino
acids, omega-3 fatty acids, minerals, especially iron, zinc, and vitamins (Kawarazuka and
Béné, 2011).
• Therefore, integration of fish with crops such as vegetable, which contain high amount of
vitamin and minerals(Odhav et al., 2007), can have great impact on household food security
and nutrition.

10. Species farmed, pond fertilization and feeding strategies in
IAA and non-IAA pond farming in the surveyed districts:
(Deogratias Mulokozi, 2021)

11. Impact of fish farming on household
income and fish consumption
• About 31% of the farmers had an average annual income below 694 US$, which according to
the World bank indicate that these farmers are living in extreme poverty with an income
below the international poverty line of 1.90 US$ per day (Word Bank, 2019).
• The 13% contribution of fish farming to the household income was in range with findings
reported in other parts of Africa.
• Kassam and Dorward (2017) compared the poverty impact of fish farming in Ghana, and
indicated a share of 8% from fish farming to the household income.
• Similarly, Dey et al. (2006), assessing the impact of integrated fish farming in Malawi,
reported a 12% contribution of fish farming to household income.
• This contribution is still low compared to many countries in southeast Asia.
• Rahman et al. (2011), for example, reported that up to 86% of some Bangladesh household
incomes came from small scale fish farming.
• A negative correlation between contribution of fish income and total household income
suggests that fish farming has a more significant contribution to poor household income when
compared with the well-off farmers. Similar results were reported by Brummett (1999) and
Dey et al. (2010) in Malawi.
• Thus, although the contribution for aquaculture may be small, it helps to generate an
important amount of cash for emergencies, school fees, etc. (Paper I; Brummett et al., 2008).
• In addition to direct income contribution, fish farming had a potential impact on household
food and nutrition security.
• This is because fish are rich in protein and essential nutrients including vitamin A, calcium,
iron and zinc, and in theory, fish farmers are able to increase the intake of these nutrients
directly from their farmed fish compared to non-fish farmers (Kawarazuka and Béné, 2010).

12. Cont…
• Fish farmers sold about 62% of their total harvested fish, and 36% was used
for household consumption, while 2% was given away as gifts to neighbors
and relatives, which was an important way to strengthen social relations.
• A negative correlation between total household income and the portion
consumed indicates that fish farming contributes more to food security
among low income households as compared to high income households.
• The reasons why farmers sold a larger portion of their harvested fish could
be associated partly with the need for cash for other costs or lack of cold
storage facilities, especially in rural areas.
• Similarly, Nzevu et al. (2018), assessing the contribution of fish farming to
households in Kenya, reported a relatively large portion of farmed fish being
sold compared to that consumed.
• Furthermore, Kassam and Dorward (2017) found that more than 60% of the
fish harvested from aquaculture by both poor and well-off farmers in Ghana
were sold in the local market.
• The relatively high proportion of fish sold could also indicate an increased
demand for fish and availability of markets, which in turn indicates an
ongoing expansion of aquaculture in these countries, including Tanzania.

13. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture as an alternative to improving
small-scale fish production in Zambia
(Oliver J. Hasimuna et al.2023)
Enabling environment and policies for aquaculture development
• As envisioned in Vision 2030 and the 7th and 8th National Development Plans, Zambia’s aquaculture industry
may act as a driver of economic growth and poverty reduction.
• However, the biggest challenge is that the country has not been able to fully leverage its potential over the
years.
• Zambia has the potential to develop aquaculture because of its abundant water resources and several
potential indigenous fish species suitable for culture.
• For example, the country boasts of having 40% of Southern Africa’s water resources and good agroecological
zones that are good for fish farming (Simuunza, 2022).
• It also has strong business ties with fish markets in its neighbors, such as the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Botswana, Angola, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Malawi, as these markets allow
back-and-forth trade relationships. Despite these opportunities, the country still lags due to many challenges,
some of which are listed below:
Potential species of culture
• Apart from the species mentioned above being the main ones cultured in the country, there are a number of
potential species for aquaculture that may be used in aquaculture–agriculture integration.
• Notable indigenous species which are potential candidates for aquaculture include Oreochromis
mortimeri (Trewavas, 1966), Labeo altivelis (Peters, 1852), Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822), Heterobranchus
longifilis (Valenciennes, 1840), but surprisingly the viability of these species in the aquaculture industry have
not been investigated fully (Mudenda, 2009).
• In addition, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758), Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) and Auchenoglanis
occidentalis (Valenciennes, 1840) have demonstrated remarkable promise for aquaculture in the country.

14. Climate-smart policy-in Zambia
• Several investigations have been carried out to show that aquaculture and fisheries are
vulnerable to the impact of climate change (Musumali et al., 2009; Maulu et al.,
2021b; Muhala et al., 2021b).
• The factor that the sector relies on water for its main input is enough to deduce that water
quality and quantities get affected by drought and rise in temperatures. In recent times,
studies have shown that water quality compromises the quality of fish produced and bred in
terms of diseases and other mineral deposits (Hasimuna et al., 2020b; Nong et al.,
2021; Hasimuna et al., 2021b; Khalil et al., 2022).
• Management of water resources for present and future use should be a call for every fish
farmer, and this calls for climate-smart management strategies that need to be adhered to.
Climate-smart aquaculture calls for using fish species that are environmentally, socially, and
economically friendly while attaining sustainability for future and present benefits
(Zougmoré et al., 2016).
• Working with the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment, Land and Natural
Resources, the Department of Fisheries which is in charge of aquaculture should aim to train
fish farmers on how to preserve the natural resources that are responsible for the rain cycle
and reduce water and air pollution which could be detrimental to the growth of the sector
(Maulu et al., 2021b). Béné et al. (2016), Genschick et al. (2018), and Maulu et al.
(2021c) found that irresponsible management of water resources and fish genetics leads to
poor production and productivity.
• Therefore, technologies that attempt to reuse water resources within a circular economy
and also utilize clean energy have been shown to be climate-smart technologies that
mitigate climate change and improve people’s livelihoods (Shikuku et al.,
2019; Balasubramanian et al., 2021; Siankwilimba et al., 2021, 2022).

15. Aquaculture-crop farming
• This system thrives due to the mutual benefit and symbiotic relationship between the crop
and fish.
• Rice and fish farming is the most prevalent aquaculture-crop integration system worldwide,
and its benefits have been the subject of numerous research.
• Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) has been the predominant aquaculture species in these
systems, with a few reports of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus; Miller et al.,
2006; Ugwumba, 2010; Lemma et al., 2014; Mohammed et al., 2015; Trinh et al., 2021).
Integration of rice and fish farming has been found to greatly increase the productivity of
both fish and rice farming systems.
• In this system, rice typically functions as a filter for potentially hazardous compounds such as
nitrates and phosphates, which are necessary for the growth of rice plants (Lemma et al.,
2014).
• In this way, rice fields provide a favorable environment and habitat for fish and other aquatic
animals to flourish, while fish contribute to nutrient cycling by feeding on invertebrates and
other organic particles created in these flooded rice fields.
• Rice-fish farming frequently decreases the need for pesticides, hence preserving biodiversity,
and it also allows the adoption of native fish species (Soto, 2009).
• The use of native or indigenous species of fish is encouraged in this system to avoid
problems associated with the introduction of invasive exotic species.
• Different rice field designs are created and adjusted to allow deeper regions for fish to
develop without flooding the rice plants and to restrict rice field escape and access (Halwart
and Gupta, 2004).

16. Aquaculture-livestock farming
• Integrated fish farming with animal livestock is a key player in enhancing higher
fish production (Gebru, 2021; Mulokozi et al., 2021).
• This technique incorporates both animal husbandry and fish culture (Shrestha and
Pant, 2012; Mulokozi et al., 2021). The integrated animal/fish culture system
seeks to recycle all unconsumed organic leftovers and natural organic manure to
boost crop, animal, and fish output (Colin, 2018; Kinkela et al., 2019; Gebru,
2021; Mulokozi et al., 2021).
• Biological and chemical processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen
fixation, ammonification, denitrification, and decomposition recycle nutrients and
minerals in the pond ecosystem (Mukherjee et al., 1992).
• In turn, these interactions boost the pond’s primary productivity, which enhances
the availability of natural, nutrient-rich, living food.
• This system can accommodate a variety of species, including ducks, chickens, pigs,
and ruminants such as sheep, goats, and cattle.
• Animal wastes like cow manure, chicken and pig droppings, and goat and sheep
pellets are utilized to increase the production of food organisms for fish, hence
reducing the cost of expensive feeds and fertilizers (Kapur, 1984; Shrestha and
Pant, 2012; Kinkela et al., 2019; Mulokozi et al., 2021; Ibrahim et al., 2023).
• These systems are predominantly utilized in many Asian nations, including China,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, but have also been documented in
several African nations, including South Africa, Malawi, Ethiopia, and Kenya

17. Aquaculture-vegetable farming
• This is the integration of the residential property, the garden, the animals, and the fishpond.
Almost the bulk of the labor is often performed by family members (Luu, 2021).
• In this approach, fish pond water is utilized to water vegetables such as onions, tomatoes,
and cabbage, hence reducing the farmer’s need to buy chemical fertilizers (Luu, 2021).
• In exchange, vegetable wastes can be utilized as fish food, reducing the need for small-scale
farmers to purchase pricey, specially-formulated diets (Maulu et al., 2019).
• Annually or at the end of each fish growth cycle, pond muck is scraped and used to fertilize
vegetable fields and fruit trees; animal excrement is utilized to fertilize plants.
• This agricultural method is common in Vietnam and is practiced in both uplands and
lowlands.
• The integration of fish and vegetable farming is designed for small-scale deployment,
allowing farmers to recycle the majority of agricultural and home wastes inside the system
using materials and equipment already on the farm (Anschell and Salamanca, 2021).
• Such an integrated system allows a farmer to use the pond for fish culture and the pond
dykes for growing vegetables (Luu, 2021).
• Traditionally, the water gathered in the de facto pond is used for domestic reasons and to
cultivate aquatic vegetation for animal consumption.
• The majority of fertilizers are applied to field crops, particularly rice, but as the importance
of fish production rises, more is redirected there.
• The pond is built close to the house so that domestic and cooking wastes can be drained into
it.
• Due to the requirement to fertilize the pond water with organic manure, this method is
typically employed in conjunction with other farming systems, such as poultry (Prinsloo and
Schoonbee, 1987; Prinsloo et al., 1999; Tugie et al., 2017).

18. Challenges faced by farmers using integrated
aquaculture-agriculture systems
 Inadequate technical ability to manage both fish and crops/livestock
• A large number of small-scale farmers practicing IAA lack the technical
capabilities to handle both the fish and livestock or crops in terms of proper
nutrition, disease control and general husbandry and this greatly affects
their productivity (Respikius et al., 2020). This can be attributed to
ineffective extension services (Maulu et al., 2021a), as well as a lack of
access to knowledge and the required technologies.
 Lack of access to information
 Lack of security of land tenure
• Most of the farmers practicing IAA do not formally own the land on which
they do this type of fish farming. Aquaculture has proven to be unprofitable
for rural poor people who lack secure access to land, either because they
are landless or because they possess land under insecure tenancies. The
lack of land tenure security discourages long-term investment (FAO, 2014).
This is one of the reasons that deter small-scale fish farmers from investing
significantly in their businesses.
 Input provisions and market development
• Market and Input provision and market development

19. Aquaculture species cultured in Zambia
• The majority of Zambia’s populace has adopted five tilapia species, one foreign and four indigenous (Maulu et
al., 2019; Hasimuna et al., 2020a; Siavwapa et al., 2022).
• These are the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), three-spotted Tilapia (Oreochromis andersonii), Green-
headed Tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir), Red-breasted Tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), and Tanganyika tilapia
(Oreochromis Tanganicae) species (Maulu et al., 2019; Hasimuna et al., 2020a, 2021a).
• However, O. niloticus farming is only permitted in some sections of the country, such as south of the Itezhi-
Tezhi dam on the Kafue River; in other areas, a licence from the Director of Fisheries is required as prescribed in
the Fisheries Act number 12 of 2011 (Hasimuna et al., 2020b).
• This exotic fish is mostly cultivated in Southern Zambia’s Lake Kariba in cages controlled by large-scale firms
such as Yalelo and Lake Harvest (Hasimuna et al., 2019), as well as a significant number of cooperatives
financed by the Zambia Aquaculture Enterprise Development Project (ZAEDP).
• Furthermore, O. tanganicae is cultivated mostly in the Northern Province, especially areas with streams leading
to Lake Tanganyika where it is an endemic species. O. macrochir is cultured in Luapula provinces, Copperbelt,
Central, Lusaka, Southern, Western and Muchinga Provinces as this species is found in most rivers and lakes
except in Lake Tanganyika. C. rendalli is farmed in every province due to its wide distribution across the country
while O. andersonii is grown throughout the southern half of the country, particularly in the Eastern, Lusaka,
Central, Copperbelt, Southern, Northwestern, and Western Provinces.
• But it must be stressed that O. andersonii is the species which is adopted by the Department of Fisheries as a
species of culture in the country except for the northern part where it is not endemic (Bbole et al., 2018).
• Aquaculture–agriculture
• Small-scale farmers in Zambia frequently combine fish and ducks, fish and pigs, and fish and crops (vegetables),
with fish and pig being the most prevalent combination. It has been determined that integrating O. andersonii, O.
niloticus, and O. macrochir with pigs is technically and economically feasible (L’Heureux,
1985; Gopalakrishnan, 1988). However, among the three native fish species, only O. andersonii has successfully
proved the technical and economic viability to be cultivated (Gopalakrishnan, 1988).

20. Cyprinus carpio
• Several researchers have investigated the food and feeding
behaviors of the common carp in its native habitat in
order to comprehend its feeding behavior (Hana and
Manal, 1988; Magalhaes, 1993; Adámek et al., 2003; Ali et
al., 2010; Rahman et al., 2010).
• This fish has exhibited a great deal of variety in its eating
behavior, which has been related to changes in its position
during specific times and for specific feeding goals (Ali et
al., 2010).
• The presence of benthic invertebrates, detritus, and mud
throughout the year in its digestive tract demonstrates
that the species eats at the bottom of the body of water
(Magalhaes, 1993; Ali et al., 2010; Dadebo et al., 2015).
• C. carpio is an omnivore fish in terms of its diet.
• Detritus, insects, and macrophytes are the primary food
sources, whereas phytoplankton, ostracods, zooplankton,
and gastropods are of lesser importance.

21. Clarias gariepinus and Heterobranchus longifilis
• The African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and the Vundu (Heterobranchus
longifilis) graze on a variety of foods based on their environment, and in
Zambia, these are widely spread at the confluence of the Zambezi and
Kafue Rivers (Hecht and Lublinkhof, 1985).
• These species are opportunistic and omnivorous feeders, consuming a wide
variety of foods, including algae, macrophytes, zooplankton, zooplankton,
insects, fish prey, detritus, amphibians, and sand grains (Dadebo,
2000; Abera and Guteta, 2007; Dadebo, 2009; Admasu and Debessa, 2015).
• In addition, their dietary composition may vary based on the season and
geographical circumstances of their surroundings, as well as the fish’s size,
maturity, and habitat differences (Houlihan et al., 2001; Kamal et al., 2010).
• During the dry season, insects, zooplankton, and fish prey are the favored
dietary sources.
• During the rainy season, detritus, zooplankton, insects, and macrophytes
are primarily devoured, whereas the tiniest fish consume more insects than
their larger counterparts, who primarily consume zooplankton and smaller
prey fish.

22. Oreochromis mortimeri
• Kariba Tilapia or Oreochromis mortimeri (Trewavas, 1966) is an indigenous
species found in Zambia whose natural habitat ranges from Cahora Bassa
Gorge to Victoria Falls (Marshall, 2011; Zengeya et al., 2015).
• The feeding behavior of this fish species is omnivorous feeding on diets
such as algae, especially diatoms, detritus, plant material, insects, and
zooplankton (Skelton, 2012).
• This feeding behavior is similar to that of O. niloticus a commercially
farmed species.
• Comparative research on the two species indicated that the types of food
consumed were comparable and that there was no significant variation in
eating behavior (Chifamba, 2019).
• Furthermore, it was reported that this species of fish breeds throughout the
year and its breeding is triggered by temperature and rainfall.
• The ability of O. mortimeri to breed throughout the year is one feature
which makes it a good candidate for aquaculture species as it can lead to a
continuous supply of fingerling throughout the year (Chifamba, 2019).
• This species has great potential for commercial aquaculture in Zambia and
there is an urgent need to utilize the various biological factors that favor its
commercial farming as well as a conservation strategy.

23. Labeo altivelis
• This fish species is also known as the Rednose labeo,
and similar to other Labeo species, it is herbivorous.
• This species feeds on the substratum’s algal
development, grazing on algae and aufwuchs from
rocks (Skelton, 2012).
• Besides diatoms and plant fibers, they consume
Bdelloid-type rotifers and cladocerans.
• In addition, this type of fish possesses a unique feeding
adaptation consisting of a sucker-like mouth with
folded lips and a sharpened edge (Skelton, 2012).
• In addition, their intestines are exceedingly lengthy
and tightly coiled, and they do not have a separate
foregut or stomach (Reid, 1985).

24. Auchenoglanis occidentalis
• The Giraffe catfish (Auchenoglanis occidentalis) locally known as Mbowa is
an omnivorous fish which is common in large rivers and lakes in the lakes
northern Zambia (e.g., Chambeshi and Luapula Rivers and Lake Bangweulu,
Mweru and Tanganyika).
• This species and its lineage are reported to be widely distributed in most
African Lake such as Lake Turkana, and Lake Chad and it is also found in
rivers including the Chambeshi in Zambia, Anambra River in Nigeria, White
Nile and Niger Rivers among others (Okwiri et al., 2018).
• According to Chukwuemeka et al. (2019), Ikongbeh et al. (2014), and Abobi
et al. (2019), A. occidentalis primarily feeds on insects, insect larvae,
protozoans, phytoplankton, sand particles, crustaceans, and fish scales in
the wild, and it tends to prey on insects and smaller fish species within its
reach.
• This species prefers shallow waters with muddy bottoms from an ecological
standpoint.
• The male is the only guardian of the eggs and the nesting, and it spends a
great deal of time fanning its pectoral fins and swaying its posterior body to
prevent oxygen deprivation (Ochi et al., 2001).

25. It paves way for Climate Smart Aquaculture (CSA)
• Adopting integrated aquaculture as a strategy not only
increases output productivity and efficiency in a sustainable
manner; it also plays a major role in reducing the sector’s
vulnerability and increasing its resilience to climate change.
• One of the key strategies currently being used is encouraging
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, better known as IMTA,
a novel process of growing finfish alongside shellfish like
oysters and marine plants like seaweeds.
• Interestingly, we are seeing more applications of this system
in many forms.
• A few examples include the recent announcement by SAARC
countries of introducing IMTA as means to reduce climate
change impacts on the sector, trials in Europe focusing on
culturing lobsters alongside salmon, a vision to have
a rainforest in the ocean, or better yet, an effort to carbon
capture more CO2 than is produced by the Netherlands each
year.

26. Integrated Fish Farming in INDIA
• India being an agrarian economy produces large quantities of animal & plant residues, to the tune of over 322
& 1,000 million metric tones, respectively, on annual basis. Our country provides larges bovine population of
over 307 million cattle heads, along with 181 million sheep & goats, 16 million pigs, & over 150 million poultry
and other livestock.
• Apart from activities like mushroom cultivation, rabbit rearing, Sericulture, Laculture and Apiculture, which
provide huge quantities of organic material for aquaculture, different agro-based industries also produce
effluents which could be effectively used after proper recycing for aquaculture in addition to the domestic
sewage to the extent of over 4,000 million liters on daily basis.
• Integrated Fish Farming:
Types A. Fish farming with Agriculture (Agribased fish farming);
• 1. Paddy-cum Fish culture,
• 2. Horticulture-cum Fish culture:
• 3.Vegetablecum Fish culture,
• 4.Fruits-cum Fish culture,
• 5.Flowers-cum Fish Culture,
• 6.Mushroom-cum Fish Culture,
• 7. Sericulture-Fish Culture,
• 8. Fodder crops-fish Culture
B. Fish farming with Livestock (Live-stock fish farming):
1.Fish cum pig Culture,
2. Fish cum duck culture,
3.Fish cum Poultry culture,
4.Fish cum cattle culture

27. • Paddy-Cum-Fish Culture:
• Rice fields which are water-logged for 3-8 months in a year, there is always small population
of fishes that gain access to such waters. This probably had given rise to the practice of
deliberate stocking of fishes and harvesting. The trapping of prawns and fishes with the help
of ‘gamcha or dhoti’ in fallow paddy-fields has been an age old practice in India
• (1) Paddy-field aquaculture provides additional income to the farmers.
• (2) In areas where rice and fish form the staple food, paddy-field aquaculture makes
available an essential diet for the people.
• (3) As paddy and fish can be grown either simultaneously or alternately in the same water
mass, it requires very little extra input by way of additional costs, particularly in
management and labour.
• (4) It provides off-season employment to the farmers and farm labours.
• (5) Combination of paddy and fish farming is mutually beneficial. Fish cultivation promotes
better paddy production by way of exercising an effective control on unwanted weeds, mol-
luscs, noxious insects and their larval stages.
• Fishes that are cultured in such waters in India are Mugil sp., Mystus gulio, Haplochromis
mellandi (mollusc eating fish), hates calcarifer, Mugil parsia, Puntius sp., Channa sp.,
prawns and shrimps. In India, limited experimental works have shown the suitability of
Indian carps for such integrated farming.
• Three major types of paddy-field aquaculture are generally practiced:
• (i) Simultaneous or combined or synchronous farming.
• (ii) Alternate or sequential farming or paddy- fish rotation.
• (iii) Relay farming.

28. Duck-Cum-Fish Farming:
• Duck-Cum-Fish Farming:
• Although duck and fish farming have been in practice in eastern Europe and China and their compatible nature being recognised since long, the interaction and
benefits of the association have been understood only a few years back.
• During the last decade suitable methods have been developed in various countries for raising ducks in fish ponds. Undoubtedly, such a combined culture is highly
profitable as it greatly increases the production of protein in terms of fish and duck per unit area.
• The combination of duck and fish farming is seen presently as a means of reducing the cost of feed for ducks, at one hand, and on the other, the excreta of ducks acts
in an inexpensive way of fertilising ponds, which results in production of fish food organisms.
• Thus, ducks can be said to be ‘living manuring machines’. The duck droppings contain 25 per cent organic and 20 per cent inorgaic substances along with a number of
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, etc.
• Moreover, ducks by agitating the shore areas of the pond, help to release nutrients. Besides this, ducks feed on a variety of organisms such as weeds, snails, unwanted
harmful insects and their larvae (some being vectors of fish pathogenic organisms), tadpoles, frogs and water-borne disease-causing organisms infecting man, whose
eradication is one of the important aspects of farm management.
• (a) Ducks Culture and their Raising:
• Ponds provide a clean and healthy environment for ducks. Special strains of ducks have been developed that are suited for pond raising. Such suitable strains when
used, approximately 50-60 per cent of their droppings when falls into the pond, is sufficient to fertilise the water.
• Reliable and timely supply of required strains of good quality ducklings are of great significance as it promotes successful farming. For supply of ducklings, small scale
farmers have to depend on outside sources, while larger farms have their own breeding centres which is much convenient and profitable.
• Raising of Ducks is done by one of the two ways:
• (i) Extensive Raising:
• In extensive raising ducks are stocked at approximately 150-500 per hectare of pond surface. Here small amount of supplementary feed is provided and the number of
ducks is limited due to the food they can find in the pond water. As the number of ducks are limited, they contribute little amount of manure to the pond and its effect
on fish yield is also limited. Such a type of method is usually employed in Europe.
• (ii) Intensive Raising:
• Here ducks are stocked at a much higher density, approximately 1000-2500 per hectare of pond surface and is usually employed in Africa. The ducks are fed at the
same rates as on land. As ducks are held at a much higher density per unit area, higher amounts of manure are thus loaded into the fish pond which subsequently
results in higher yields.
• (b) Duck Keeping:
• There are two basic ways of keeping ducks in fish ponds:
• (i) Free-Range System:
• Here the ducks are allowed to have free access to the whole pond (Fig. 6.43). As they are allowed to swim freely around the whole pond surface, a good proportion of
their droppings fall directly into the pond water and are distributed more or less uniformly.
• The ducks are able to forage around the whole pond. Adjacent to the ponds, small duck houses are built with facilities for providing them with supplementary feed. In
this system, as considerable energy is spent by the ducks in swimming activity, it is believed to affect the feed conversion ratio and growth rate of the ducks.
• (ii) Confinement in Enclosures:
• Here, part of the pond area and the adjacent land area are enclosed with wire fences (Fig. 6.44). About one-fourth of the enclosure will be on the land and the rest in
water. Within the wire fence suitable feeding and resting areas are made.
• Some of the droppings of the duck falls directly into the pond water, while the rest that drops on land is washed down into the pond. Under this system fish production
is reported to be almost equal to the free-range system. Keeping ducks in enclosures is preferred by most farmers, who use special strains of ducks for better growth.

29. Cont…
• (c) Raising of Fish:
• For duck-fish farming the most suitable pond is the barrage type of ponds. This is made by damming shallow valleys, so that the
ducks can lie on the natural slopes. There is every likely-hood that ducks may damage the earthen dykes while foraging. The
problem can be solved with proper maintenance.
• Commonly the fish species cultured are herbivores and omnivores. The common carp was traditionally the main species but
subsequently other species of Chinese carps are used to make full use of the food resources. Other important species used are
male or hybrid tilapia, grey mullet, catla, eel, asian catfish and sea perch. Fairly high stocking rates are adopted and
supplementary food is also provided.
• (d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fish-Cum- Duck Culture:
• (i) Advantages:
• (1) There is practically less additional cost for fish culture, as the excreta of the ducks fertilises the pond water.
• (2) Ducks by agitating the shore areas of the ponds help to release nutrients.
• (3) The cost of feed for the ducks gets reduced.
• (4) The ducks help to eradicate vectors of fish pathogenic organisms and water borne diseases — causing organisms infecting
man, as they feed on a variety of organisms such as weeds, snails, unwanted harmful insects and their larvae, tadpole, frog, etc.
• (ii) Disadvantages:
• (1) The fingerlings released should be of more than 10 cm size, otherwise the ducks may feed on the fingerlings.
• (2) While foraging for food, ducks sometimes damages the earthen dykes. This problem can be solved with proper maintenance.

30. Fish-Cum-Poultry Farmings:
Fish-Cum-Poultry Farmings:
• Integrated fish farming with poultry is generally cultured as the poultry manure is a very efficient fertilizer for fish ponds. The poultry droppings comprises 2% nitrogen,
1.25% phosphoric acid and 0.75% potash. The low feeding cost per individual bird makes poultry farming along with fish, a common investment for poor farmers.
(a) Poultry Raising:
• Both ‘broilers’ and ‘layers’ variety of chicken can be raised for fish-poultry farming. One day old chick are raised up to the pullet stage after which they are put in layer
cages.
• Fish culture with both intensive and extensive poultry productions have been integrated successfully. The most intensive type of poultry production is the battery type
of housing, which is installed by the side of the pond. The floor of the house is cemented and is set up at a slope so that the eggs may roll forward.
• For layers, the floor area required is about 30 cm2 while for broilers, 15-20 cm2. The usual floor space allotted for each bird is 20 x 30 x 40 cm. The birds are confined to
cages which are made up of standard, stout, galvanised wire. The cages are kept on trays for collection of droppings. For further on poultry refer chapter 5.
• For manuring one hectare pond water, the droppings of about 250 layers and four batches of 200 broilers each are adequate in a year’s time.
(b) Fish Raising:
• For fish raising the ponds are stocked with fingerlings of catla, silver carp, common carp, murrels, tilapia, giant freshwater prawns, etc. The stocking density of fishes is
related with that of poultry and also with the period of culture.
• In one hectare pond area, when stocked with 5000 giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and 1500 silver carp, and cultured for a period of four
months, one can harvest 600 kg of prawns and an equal amount of fish, along with 250 culled birds.
• For culturing over a period of one year, ponds may be stocked with fingerlings of catla, common carp, silver carp and grass carp at a density of 5000-6000 fingerlings
per hectare. At the end of twelve months of fish-cum-poultry culture, fish yield of over 3900 kg per hectare can be normally obtained along with 42,000 eggs and 200
culled birds.
(c) Advantages and disadvantages of fish-cum- poultry culture:
(i) Advantages:
(1) Chicken manure is a very efficient fertiliser, so no chemical fertiliser is needed for fertilising the pond water. This cuts down the expenditure of rearing fishes.
(2) No supplementary fish feed is required.
(3) The purchase and feeding cost per bird is low.
(4) Chicks are readily available and their productivity can be improved with simple and cheap management.
(ii) Disadvantages:
(1) Chicks should be examined from time to time and diseased one should be isolated, otherwise they will destroy the entire stock.
(2) Sufficient time should be given from one stocking of chicks to the next for renovation of the house and disinfectioning it.

31. Fish-Cum-Pig Culture
• In integrated fish farming with pig, the ‘pig dung’ is useful for conditioning the soil and providing the necessary nutrients required for fertilising the pond water. Fish-
cum-pig culture is practised at large in China where pigs are considered as “costless fertiliser factories”.
• Pig dung contains about 70 percent digestible feed for fishes. The feed while passing down the pig’s alimentary canal, gets mixed up with enzymes which continue to
act even after defecation. Such undigested solids serve as direct food source for tilapia and common carp.
• In tropical fish ponds, weeds are a major problem in fish culture. Such vegetation’s are considered as valuable food resource for pigs.
Thus, pigs aptly play a role in biological control of weeds:
• (a) Pig Rearing:
• In fish-cum-pig culture the embankments of fish ponds are made wider (over 10 m in China) to facilitate the building of pig sites and also for growing vegetables, fruit
trees or other crops. In the slopes, grasses can also be grown which is used as fodder for grass carp and for other farm animals.
• Various aquatic plants, such as azolla, duck weed, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, and water hyacinth (Eichhor-nia) are grown in feeder channels and irrigation ditches
associated with the pond farms. These and the foliage of other terrestrial plants (vegetables, rice, corn, etc.) are used for feeding the pigs.
• In the water area of the pond, about 10 tons of aquatic plants can be produced, which are sufficient to feed 10 pigs. These plant materials are generally mixed with
bananas, coconut meal, rice bran, soybean wastes, groundnut cakes, fish meal, etc.
• Pig sites or pen or sty are generally built on nearby land or on the pond embankment. The pen enclosure is built not only for pig raising but also special consideration is
given to the needs for breeding, nursing and fattening activities. Pig pen generally have a system of channels for transferring the organic matter into the pond water.
• Alternatively, the sty or pen may be constructed above the pond water. The structure is made of wood and provided with a lattice type of floor which permits the
excreta and uneaten food to fall directly into the pond water.
• Modern practices are to avoid direct washing of the wastes into the pond. The urine and dung of pigs are first allowed to the oxidation tanks (digestion chambers)
where sedimentation and fermentation of the manure take place. The supernatant liquid, at regular intervals, are then discharged into the fish ponds.
• The sludge that remains is utilised as fertilisers in agriculture. Alternatively the pig manure may be kept in a heap on the pond embankment for later use. The chemical
composition of pig wastes is depicted in Table 6.13.
• The number of pigs to be raised per hectare and the manuring rates to be applied are based on years of experience. The production of manure depends upon the age
and size of the pig. A piglet produces about 3.4 kg manure a day, while a one-year-old pig gives about 12.5 kg a day.
• The average production of faeces and urine per pig is about 7.8-8 tons per annum. A density of 60-100 pigs has been found to be sufficient to fertilise a one hectare
fish pond.
(b) Fish Rearing:
• Polyculture is commonly practised in such integrated farming due to the variety of food that becomes available in the pond. Herbivorous and omnivorous fishes are
used for culture; generally common and Chinese carps and less frequently catfishes (Pangasius), Indian carps and tilapia.
• Due to high productivity of the ponds, fairly high rates of stocking are generally practised — 60,000 fingerlings of different species (weighing 20-30 gm) per hectare.
• (c) Production and Duration of Culture:
• The duration of culture of fishes and pigs varies. Generally it is about one year, but culture for 6 months duration is also practised. The overall economics of combined
fish and pig rearing depends on the local conditions. However, the pigs are generally sold when they have attained a weight of 90-100 kg. The production of fish
generally varies between 2 and 18 tons per hectare per annum.
(d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fish-Cum- Pig Culture:
• (i) Advantages:
(1) Such integrated farming increases the productivity per area and thus, the farmers income becomes doubled or more.
(2) Pig dung conditions the soil of a new pond and provides ready-made organic matter, containing the necessary nutrients.
(3) Pig dung contains about 70 per cent digestible feed for fishes. The undigested solids present in the faeces of pig serves as direct feed source for tilapia and common carp.
(4) Pigs aptly plays a role in biological control of weeds, as weeds are considered as valuable food source for pigs.
(ii) Disadvantages:
(1) Addition of too much pig manure may lead to increased nutrient load resulting in pollution of the water body and mortality of the fishes.
(2) Considerable care and management skills are required to prevent pollution. It has been found that satisfactory fish production can be obtained with much lower
manuring.

32. Fish-Cum- other animal Farming
• (a) Fish-Cum-Cattle Farming:
• Cattle wastes and washings from the cattle sheds are conveyed through pipes into the ponds which acts as good fertiliser. Cattle
wastes are generally collected in a pit for later use. In addition to fish yield, production of milk from cattle and beef adds to the
economy.
• (b) Fish-Cum-Rabbit Farming:
• Rabbit farming has been found to be ideal for integration with small- scale fish culture. Rabbit manure have greater value as a
direct food for fish compared to other livestock wastes.
• (c) Fish-Cum-Mulberry Farming:
• Mulberry plants are raised on the dikes of the fish farm and in the neighbouring fields for silkworm production. The mulberry
wastes and silkworm larvae and pupae (after removal of silk) are used as feed for the fishes. It also fertilises the pond water.
• Advantages of Integrated Fish Farming:
• The advantages of integrated fish farming are as follows:
• (1) Full utilisation of farm wastes.
• (2) Utilisation of the cooperative effects of interrelated farm activities.
• (3) It increases employment opportunities.
• (4) It increases nutritional source for the farmer’s family.
• (5) It gives higher and stable farm productivity and there is less risk (biologically and economically).
• (6) It increases the income of rural population.
• (7) It is a means of land reclamation in certain areas.
• (8) It is an efficient and economic means of environmental management.
• Disadvantages of Integrated Fish Farming:
• Recently, controversy has arisen among scientists on the public health aspects of integrated farming. Speculations are ripe that
integrated fish farming with pigs and poultry may be a cause of influenza pandemic. This may be, as the pigs would act as
‘mixing vessels’ for avian and human influenza viruses, it can create new lethal strains of viruses by mutation.
• In such an act, fishes themselves do not play any role. However, there is no conclusive evidence that integrated farming can
become a public health hazard. For safety measures, pig-poultry combinations in integrated fish culture should thus be avoided.

33. Aquaculture and Sustainability through Integrated
Resources Management- Bangladesh
• Integrated farming system
producing zero emissions and
sustainable livelihood for small-
scale cattle farms: Case study in
the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Ref:
Le Thanh Hai .etal. 2020

34. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA)
• Concept of Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) Integrated aquaculture systems as
detailed in Neori et al., (2004) Barrington et al. (2009) and Angel and Freeman (2009) and
case studies in India are briefly given below.
• In many monoculture farming systems the fed-aquaculture species and the organic/ inorganic
extractive aquaculture species (bivalves, herbivorous fishes and aquatic plants) are
independently farmed in different geographical locations, resulting in pronounced shift in the
environmental processes.
• Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) involves cultivating fed species with extractive
species that utilize the inorganic and organic wastes from aquaculture for their growth.
• According to Barrington (2009), IMTA is the practice which combines, in the appropriate
proportions, the cultivation of fed aquaculture species (e.g. finfish/shrimp) with organic
extractive aquaculture species (e.g. shellfish/herbivorous fish) and inorganic extractive
aquaculture species (e.g. seaweed) to create balanced systems for environmental
sustainability (biomitigation) economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction)
and social acceptability (better management practices).
• This farming method is different from finfish “polyculture”, where the fishes share the same
biological and chemical processes which could potentially lead to shift in ecosystem.
• Multi-trophic refers to the combination of species from different trophic levels in the same
system.
• The multi-trophic sub-systems are integrated in IMTA that refers to the more intensive
cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, linked by nutrient and energy
transfer through water.

35. References
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