This document appears to be an exam for a biology course that covers human genetics and diversity. It includes questions asking the student to build a model of genetic inheritance using their own family tree. The student is then asked to answer questions about biological diversity and the concepts of race and ethnicity based on their model. The document discusses how classifications of race and ethnicity have changed over time and vary between countries, suggesting they are social rather than biological constructs.

1. BIO 215 – Spring 2021 Final exam Name: Anissa Boyers
1. Use a modified family tree figure (below) to map out a model of your and your ancestors’genotypes.
The instructions for building the model are posted on Canvas. One of the aims of this exercise is to help you connect
the various knowledge points about human genetics/genomics that you have learned in this course. Anotheraim is to
have you use this model as the foundation for answering some of the questions on this exam.
a. Submit pictures of your and your ancestors’genotypes. (10 pts.)
*On next page

2. I.
II.
III.
IV.
(me)
mother father
Maternal
grandmother
Maternal
grandfather
Paternal
grandfather
Paternal
grandmother
Maternal
grandmother
of mother
(great
grandmother
to IV)
Maternal
grandfather of
mother (great
grandfather to
IV)
Paternal
grandmother
of mother
(great
grandmother
to IV)
Paternal
grandfather of
mother (great
grandfather to
IV)
Maternal
grandmother
of father (great
grandmother
to IV)
Maternal
grandfather of
father (great
grandfather to
IV)
Paternal
grandmother
of father (great
grandmother
to IV)
Paternal
grandfather of
father (great
grandfather to
IV)

3. Write a short reflection on your understanding ofbiological diversity in human populations,based on your
experience of building this model of genetic inheritance. Your answer should take into account concepts such as
genotypes,chromosomes, genes, alleles, chromosome cross-over, mutations,traits, as explored in quiz 1 and
test 1. (10 pts.)
This exercise helped me to understand howbiological diversity occurs in human populations.The basis of this
biological diversity occurs at the molecular level in DNA, which is the genetic material that codes for proteins.
DNA is comprised of the nucleotide bases,Arginine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine. Sequences of the DNA
code for specific proteins. The 4 nucleotides mentioned form the DNA sequence that is known as the genotype.
These sequences are known as genes. Sometimes mutations can occur during DNA replication, which are
random and can lead to different versions in genes.These different versions of genes are known as alleles.
These different versions or alleles can be expressed when the protein is formed. The protein that is formed is
known as a phenotype.Phenotypes orcan be visible or invisible. These phenotypes can form traits. The DNA is
tightly coiled into chromosomes. During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes can align and exchange
genetic material, which can increase the diversity of the genetic information in the haploid gametes. As in the
model, the great grandparents started out with 2 homologous chromosomes , or 2 copies of each gene. This does
not mean that the alleles were the same. During sexual reproduction only 1 of the genes was inherited to form 1
chromosome. This led to the creation of diploid offspring. The process continued to occur until generation IV
(me) was developed.
b. According to your model, 20 pts.
i. based on this extremely limited genotype,do you have more variants in common with one of your
parents than the other?
allele Father Mother Me
A4α 2 2 2
Α4β 2 2 2
A3α 2 2 2
A3β 2 2 2
A2α 1 2 2
A2β 1 0 0
A1α 2 0 1
A1β 0 2 1
ii. based on this exercise, explain why kids often (but not always) look more like one parent than the
other, and yet have some features from both.
 Children can look more like one of their parents based on the alleles that they inherit. If
homozygous and heterozygous parents had a homozygous child, the child will have a
variant frequency that is closer to that of the homozygous parent. This does not mean that
they will only look like that parent, because they will still be inheriting specific alleles
from the other parent.
iii. do you have any unique alleles that neither one of your parents possesses in its entirety? If yes,
what does that mean for human diversity?
 For A1 I am heterozygous (α & β) while each of my parents are homozygous for 1 allele.
This means that with each generation, new combinations of alleles can form, which
means that the humans continue to become diverse.
iv. did your parents have any alleles in common? Explain whether yes/no is expected or unexpected.
 My parents ended up having the same allele frequencies for A4α&β and A3α&β.It
depends for each individual whether or not this would be considered expected or
unexpected. For me this would be somewhat expected as my parents are from the same
region, which could attribute to this.
My mother and I are both
homozygous for A2α, whereas
my father is heterozygous for
A2 (α&β). Besides this, I am
heterozygous for A1 while my
mother (β) and father (α) are
both homozygous.

4. v. How many alleles do you inherit from each one of your great-grandparents? Did you inherit an
equal number of alleles from each great-grandparent? If it’s unequal, which great-grandparent’s
alleles are more frequent?
 M1: 1
 F1: 4
 M2: 1
 F2: 0
 M3: 0
 F3: 4
 M4: 0
 F4: 2
vi. Is there a great-grandparent (or more than one), whose alleles are not found in yourgenome? If
yes,is this an expected outcome? If this was an Italian/German/Native American (choose any
ethnicity that fits here) great-grandparent, whose heritage was adapted by his/her children (one of
your grandparents),and then one of your parents,what does that absence of any shared alleles
mean for you and your identity?
 My great grandparents,F2, M3, and M4, were not found in my genome. This can be
expected. In my case, these great grandparents come from German descent.While my
parents contain inherited alleles from them, I do not.This does not mean that I would be
considered less of German heritage, as the concept of heritage is where one’s ancestors
came from. My ancestors clearly still came from Germany, and while I may not have
inherited their alleles, it does not change the fact that I am related to my parents who have
some of their alleles.
vii. What the parents happen to be of different “races”, can it then be said the child is ½ of each
“race”? Explain your answer.
 Describing the child as ½ of each race is inaccurate. As the exercise demonstrated,alleles
can be inherited at different frequencies from each parent. There is also not one gene that
determines “race”, which is not a biological concept.If a child was ½ of their parents,
then the parents would both have to be “pure” in their own “race”.
viii. Is it biologically possible to inherit an unequalnumber of alleles from one’s 4 grandparents? If
yes,and the grandparents happen to be of different “races”, can it then be said the child is ¼ of
each “race”? Explain your answer.
 It is possible to inherit an unequalnumber of alleles from each of the 4 grandparents.
This is because the gametes are haploid, meaning that only half of the genetic material
from each parent is passed along to form the complete genome of their offspring. While
crossoverand recombination can occur to create new combinations, some of these genes
will not get passed along.In my case this would mean that M3 and M4 on my father’s
side would not have been inherited. In the case of a child’s grandparents being a different
“race” than them, it would still be considered inaccurate to classify them as ¼ of that
race, because it is uncertain how much of the DNA is actually inherited from them.
c. Based on this exercise and your answers above,how would you support or dispute the popular notion that
kids in “mixed” families can be classified as ½ , ¼, etc. of each contributing “race”. 5 pts.
 Based on my answers above, I would dispute the notion that “mixed” children are ½ of
their parents and ¼ of their grandparents.Based on the exercise, one can have variants in
common with one parent at a higher frequency than the other, and by classifying a person
as being mixed, one is assuming that “purity” can exist. This is biologically impossible,
as both parents would have to be genetically identical, which includes being the same
biological sex.
d. Try to explain twins of different “races” (as seen below), using your model of ancestral alleles. 5 pts.
Most
frequent

5.  Because these twins are different “races” they are not genetically identical, which means
that they are fraternal twins and were formed from 2 different zygotes. While this may
seem impossible based on the visible phenotype ofthe parents,the exercise above
demonstrated that new combinations of alleles can form from the alleles that are inherited
from each parent. The “white” twin could have also inherited the alleles at
disproportionate rates from generations back of great grandparents.This would explain
why she looks different than her parents and fraternal twin sister.
2. In our society we use both “race” and “ethnicity” when describing groups of people. In your understanding,do these
terms refer to distinct biological or social aspects of societal organization? Or both? Explain. 2 pts.
 Both “race” and “ethnicity” are social constructs. While they try to explain biological
concepts such as skin color, they do a poor job, as these things are considered complex
traits. There are also so many traits that can be inherited that this factor does not signify
an entirely different group of people.
3. Examine the following classifications/definitions of race and ethnicities as used by government agencies in US:
The U.S. Census Bureau must adhere to the 1997 Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
standards on race and ethnicity which guide the Census Bureau in classifying written responses
to the race question:
White – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or
North Africa.
Black or African American – A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of
Africa.
American Indian or Alaska Native – A person having origins in any of the original peoples
of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation
or community attachment.
Asian – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia,
or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander – A person having origins in any of the original
peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands.
The 1997 OMB standards permit the reporting of more than one race. An individual’s response
to the race question is based upon self-identification. The Census Bureau does not tell
individuals which boxes to mark or what heritage to write in. For the first time in Census 2000,
individuals were presented with the option to self-identify with more than one race and this
continued with the 2010 Census.People who identify with more than one race may choose to
provide multiple races in response to the race question.

6. Only 2 ethnicities are officially recognized in US: Hispanic (Latino) and non-Hispanic

7. 4. Examine and compare the lists of ethnicities in 2001 and 2011 UK Census.Do the presented ethnicities describe the
same populations overtime? What does that mean for the concept of race/ethnicity?
3 pts.
The terms for different races have changed over time meaning that the concept of race is not static
and is not considered biological, but social.
List of ethnic groups – 2001 UK census List of ethnic groups – 2011 UK Census
 White
 British
 Irish
 Any other White background
 Mixed
 White and Black Caribbean
 White and Black African
 White and Asian
 Any other Mixed background
 Asian or Asian British
 Indian
 Pakistani
 Bangladeshi
 Any other Asian background
 Black or Black British
 Caribbean
 African
 Any other Black background
 Chinese or other ethnic group
 Chinese
 Any other
(In Wales,‘Welsh’ is the firstoption in the White category)
 White
 English,Welsh,Scottish,Northern Irish or British
 Irish
 Gypsy or Irish Traveller
 Any other White background
 Mixed or Multiple Ethnic groups
 White and Black Caribbean
 White and Black African
 White and Asian
 Any other Mixed or Multiple ethnic background
 Asian or Asian British
 Indian
 Pakistani
 Bangladeshi
 Chinese
 Any other Asian background
 Black, African, Caribbean or Black British
 African
 Caribbean
 Any other Black, African or Caribbean background
 Other ethnic group
 Arab
 Any other ethnic group
A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY RELATING TO ETHNICITY
There is no consensus on appropriate terms for the scientific study of health by ethnicity, and
published guidelines are yet to be widely adopted. … For example, in the UK the term ethnic
minority group usually refers to minority populations of non-European origin and characterised by
their non-white status. The term South Asian refers to populations originating from the Indian Sub-
continent, effectively, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. White is the term currently used to

8. describe people with European ancestral origins. By ethnicity we mean the group a person belongs
to as a result of a mix of cultural factors including language, diet, religion, and ancestry.
5. Compare between the definitions of races/ethnicities in the US and UK. Do they describe the same populations?
What does that say about the concept of race/ethnicity? 5 pts.
 The US census bureau includes people of North African descent,while the UK census
does not.
 The UK census has a more specific classification of “Black” as they specify African or
Caribbean. The US census does not specify and just says origins in Africa.
 The UK includes a “mixed” category, while the US does not.
 The US census includes a section for Native Alaskan and American Indian, which the
UK does not include.
 There are more differences that could be included, but the main idea is that race/ethnicity
is a social concept that is not confined to 1 definition. Therefore, it is not a biological
construct.While some of the broad defining factors were consistent in the US and UK
censuses,there were differences in categories altogether and which “ethnicities/races”
were in the categories.
6. Using the presented definition for ethnicity (see the NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY): “the group a person belongs to
as a result of a mix of cultural factors including language, diet, religion, and ancestry” as the foundation, argue FOR
or AGAINST the use of the terms “white”, “South Asian”,“Black”, etc. to describe a race or ethnicity. 5 pts.
 Based on the definition above, I am arguing Against the use of White, South Asian, Black, etc. These
terms do align with the definition. Although the definition states that White refers to those of European
ancestral origins, the term is outdated,as “white” as well as “black” is usually interpreted as the color
of one’s skin. The color of one’s skin is not in the definition above.While the color of one’s skin could
be considered ancestral, it is still too broad. The term “South Asian” refers to a geographical region,
which could be where someone’s ancestors are from, it is still too broad of a category. Overall, these
terms do not match the definition of the “ethnicity” according to the UK census.The terms to describe
one’s “ethnicity” should not be based on skin color or sub-continent but need to be more specific to
include all individuals.
7. Given what you’ve learned in the course about biology and history of thought about human diversity, should we, as
a society, stop using racial and ethnic categories? Why or why not? What would be the benefits and challenges
associated with keeping or ceasing to use these categories? 5 pts.
 Racial and ethnic categories were originally developed in order to oppress those who were viewed as
“different.” These categories were based off of visible phenotypes with skin color being the most
prominent example. In the United States this oppression occurred through the enslavement of
individuals from Africa and continued to occurafter slavery ended. While I cannot speak from
experience, I have learned that those facing oppression found community with others being oppressed
and it became and still has become their identity. There is no biological basis for the existence of race
and ethnicity, so these terms should not be used to refer to biological phenomena between people.
However, the damage of the past has already occurred, and these terms are so very engrained in our
society.Taking away these terms could take away the identities that oppressed groups have found
strength in. There is not a definite way to go about this.