AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN BEAUTY MARKETING

African American Women, Beauty & Marketing jkraemer 1
Université de La Réunion - Saint Denis de la Réunion - France
Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines
University Year :
Année universitaire 2014-2015
Master Mention Lettres et Langues
Master's Degree in English Speaking Countries Research Program
Spécialité Recherche Monde Anglophone
AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN,
BEAUTY AND MARKETING
Dissertation Presented by
Présenté par Jean L. KRAEMER
Mémoire de Master 2
In partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Master's Degree
Directed by Professor
Sous la direction de Monsieur le Professeur
Alain GEOFFROY
August 2015 – Août 2015

QUOTES
On Black Women:
I love to see a young girl go out and grab the world by the lapels.
Life's a bitch. You've got to go out and kick ass. Maya Angelou
Pretty women wonder where my secret lies.
I'm not cute or built to suit a fashion model's size
But when I start to tell them,
They think I'm telling lies.
I say,
It's in the reach of my arms
The span of my hips,
The stride of my step,
The curl of my lips.
I'm a woman
Phenomenally.
Phenomenal woman,
That's me. Maya Angelou, Phenomenal Woman: Four Poems Celebrating Women
About Beauty:
Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. Plato
You can’t control everything. Your hair was put on your head to remind you of that!
About Marketing:
A human need is a state of deprivation of some basic satisfaction. People require food, clothing, shelter, safety,
belonging, and esteem. These needs are not created by society or by marketers. They exist in the very texture of
human biology and the human condition.
Wants are desires for specific satisfiers of needs. Although people’s needs are few, their wants are many. They
are continually shaped and reshaped by social forces and institutions, including churches, schools, families and
business corporations.
Demands are wants for specific products that are backed by an ability and willingness to buy them.
Marketers do not create needs. Marketers influence wants. Marketers influence demand by making the product
appropriate, attractive, affordable, and easily available to target consumers. Society influences wants.
The theory of marketing is solid but the practice of marketing leaves much to be desired.
Philip Kotler1
1
KOTLER Philip T & KELLER Kevin L. Marketing Management, 14th. Edition. 2011. NJ. USA: Pearson -

African American
women, beauty
standards and
marketing :
objectifying or
empowering ?
(certainly both)
Serena Williams, sports
and media star2
Dedication
This research work is dedicated to all African American women,
And more generally to all black women,
For their great value and spirit, for their dedication to their families and their cultures,
For their resilience and their pride, for them keeping a high profile against all odds.
A special dedication for the great black lady who shares my life.
Love and praise to them all.
Acknowledgements
Very special thanks to Professor Alain Geoffroy,
Who helped, supported me and provided a great inspiration from the very beginning.
Special thanks to the professors at the Université de la Réunion
And particularly to
Mrs. Claude Feral
Mrs. Sandra Saayman
Mrs. Renée Tosser
Mrs. Vilasnee Tampoe
Mrs. Eileen Williams-Wanquet
For their welcoming, their help and support
And to
Mrs. Sophie Geoffroy
For accepting to be part of the jury for the dissertation defense
and for her highly useful advice
2
New York Magazine. (http://nymag.com/thecut/2015/08/serena-williams-still-has-tennis-history-to-make.html)

Table of Contents
Object page 6
Presentation and Methodology 6
1. African American Women: Subjects, Objects, Targets and Hostages for Marketing
1.1. Representations, Images and Stereotypes 10
1.1.1. African American Women Representations in History and Stereotypes 10
1.1.2. African American Women in Arts 20
1.1.3. African American Women in Advertising and Media 41
1.2. Identity: Being an African American Woman 60
1.2.1. Being an African American Woman in the XXIst Century 60
1.2.2. African American Identity and Culture: Many Shades of Black 61
1.2.3. Colorism, Shadeism and Mixed races: Black or Blackish? 62
1.2.4. Self-Perception: Body image, Self Esteem: Positive Against All Odds 63
1.3. Social Issues 65
1.3.1. African American Women Wouple Relations 65
1.3.2. Strong Women: a Black Superwoman Syndrome? 68
1.3.3. Relations with Other Groups 69
1.3.4. Racism, Sexism, Feminism and Activism: From Defensive to Proactive 71
1.3.5. Racial Profiling, Crime, Justice and Just Shopping 73
1.3.6. Making a Living 75
1.3.7. Jobs and Workforce Dynamics 77
1.3.8. Living Conditions: Money Matters in the End 79
1.3.9. Education Matters (but is not always enough to succeed) 80
2. Beauty and Beyond
2.1. Beauty, a Social Construct 83
2.1.1. What is Beauty? 83
2.1.2. Universal Beauty? 86
2.1.3. Beauty and Social Place: You Are What You Look Like 89
2.1.4. Selfie Times 94
2.2. Models, Mainstream Compulsory References 95
2.2.1. Classic US Models: Vintage is Not Necessarily Outdated 95
2.2.2. Modern References: “You Shall Be” 98

2.2.3. Model References 102
2.2.4. Beauty Models and the Media 110
2.3. Models and Consequences 115
2.3.1. Beauty Pressure 115
2.3.2. Groomed Body: Beauty is Only Skin Deep 116
2.3.3. Disciplined Body: No Pain, No Gain 118
2.3.4. Altered Body. Want a Movie Body? Cut! 121
2.4. African American Beauty 124
2.4.1. The Doll Test 124
2.4.2. Multicultural but Divided Society 125
2.4.3. A Definition of Black Beauty, if Any 125
2.4.4. Black Beauty and Consequences 127
2.4.5. Black Success and Role Models 130
3. Marketing Beauty to African American Women
3.1. Old Techniques and New Tools 141
3.1.1. From Principles to Strategies 141
3.1.2. Marketing Beauty to Women 144
3.1.3. Knowing the Market 146
3.2. Targeting black customers 147
3.2.1. Black Beauty Marketing 148
3.2.2. Black Beauty Market: to be Considered 147
3.2.3. Segmenting African American Customers 148
3.3. African American Women and Marketing 153
Elements of Conclusion 157
Bibliography 161
Webography 164
Index 177
Non-plagiarism statement (French version) 180
Abstract 181

Object
This research work questions several main themes of the American society and way of
life; the importance of beauty in social integration and the impact of marketing in this pursuit,
but more generally the role and place of African American women in the USA today, from a
mainstream culture made with and partly by marketing and the media, to a multicultural way
of life involving minorities and ambivalent in terms of a high social pressure to conform to
beauty (among other) standards, but on the other hand stronger claims of self assumption and
demands of difference acceptance.
The objective of this research work is to show that marketing and advertising besides
the negative and abusive presentation of black women, and the stressing and compelling
beauty messages and standards they impose on them, can at the same time be factor of social
integration, a tool for self-expression, empowerment and in the end self-appreciation.
African American women suffer from an undervalued image, and endure more adverse
conditions; they have to face the double jeopardy of being women in a male dominated
society and black in a predominantly white one. They do not correspond to all western
mainstream beauty standards imposed by marketing and media in a world running on
appearances and stereotypes. This creates frustrations and needs, and black women are
compelled to spend a lot on beauty and hair care products to attain general acceptance as well
as a good self-esteem. On the other hand, we also can consider that marketing and media may
play a positive role, by offering the information and products needed to attain their objectives
of social integration and maintaining their identity.
Presentation and Methodology
African American women are a very wide (23.5 Million3
) and interesting social
group: they share a common culture (a term we will interpret in a management sense4
), a
common history of forceful submission and great resilience, the awareness and interest in
belonging to that category; they also face the same challenges and pressure, they are
confronted to the same stereotypes and compose a rather homogeneous group beyond their
differences.
3
(http://blackdemographics.com/black-women-statistics/)
4
Corporate culture means a shared history and myths, shared values, symbols and practices. In this study this
definition can be extended to African American people as a social group, acknowledging that they are not solely
“black” (i.e. of African descent) but can also share traits with and be part of other social groups.

Indeed, this precise identity of being a black female American seems prevalent for
them above all their other possible characteristics: a black female is not simply a woman and
not just black; she clearly defines herself as American rather than (we could sometimes say
no longer) African or Caribbean. Black Latinas are also bound to another distinctive and
pregnant culture in the United States, they have their own specific models and solidarities
which we have chosen to disregard in this research work and might constitute another
interesting field to investigate.
Language Used
In the semantic side, the choice has been made to not capitalize the noun and adjective
black even when applied to people. Truth is that they deserve capitalization as much as any
other ethnicity (we capitalize Latino), but in this case we also should do so for white, and
while we are at it capitalize women and men, and people (they all deserve the same dignity).
This choice can be contended but it implies no discrimination of any kind, whether negative
or “affirmative”.
The language used in the study is standard American English to correspond to the
subject, sometimes combined with “journalese” language and marketing terms when needed.
Sources
This research work has been conducted more in the sense of an observation and
analysis of practices and perceptions rather than a questioning of theories. This is why the
priority has deliberately been given to media sources and why books and university
publications only play an explanatory role. For this study, were consulted almost exclusively
American online sources, particularly digital media (general information, NPOs5
and public
sources, educational and particularly university publications, survey figures and analysis, but
also specialized and opinion online media, and particularly black audiences oriented, blogs
and videos -- mostly from You-Tube). It would be impossible to list them all, for they
amount to several hundred screen-pages, often concerning the same topics, and each time a
choice has been made to present the most accurate and trustworthy. All these sources have
been accessed between January 2013 and July 2015, and reviewed in the last quarter. They
should all still be online and accessible (except one, pointed out); all URL addresses are
mentioned in the footnotes and the webography.
5
Non Profit or Not-For-Profit organizations: not aimed at making profit

Media sources published online are the most accessible and up-to-date data, the most
comprehensive and certainly the most interesting information in terms of public opinion
collecting, reflecting and shaping. Media use and make abuse of stereotypes while
comforting them and participating to their emergence and crystallization: if a piece of news is
“fit to print”6
, it means that it corresponds to what audiences expect (or at least are supposed
to), are interested by or accept to receive.
This can also be said for marketing: they overuse stereotypes and clichés because it
renders their message easy to understand and accept, rooting their arguments on the
commonly accepted “truths” and cultural references of their social and commercial targets
and this gives them access to the widest audiences and potential markets. When media and
advertisers seem to push boundaries or be transgressive, it most often is because they need to
attract attention and take the generally calculated risk of what they expect to be an acceptable
shock, which can create buzzing and can be considered as an inexpensive communication
tool to gain visibility and brand awareness, while shaping the image they want to project
towards their audiences or potential customers. Marketers act thinking they do not have a
social responsibility towards people, apart from their actual product. To be more precise, they
consider their responsibility only in terms of possible negative reactions to their action and
the possible cost and consequences for their company.
Digital publication as a whole, is certainly the best source and window display of
public expression through social networking, its freedom and “peer-control” through the
supportive or despective reactions to facts, figures, images and statements. The Internet has
become the primary meeting place of the global village, the public place where values and
trends are created or destroyed, where cultures and subcultures are compelled to evolve in a
Darwinian logic: the survival of the fittest. African American women are keen users of this
tool to access to information and use networks as well as to react to facts and statements.
In a more economic way of seeing the information exchanges, the net is the
marketplace where offer and demand of data meet each other according to each actors’
interests, solely guided by an Adam Smith-type "invisible hand"7
supposing that if each actor
follows its own interests, this will somehow benefit if not everybody at least the system as a
whole.
6
“All the News That’s Fit to Print,” Adolph Ochs’ slogan for the New York Times, on Page 1 since Feb 10 1897
(http://www.nytco.com/who-we-are/culture/our-history/#1940-1911-timeline)
7
SMITH Adam, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 1776. Accessible at
(http://www.ibiblio.org/ml/libri/s/SmithA_WealthNations_p.pdf )

Some other principles need to be reminded as a background: money (and profit, also
called bottom-line in business) is what makes a world go round; companies are meant to
make profit, so they can share the financial value added they create between their
stakeholders (from shareholders to financers, from public authorities via taxes, to
employees), according to their respective influences.
Business and marketing have not been (and should certainly not be) seen as
intrinsically good or evil in this research work, but rather as the basic and principal activity to
create wealth and economic development for the former, and as the main tool to implement
business strategies for the latter. It is not our purpose here to support or challenge capitalist
system’s global choices, and we will not consider if marketing can have alternatives nor
judge its aims but simply try to analyze its ways and means and consequences particularly for
African American women. A better debate would certainly be on the distribution of the
created wealth and the ultimate positive or negative impact of the whole market system and
its externalities on people’s life, but that would deserve another and more extensive research.
As for the users --the so-called net-surfers--, apart from the generally inexpensive
access fees, there is a usually admitted geek saying: “If it’s free, you’re the product”. This
means that the users’ personal data are systematically collected and processed, to be sold as
consumers’ trends but also as individual behavior patterns in order to contact each individual
and make them commercial “offers they can’t refuse” since they are tailor-made in a “one-to-
one” logic.
The fact of the users being the real product because they get free services has been
challenged arguing that the fact of paying more, less or not at all for a service has no direct
connection with its quality and usefulness. Quality is defined by ISO standards as "the ability
to satisfy the user’s need"8
, in this sense we can consider that Internet is indeed a quality
media since the users can satisfy many social, informational and consumption needs.
The same questioning should apply to marketing: it is a quality tool and provides quality
products (goods and services) only if it satisfies the customer’s needs while reaching its
corporate aims.
8
ISO stands for International Standards Organization. They formalize, communicate and control all technical
standards and rules concerning all business fields. This definition can be found at the OECD (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development) site (http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=5150)

1. African American Women: Subjects, Objects, Targets and Hostages for Marketing
1.1. Representations, Images and Stereotypes
1.1.1. African American Women Representations in History and Stereotypes
1.1.1.1. African Americans and Blackness
Black or African American? Not Just Terminology
The United States Census Bureau flatly describes as: “Black or African American – A
person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa” meaning that these terms
are equal.
In the USA, “Black” (The US Census Bureau capitalizes all races) means being of
Sub-Saharan African descent. This is not solely, not even mainly a matter of skin color, since
some Indian and some Pacific Islands people can have a darker skin than most African
Americans, but will be listed as “Asians” or “Other Pacific Islanders”. For practical reasons,
we will focus on the African American black people, regardless of their skin shade, even
though we will see in the next parts that being fairer or darker skinned can make a difference.
Caribbean and Latin American people of African descent living in the USA do not
always consider themselves as African Americans, but will recognize a black identity. In this
study, we will not make a difference for them but consider their common characteristics,
more than their differences, regarding beauty and marketing.
The US Census Bureau considers the fact of belonging to a race as a self-
identification issue.
They mention that the racial categories they define “generally reflect a social
definition of race recognized in this country and not an attempt to define race biologically,
anthropologically, or genetically.” This statement clearly states that race issues are not a
scientific matter, but clearly a social concern, in other terms a matter of social appreciation.
Since 1997 “People may choose to report more than one race to indicate their racial mixture9
”
but this more open, less “black and white” (if we dare say) way of considering origins can be
challenged by what is called the “single drop rule”, meaning that a person having even a
9
The White House site. (http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg_1997standards)

small and remote part of African ascendance will be considered as black, even if the figure is
certainly more complex in the genetic, family-wise and heartfelt self perception.
In a more pragmatic way, blackness seems to be assumed before being claimed. Being
black also depends on how the others perceive the person and so can also be reckoned as
being a matter of belonging or not.
We could mention that the studies conducted to know if those concerned preferred
being called Blacks or African Americans yielded quite simple results: a vast majority (about
the two thirds) consider that it does not matter. Without that choice, left only with the
alternative of black or African American, the latest polls show even figures at about 42 to
44% for each choice (the difference is not statistically discriminating), the remaining would
argue whether that they do not feel African but plainly American, or in the contrary that they
are black but not (yet) really American. The terms chosen are not only a matter of political
correctness or geographical origin accurateness but also a means to create a contact and
convince an audience for politicians, media and marketers as a whole (we will develop this
point in the marketing part).
Some other terms can be coined for the American blacks, as “ebony”, in reference to
the very dark, heavy and strong tropical wood. This word was the name chosen by Ebony10
,
the first and leading magazine aimed at black people since 1945.
We can cite the notion of “colored people”, considered “sometimes offensive”11
in
terms of political correctness but assumed by the National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP). In fact we can suppose that some terms are likely to lose much
of their “offensiveness” when used among them by the concerned people; this seems to be the
case for the word “negro” (presently considered by many as a “bomb”, but of normal use
until the 1960s and dropped only in 2013 by the American Census Bureau12
), along with all
the variations of the so-called “N word”, for nigger or nigga written or pronounced in
standard or African American Vernacular English (AAVE or Ebonics).
10
Ebony magazine, (http://www.ebony.com/)
11
Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary, used as the reference dictionary for this research work,
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colored)
12
Huffington Post. (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/25/us-census-surveys-will-no-longer-use-
negro_n_2759306.html)

In American history, particularly in antebellum times, most African people came
unwillingly, brought by the slave trade and later on as indentured servants, which also was a
submissive and dependent situation (sometimes worse than slavery itself since they were not
“property” and their loss would not affect the master’s wealth). More recently the immigrants
came moved by economic, political reasons or just the hope and faith in the American dream:
a land of freedom, of opportunity, a cultural and racial melting pot. Very often, realities were
not that simple and easy for many newcomers and particularly black people.
A presentation of “blackness” would not be complete without mentioning that the
color black and the most frequently associated notions (dark, shade, night, but also evil and
death) have always been linked with evil, ignorance, bestiality and ugliness just to name a
few. We can wonder if that is a reminder of the ancestral fear coming from the times when
human beings were likely prays for stronger predators lurking in the shadow or the night, or
more generally a fear of the unknown or the other as being different from the European or
Mediterranean people, and becoming “natural foes” in the conquest for living spaces and
wealth. To be complete, this color can also be associated with power, elegance and
refinement, but only the first of these more positive notions is coined to black people, and
often to show their supposed potential dangerousness.
What we also could find interesting to mention is that, according to the latest
paleontological research findings, the origins of man (as homo sapiens) as opposed to the
Neanderthals, Denisovans or other human species he conquered and eventually destroyed
(while keeping some genes from them) come from Africa.
This means that we, all human species, most certainly share common African black
ancestors regardless of our present skin color13
. Of course, these evidences will never be able
to compete with extreme religious or racial prejudices for those who are comfortable with a
more convenient, history backed (even though criminal and absurd) racial stratification. Let
us face it, most people rely on stereotypes and sometimes prejudices when it comes to deal
with little known “others”
13
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/one-species-
living-worldwide)

1.1.1.2. Stereotypes, so Useful, yet so Damageable
Are Stereotypes Good for You?
According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, stereotypes are “a standardized mental
picture that is held in common by members of a group and that represents an oversimplified
opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment”14
, they precise that stereotyping is “to
believe unfairly that all people or things with a particular characteristic are the same”.
This could need us to think that all stereotypes are inaccurate and negative, except that
this would be another stereotype, meaning excessive generalization. In fact, most stereotypes
are based on observation, sometimes on extensive research, and help people understand the
“other” and their environment.
We could agree that “the existence of a stereotype not only doesn't tell us anything
useful about any individual, it doesn't even tell us anything useful about group
differences. All they tell us is that there is a common shared perception about a group
difference. The perception may be either accurate or false." 15
The problem is with the
excessive generalization: a widely accepted (even partial or not totally accurate) truth can be
useful but only if we admit all the possible individual diverging from the stereotype, and if
we are willing to change our opinion when reality proves that the stereotype is wrong.
The trouble with stereotyping is that it is often self-fulfilling in the sense that most
people will be more willing to look at the elements confirming their (prejudiced) opinion,
rather than trying to understand a more complex situation or behavior even though that would
be more accurate and fair. We could call that a lack of time, motivation or just interest, since
most stereotypes are favorable for the viewer’s group and negative towards the others, thus
helping to build common values, reinforcing the social group’s culture and the self esteem of
its members.
Being generally negative against other social groups, stereotypes can often lead to
prejudice, which is literally a "preconceived judgment or opinion", leading to "an adverse
opinion or leaning formed without just grounds or before sufficient knowledge", and as a
consequence the "injury or damage resulting from some judgment or action of another in
disregard of one's rights; especially: detriment to one's legal rights or claims” because of “an
irrational attitude of hostility directed against an individual, a group, a race, or their supposed
14
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stereotypes)
15
Psychology Today, LYUBANSKY Mikhail Lyubansky. Between the Lines: Perspectives on race, culture, and
community. (http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/between-the-lines/201112/are-stereotypes-unfairly-
stereotyped)

characteristics" 16
this phenomenon is particularly useful in conflict times, such as
colonialism, slavery or war, each party needing ideals to defend and stand for, as much as
total evils to fight. It is much easier to structure a social group in adversity in a “black/white”
logic rather than acknowledging fifty shades of grey in each camp.
Apart from armed conflicts (even though it could be argued that the fascination guns
exert on Americans could reveal some kind of permanent armed conflict feeling fueled by
fear and the interests of the arms lobbies), the social game of power and influence leads to
prejudice (attitude) and discrimination (behavior) against those identified as disadvantaged
and logically eager to attain the same level of well being as the dominant groups, or at least
the immediately superior position.
Defining discrimination can also be interesting, as “the practice of unfairly17
treating
a person or group of people differently from other people or groups of people"; Merriam-
Webster also states that it is "the ability to recognize the difference between things that are of
good quality and those that are not" and "the ability to understand that one thing is different
from another thing"18
. Applied to people, this could mean that discriminating is not
« simply » the fact of recognizing differences between people or social groups, but also
identifying their supposedly better or lesser quality. Indeed, stereotyping is very useful for a
social group to characterize and stigmatize the behaviors and quite logically the people they
want to keep dominated or under control, sometimes even to get rid of. Inserting this way of
thinking in a self justification logic based on stereotypes can lead to all the abuse and
discrimination suffered by (non leading) minorities in general and more particularly by
African American people in the United States.
Some stereotypes may seem positive, such as hard-working Asians or athletic African
Americans, but it is easy to perceive the danger of this generalization and the subsequent
expectations for a non stereotype-conforming individual; or as a means to compel or limit a
social group to some activities, jobs and social roles. In this sense, stereotypes and prejudices
are often self fulfilling: conforming can be the only way to get a social role, unless you can
master the game, which is out of reach for most people.
The most usual negative prejudices, which lead to discrimination, are against women,
race, age, religion, disability or sexual inclination. African American women have to face the
16
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prejudice)
17
My bold letters
18
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discrimination)

double jeopardy19
of being in an adverse situation by being black and female, sometimes also
suffering for one or several other real or supposed characteristics.
African American Women Stereotypes Originated in History.
“In the United States history, after a long period of defiance, white women were
considered as a highly valuable property for their fathers and husbands and depicted as the
"nobler half of humanity", represented as virtuous, pure and innocent”.20
This implied a very
submissive and dependent social role. They were at least supposed to be cherished and
protected, even though the reality was often harsher: being a property conferred the right to
men to decide, abuse and dispose of them.
“African American women have been objectified, not just as "other," but as objects to
be tamed and possessed. As women, they were expected to be servile and obedient. As
African American women, they were expected to be servile, lusty and obedient. As powerless
African American women, they were to be servile, lusty, obedient and available.”21
African American women were in a much worse situation than white ones; confined in
slavery they were considered as immoral and sinful22
. Without going to much detail, we can
wonder what loyalty and devotion a slave owner was entitled to expect or demand from a
person reduced to an object-like situation, being separated from their families, husbands and
sons and disposed of in whatever way the owner decided. Giving a good face and trying to
find ways to enhance their living conditions through signifying and discreet deception was
certainly just a survival tool, and clearly not an evidence of evil.
In this context, the temptress aspect can also be interpreted as a means to attain better
conditions or simply to avoid violence; we could consider this more as a Stockholm
syndrome than as a vicious wrongdoing. If we go further with the reasoning, it seems very
likely that the temptress role and attitude they were accused of were in fact an excuse used by
the masters for their guilty sexual impulses. More generally the characterization of the
19
BEAL Frances. "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female". 1969. Essay on Black Women’s Liberation.
Black woman's manifesto, pamphlet distributed by The Third World Women's Alliance, New York.
20
YARBROUGH Marilyn, BENNETT Crystal. "Cassandra and the "Sistahs": the Peculiar Treatment of African
American Women in the Myth of Women as Liars", Journal of Gender, Race and Justice 626-657, 634-655
(Spring 2000).
21
YARBROUGH Marilyn, BENNETT Crystal. Ibid
22

African American women as "ignorant, crafty, treacherous, thievish, and mistrustful" was
used to support slavery.23
In any case the result was and still is that black women cannot rely on law and justice
to protect them against any kind of violence, whether it may come from white people or black
males. Being considered as untrustworthy and prone to lie, the discrimination they have to
face is not only social and professional but also in the courtrooms.
Sapphire, a character from Amos 'n' Andy, radio and
TV show (1928-1956)
Sassy Mammy, a variation of the Mammy stereotype.
Sanka coffee ad (Circa 1960)
Mammy, Jezebel and Sapphire, the Traditional Stereotypes
Mammy, a shortcut between mother and nanny, is the oldest most classic widespread
and, dare we say, appreciated woman stereotype (that is by those who do not have to suffer
from it). The African American version embodied by the “Aunt Jemima” advertising
character is the archetypical maternal image, strong, protective and reliable in her nurturing
role for her masters or employers more than for her own children and family. Plump and
considered unattractive, she represents the most conformist role in the traditional society, past
and present. This stereotype was born from slavery and popularized by a minstrel show song
23

in 1875, registered as a trademark in 1883 as a brand of pancake mix and exploited by
Quaker Oats (shall we mention this also uses a stereotype) since 1937. The brand, the
folkloric fantasized postcolonial Southern way of life, the Mammy stereotype and its
promotion through commercial exploitation still go on, only with a relatively updated mother
figure. Mammy, and her present heiresses are supposed to be good mothers, good
housekeepers and trusty child tenders. Middle aged, “de-sexualized”, “she did not care about
her appearance”24
and did not threaten white social rules, nor are the present representatives
supposed to; in the contrary they are expected to be the keepers of social and more
particularly family traditional values, to be happy about it and rewarded by this achievement.
This stereotype discriminates African American women against pursuing a real career other
than basic service, long after the civil rights act of 1965.
The Sassy Mammy is a variation, entitled to lecture and nag the people around her,
white or black. She served as an alibi for the slave and post-slave racial relationship to show
that blacks could express themselves and even disagree with their masters as long as that did
not undermine the social rules set by the dominant class. As such, she represents an
intermediate figure between Mammy and the Sapphire.
From Sapphire to the Angry Black Woman (ABW)
Sapphire also originated in popular culture, as a character from the Amos 'n' Andy
radio and television shows aired from 1928 through 1966 « at best a situation comedy », at
worst an all blacks minstrel show25
, “The Sapphire Caricature portrays black women as rude,
loud, malicious, stubborn, and overbearing". Most aggressive against African American men
for their underachievement or sexual appetites for white women, she also can be quite violent
against all who disrespect her. Although this could be considered an understandable attitude
to try and improve her condition and have her rights respected, she is in fact considered as
naturally bitter, emasculating and abusive. More than a harsh view of the African American
women, this stereotype can be seen as "a social control mechanism that is employed to punish
black women who violate the societal norms that encourage them to be passive, servile, non-
threatening, and unseen."26
In fact it is noticeable that all the African American women
24
Ferris State University, Jim Crow Museum (http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/news/jimcrow/mammies/)
25
Ferris State University, Jim Crow Museum (http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/news/jimcrow/sapphire/)
26
Ferris State University, Jim Crow Museum (http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/news/jimcrow/sapphire/)

showing some personality and willing to succeed trough competition or fight for a cause will
be characterized as ABW at some time.
This stereotype can be quite destructive since it hinders their ability to pursue and
reach legitimate objectives for fear of blame and of appearing not as winners (what people
would have called a majority representative) but as violent and antisocial, which constitutes a
pressure against their success in most social, political and professional fields. All this can
explain that this is one of the most appreciated stereotypes about African American Women
by their foes since it is a very practical tool for contempt about the style and avoid treating
the causes of her attitude and actions.
Jezebel, the All Time Temptress
Unlike the other stereotypes, popularly originated and which might be more specific
to the American history and social organization, Jezebel is a biblical figure, representing the
Phoenician (foreigner and not a Jewish cult follower) wife of Ahab, king of Israel,
embodying all evil through sexual temptation, religious and social deviances. She is credited
with being the all time incarnation of the “lusty moor” described by the British colonists.
"Historically, white women, as a category, were portrayed as models of self-respect, self-
control, and modesty - even sexual purity, but black women were often portrayed as innately
promiscuous, even predatory."27
This depiction, apart from providing a useful excuse for all the abuse African
American women had to endure through history, now finds news ways of expression in the
vernacular culture, considering most if not all of them as sexually available and even willing
for promiscuous relations. This stereotype constitutes a legitimation for the ill-mannered
behaviors and discriminations they have to face as a side effect of being in an underprivileged
social situation, reinforced by popular hip-hop culture and music, which is falling “from
Jezebel to Ho”28
.
The worst side effect could be that being stereotyped as less respectable, violent and
liars, they become “natural” targets and victims, thus face the second pain of being less
valued, considered and believed by the law and its representatives. This can even justify in
the eyes of some people the fact of being fearful towards them, which can lead to
27
Ferris State University Mi. Jim Crow Museum (http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/jezebel.htm)
28
MOODY Mia. "From Jezebel to Ho: An Analysis of Creative and Imaginative Shared Representations of
African-American Women", Baylor University, Journal of Research on Women and Gender, Volume 4 – March
- 2012

aggressiveness and even “preventive” murder (killing for fear of being assaulted)29
. When
positive (established) law is not adverse to them, they can fall victims of a twisted
interpretation of natural law, supposedly protective of all people regardless of their origins,
but used as arguments against African American women, who have to face more violence and
less protection, so in the end more danger and less rights.30
Other stereotypes can be studied, such as the Tragic Mulatto, and newer
interpretations, more adapted to the present living conditions have been developed by the
media and marketers to help understand and reach black audiences and customers.
Concerning more precisely mixed race people’s black identity or responding to a marketer’s
point of view, they shall be seen in the next parts.
In terms of employment, stereotypes are particularly adverse for black women: it
seems difficult in any professional field to admit as an equal colleague, a trustworthy problem
solving professional and even more as a manager, a person identified as only a superficial,
potentially violent object of lust, or else a poorly educated child and home keeper.
This would require a better knowledge of the individual person and being able and willing to
overpass the negative stereotypes, and consequent prejudices which are not always conscious.
If we consider the working place as a game of rivalry with many actors living their
social relations and as a zero sum game, where a winner necessarily makes a loser, we will
have to realize that those negative images are a daunting obstacle for African American
women’s professional development, even more than for the other women. This is one of the
main dangers and drawbacks brought by popular images.
29
Time Magazine online: Noliwe M. Rooks (http://ideas.time.com/2013/11/14/renisha-mcbride-and-black-
female-stereotype/)
30

1.1.2. African American women in arts
From a marketing point of view, people in art play a double role, on one hand they are
the artistic, ideological and commercial target, being the audience and the customers, those
who will appreciate or not, and make a success of a creation and consequently make the
creator and the art business success. On the other hand the representation of the human figure
and more particularly the female beauty has always been one of the main artistic subjects.
The distance is not very wide in this case between being a subject and an object. The art piece
is the object, along with the representation of real or fictitious people.
In other terms, woman’s beauty, not to say the representation of her body is one of the
main objects of art, where reality and virtuality combine to create an esthetic image or effect.
In this case, voluntarily or not, the artists transmit their representation of women, according
to their personal values and culture and those of their audience. This makes a three party deal
between the artist, the artistic subject or object and the viewer, each one can have her or his
expectations and needs to satisfy.
In a first level, following the Shannon and Weaver communication model31
we can
consider that the artist, as sender is trying to create and transmit a personal but culturally
charged message, since he expresses a social view of the object he is representing and the
artwork can influence the public’s perception. The second actor in human representation is
the model or the performer as an object, in the sense that the creation passes through the
performer, who embodies the creation becoming the creator’s medium, being the middleman
between the artist and the public and accepting some extent of personal alienation to do so. In
this first level analysis we can consider the public (viewer, reader, and more generally
audience) as the receiver in search of an esthetic emotion and providing an appreciation
feedback.
In a more marketing oriented approach, the artist is bound to correspond to her or his
public’s needs if she or he does not want to be rejected: the better the correspondence with
the public’s expectations and emotions, the wider the audience and the greater the material
success and the influence.
As for the performers, they will try to bring their own personal talent and translation
to the piece of art they are transmitting, to try to ensure their fame and success. At the end of
the chain, apart from accepting to arbitrate in their spending choices in favor of an art
31
(http://communicationtheory.org/shannon-and-weaver-model-of-communication/)

production or performance, the public receives this cultural consumption as a social marker,
the common appreciation of a precise form of art constituting a binding for social groups.
Art, and more precisely fine arts can also be considered as an investment, the detention of art
pieces means affluence, which is clearly another aspect of the marketing side of art. Art
pieces, like any other product are evaluated, their value relies on the basic law of supply and
demand, and the influence of the market leading actors: merchants, experts, public collectors
such as museums or private collectors such as foundations or affluent amateurs. Their value,
just like for any other commodity is bound to evolve on the stock market, a fad or a trend can
fade away or make a style, an artist skyrocket; not to mention the influence of external factors
such as conflicts or economic situation: art can be a safe haven investment and logically also
a subject of speculation, usually to boost some strategically chosen values.
African American artists generally have a particular point of view about art creation,
most of them (at least for those who attain a certain recognition) consider themselves as
representatives and ambassadors of black people, often testifying or denouncing the
perception and the discrimination they have to face, other African American artists simply
depict or showcase social realities the way they perceive them without judgment or avoiding
stereotypes. Indeed almost all the black artists production deals with stereotypes, sometimes
to condemn, sometimes to take advantage of them since a global acceptance is one of the
ways to success.
We will try to illustrate these assertions by presenting some art production we could
consider as representative in different fields.

Renee Cox: Rajé Series
This photography could resemble an advertisement, but it is a personal view of black people
in the American society by Renee Cox32
, presenting herself as a Jezebel and Rajé, a Sapphire-
like Superhero, accompanied by a muscular black man (another cliché); setting the popular
characters and products of Aunt Jemima pancake mix and Uncle Ben’s rice free from their
boxes as a (cultural) background. This is made to embody and denounce the most common
and negative representations of black people in popular culture and more particularly in
advertising.
Black women have been represented and celebrated in arts in their original socio-
ethnic groups in many ways, from painting to carving and sculpting through theater and
music. If we focus more precisely on historical North American representations, we will
notice that they most often follow the perception the colonial and slavery society had about
them. These representations corresponded to the stereotypes they had to endure: ugly,
32
Renee Cox, Rajé Series, “Liberation of Aunt Jemima and Uncle Ben”, 2001.
(http://reneecoxstudio.tumblr.com/post/25447859481/renee-cox-raje-series-liberation-of-aunt-jemima)

beastlike and unattractive; or on the other side of the coin over sexualized, lustful with
oversized bust and bottom forms, and above all objectified. Many of these representations
can be seen at the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memoriabilia (Ferris State University Mi,
cited).
It would be very difficult to present an inclusive panorama of the art representation of
black women in the USA, so we will concentrate on art photography through some recent
exhibitions, and more particularly “Posing Beauty”. This picture and video exhibition from
the New York University has toured many museums and universities in the USA to show that
until the seventies the image of black beauty has been widely ignored by official and popular
culture, and the way these representations shape the way black and non-black people perceive
African American identity through its images. Deborah Willis, the curator “considers the
interplay between the historical and the contemporary, between self-representation and
imposed representation"33
, torn between the need to conform to white standards and the
subsequent self despise and the re-conquest of a long denied pride and self-assumption. She
states that the "contemporary understanding of beauty has been constructed and framed
through the body"34
(black people had to endure a long and difficult fight to access to
education and not staying maintained in some black people’s universities). Deborah Willis
also "invites us to reflect upon the ambiguities of beauty, its impact on mass culture and
individuals".35
(Some of these works can be consulted online on the site of New York
University.36
)
Indeed, their difference and specificity in a country where they had been born and
living for many generations lied mostly on physical aspects. Discriminated from classical
culture, they needed to repossess their image and pride and rebuild a more positive image
through their pictorial representations, assuming or rejecting their natural or imposed
specificities, sometimes by excessive fashion styles as ways of expressing themselves, by
pointing out the appeal or the difficulties coming with their -stereotyped- complexion, such
as strong bottoms or nappy hair. In this regard, we should consider Renee Cox’s depictions of
the racism and discrimination of society, often through self-portraits nude and clothed, and
classic and religious European masterpieces revisiting. Her photography literally embodies
33
Deborah Willis, curator of Posing Beauty exhibition (http://www.curatorial.com/exhibitions_current/exhib-
PosingBeauty.html)
34
Deborah Willis, Posing Beauty
35
Deborah Willis, Posing Beauty
36
New York University. (http://www.tisch.nyu.edu/object/PosingBeautySelectedWorks.html)

the social perceptions about beauty and social roles she intends to denounce by reversing the
perspectives (the black “Missy at home” with a white servant and a nude self portrait on the
back wall) or show their absurdity (“Black Venus Hott-En-Tott”, a very personal
interpretation of Sarah Baartman to point out the negative traditional image and expectations
about exposing black women’s figure).
Renee Cox: Missy at Home
and Hottentot venus
Renee Cox certainly is one of the best representatives of African American fine arts
performer presenting a non-retouched body, but with a highly symbolical and powerful
staging, to point out that if white is supposed to be spirit and ethereal purity, blackness can
mean power, sensation and desire through physical presence.
We can wonder though if by showing her often nude body, even in a non-lustful but
aesthetic way, she still does not comply with a stereotype of objectification of the female
body in general and the black woman’s particularly. Her choice can in the same time attract
attention and distract from the message she wants to construct, which is epitomic of the way
many African American women expose themselves when they do (more particularly in
popular culture) just as if this assertiveness in an exposure, which could sometimes be
considered excessive was a challenge to the mainstream political correctness. Indeed, this can
backfire by reinforcing stereotypes if considered superficially.
It could be interesting to note that Renee Cox, like many other renowned American
artists is not an American native (she is of Jamaican origin as we can see from many aspects
of her creations). This can constitute an asset for cultural evolution since these perfectly
integrated newcomers bring new expectations and consider a racial equality as normal, with

bold but not necessarily aggressive claims: a black African obviously considers her or
himself as a normal (mainstream) person and not a minority representative, in this sense, their
social place and claims are simply “natural” (as far as this term can apply to a culture).
We certainly can agree that the traditional vision of beauty has been constructed by
the dominant group’s social and historical standards, e.g.: white is better and more beautiful
than black; whites’ hair is good, black hair is bad…
Lauren Kelley: Pickin and Bubble-gum wig
In these Lauren Kelley37
creations, black hair is clearly depicted as troublesome,
constituting violence for black women as well as a silent protest against social rules. These
images show the fact that black women experience pressure and suffering from the imposed
inferior image of nappy hair, but that in the same time as they assume their hair as a marker
of identity, turning the violence experienced in the inside into an outward resentment which
could easily have them labeled as “angry black women” if expressed.
In the second photography, we can consider the “bubble-gum wig” as a means to hide
natural hair, thus conforming to the white society of consumption, and its denunciation by the
artist. In both cases, we cannot but feel the shame and burden linked with this social pressure
on natural black (African) hair (this is a topic on its own we will study in the social part).
Most of the time the representation of the black woman in fine arts is a testimony, a
denunciation or a voluntarily distorted view of their social image and roles: motherly,
37
Lauren Kelley – Pickin’ 1999 and Bubble Gum Wig 1999. (http://laurenkelleyworld.com)

submissive or seductive, physical subjects or objects, but almost never presented in thinking,
conceptualization or creation other than giving life and nurturing.
It seems that most of their depicted actions should be submissive and compliant. In
some cases the black woman can be presented as a living goddess enjoying her situation, but
even in that case she is showcased as the symbol of a coveted ideal and not often as a role
model nor as a rational and intelligent human being.
There can be images showing a more modern active and toned-up image of the
Mammy or the matriarch which present them as intelligent and evolved, but still not as
professionals, policy makers or thinkers, maybe reflecting the fact that society does not seem
ready to admit them in these roles. On the other side of the coin, most of the time the artistic
protesting of their inferior situation seems limited to a mild and oneiric denouncing.
They also can be shown as having strong reactions to inacceptable situations; but this
embodiment of the “angry black woman” is mainly present (though marginal) in popular
photography.
Sculpture: a Particular and Revealing Point of View
Kara Walker: Sugar Mammy Sphynx
and Sugar Babies

Kara Walker’s installation is called “A Subtlety or the Marvelous Sugar Baby
an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from
the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the
Domino Sugar Refining Plant.” 38
(Pictures from the Huffington Post39
).
This is certainly one of the most noticeable recent works of art about the slavery
heritage in the USA. Set inside the Domino Sugar factory in the Williamsburg section of
Brooklyn, her sculptures present a huge nude “Sugar Mammy sphinx” covered in white sugar
with exaggerated black female features to show the exploitation and objectification of black
slave women in the production of sugar; and a group of “Sugar babies” covered in molasses
and presenting raw unrefined sugar. The former is disturbing in showing the exposure and
victimization of the black women, this being reinforced by the lewd commentaries and
supposedly “funny” pictures taken by some (too many) lowbrow viewers of both races. The
latter cannot but evoke, with the melting of the molasses, the horror of the remains of lynched
black laborers. Many (younger) visitors indeed do not notice these dramatic aspects either
and are tempted to serve themselves in the baskets or lick the smaller sculptures.
Sugar, just as much of the early industrial development of the country has been made
out of blood. Such a reminder can only be perceived and appreciated by those already
informed and feeling concerned about the darkness of history, and highlights the difficulties
to render people conscious of the weight of their history. Anyway it is worth trying and
denouncing the damaging stereotypes and subsequent prejudices, and not letting those be
considered as normal with the discrimination that implies. Let us not forget to mention the
fact that refined here again means crystallized and turned white, in other words:
whitewashed.
Most understandably many black artists (and many black viewers) have very strong
feelings concerning their heritage and the reactions people (white or non-white) can have
about it and about their art; they are bearing testimony, not just expressing their feelings or
their talent. They are much needed opinion leaders. Even when their word can sometimes be
shocking or excessive they play the role of memory passers and conscience awakeners.
Yet, to attain success art must be appreciated if not necessarily understood; the shock must be
positively felt, the emotion has to be pleasurable. In that sense, the best artists follow
38
Washington Post. (http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/05/27/going-to-see-kara-
walkers-subtlety-read-these-first/)
39
Huffington Post. (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jaime-rojo-steven-harrington/kara-walker-
sphinx_b_5277269.html)

(willingly or not) a common path with marketing: even though they generally do not start by
studying their audience, they want to impact it and have to respond to some kind of need.
Black Women in Popular Art and Culture
It is not easy to find a precise and official definition of the notion of popular (Pop)
culture, inexistent in the main dictionaries, Pop-Art being an excessively restrictive view of
this phenomenon. Ashley Crossman Ph.D. offers this one: "Popular culture is the
accumulated store of cultural products such as music, art, literature, fashion, dance, film,
television, and radio that are consumed primarily by non-elite groups”40
, whereas the Urban
Dictionary41
flatly states that "Pop Culture simply denotes a widely accepted group of
practices or customs."
This entices us to propose an interpretation: Popular culture could be defined as the
common shared beliefs, perceptions, attitudes and practices, more particularly applied to
commercial arts and media and the consumption of the related recreational and leisure
products. In other terms, popular culture is based on commonly accepted stereotypes and
activities and defines what is fashionable or not, acceptable or not, what are the “dos and
don’ts” of social playing. It results from the aggregation of observed opinions and practices
and the acceptability of marginal behavior.
Quite naturally, marketing is based on popular culture: marketers have to find and use
the social trends to offer products corresponding to the expectations or longings of their
target markets, going to the fringes to draw attention but not as far as being considered
offensive, as we will see in the third part of this study.
Some important remarks should be done at this point: popular culture is not reserved
to middle or lower classes, the “elites” are part of it and are customers and consumers of
many commercial products in their daily needs and social interaction.
The trend setting (commercial) and most popular artists are the first to use and benefit
from popular culture as well as contributing to its evolution in a good or sometimes more
questionable direction. The most advanced and intellectual artists owe their success to their
talent to invoke, question and revolutionize pop culture as the mandatory reference; or else
they will find themselves limited to a restricted circle of “connoisseurs”, which can be
considered as another form of cultural ghetto.
40
CROSSMAN Ashley Ph.D. (http://sociology.about.com)
41
Urban Dictionary: a collaborative dictionary of urban slang and popular expression
(http://www.urbandictionary.com)

Popular culture should not be limited to the usual cultural products listed above, but
the focus needs to be expanded to (show business) sports such as football, or baseball,
language and social evolutions (evolution of race relations, “retrocolonization”42
by foreign
cultural elements or minorities social markers, acceptance of LGBT --Lesbian, Gay,
Bisexual, Transsexual). In a world where money makes everything go round, material
success is the foil of recognition and popular esteem.
In popular photographic depictions women and particularly black women are shown
as objects of desire for (mostly black) men and linked with homely, partying or shopping
activities.
On the border between art and marketing we
may find some pieces of work testifying of the
general and commercial point of view about black
women. In a 2004 advertising campaign for Louis
Vuitton, the photographer David Lachapelle 43
presented some pictures of the rapper Lil’Kim
naked and totally covered by brand labels (Louis
Vuitton), instructed to pose “like a fifties pinup”.
This photography could be considered as
representative, showing the black woman as a
fashion victim, brand addicted and above all a self-
assumed object of desire and a powerful attention
teaser for marketing; in the words of Lachapelle:
“I wanted to photograph her as a high-priced luxury item”44
which indeed is one of the most
popular representations of the black woman.
About this photography Nili Goren, Curator of The Tel Aviv Museum of Art stated
that:
“When he photographed rapper Lil Kim for the Louis Vuitton campaign (…) he created a sales-
promoting attraction while, at the same time (being) part of the array responsible for commodification
of the female body. The "brand-name rush," the pursuit of fashionable designer items, the obsessive
manicuring of the body in an attempt to resemble the figures on the catwalk or in the Oscars
42
We can call “retrocolonization” the fact of adopting cultural elements (food, customs, fashion) from culturally
or economically dominated foreign countries (such as Tex-Mex food, piñatas or soccer football).
43
(http://www.lachapellestudio.com/portraits/lil-kim/)
44
Rolling Stones Magazine, Sep. 30, 2004

ceremony—all these rituals, as means to acquire a social status, make for the body's transformation into
a label, and the conversion of the human figure into advertising space.”45
This is a particular, but emblematic image of the black female: in popular culture (and
particularly in hip-hop music) she is presented as a status seeker playing an ambivalent role
of willing victim of her need of social and seductive attraction, and at the same time as the
“legitimate” reward and trophy of the social play winners.
This virtual life clearly is a projection of the traditional game exploited by show
business in general (and noticeably Hollywood) that we could sum up by “the winner gets the
girl”: nothing very new or specific to African American women, but we must notice the add-
on brought by the historical stereotypes of seeming more physical, lustful and available than
their white counterparts.
The only game the black woman seems to master in pop culture is the seduction game
to attain a certain superficial luxury, but at the price of appearing as a consumption product
and symbol herself, with the consequent risk of being despised and dominated in the end,
which is not very far from the usual Jezebel stereotype.
Some top performers such as Beyoncé have indeed attained a strong and durable
success and can write themselves against this negative perception (we will examine them as
possible new role models later on). Apart from these exceptional personalities, the popular
representations most often give a very partial and superficial image of the African American
women, so do not help them find their real place in the American society in social and
professional aspects, which are closely linked.
Image coming to terms
If we refer to the terminology commonly used concerning women in pop, and
particularly hip-hop music, where female performers (particularly non singing dancers) are
often barely or outrageously dressed, the admiration sometimes expressed by coining the
term “goddess” is most often followed by the qualifying adjective “sex” and black women
are much more commonly called “big booty hoes” (for a birthday present!46
), sluts or bitches.
45
Goren Nili, Curator, The Tel Aviv Museum of Art. “Post Modern Pop Photography”. Jul. 23 – Nov. 20 2010
46
2 Chainz - Birthday Song (Explicit) ft. Kanye West, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y34jC4I1m70 (This
video seems to be most representative of the pop-culture depiction of the female image and relationship
promoted in hip-hop music)

These usually insulting terms are somehow accepted, even claimed by popular female
performers or celebrities, not to mention quite many female fans. Even the milder terms of
cat, chick or vixen have very strong connotations. We can put aside the word chick, just good
enough to get plucked, cooked and eaten (with all the senses these terms may imply). Being
bitchy or catty can be considered as revenge or resistance attitudes; but the most interesting
term certainly is vixen: in the same time “a shrewish ill-tempered woman, a female fox and a
sexually attractive woman” 47
. This complies with the objectification, the animalization (both
in the fox and the shrew) and the Sapphire stereotypes, but it does have a good side for it
recognizes shrewdness and intelligence, even though it does not consider leading abilities or
great human value.
We also can consider that the “twerking” fashion claimed as an identity marker by
some African American women, and the outcome of other African vernacular dances
participates to show (particularly young black) women as not only available but also inviting,
or at least teasing (the difference might not be very clear for some viewers and we can fear
that this can seem to encourage or falsely legitimate a rape culture). It might be worth noting
that these dances are not traditional but vernacular in West African countries and belonging
not really to a legitimate historical culture but rather to popular leisure.
The leading female hip-hop (self-proclaimed) queens or princesses are quite
archetypal: if we consider the performances of Lil’Kim (see picture by David Lachapelle) or
Nicky Minaj, self-objectification, lewdness and provocation seem to be the rule. These artists
claim their right to be “different” even though they conform to and participate to crystallize a
stereotype of black female child (should we say bratty?) minded and physically objectified.
In this respect, the “Sucka Free” (April 2008) Minaj album cover release is particularly
epitomical:
47
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vixen

48
On her latest album release, “Anaconda”, the singer shows her almost bare bottom
and claims her right to do so by explaining that such images are considered “acceptable” for
models.49
Hip-hop supporters consider their music and culture mean freedom, power (of money
and influence), and a way to opposing and refusing to conform to white dominant models.
This might be right for the (top) performers, but it certainly is misleading and dangerous for
younger viewers, both male and female since it legitimates bad perceptions and behaviors
(e.g. street harassment) against women in general and more particularly black ones.
In fact, present popular representations, if not always as sexually explicit, most often
showcase black women as childish, shallow, rude and self-centered. This does not show
much evolution in the representations of the last half-century, if we except that there does not
seem to be much respect or good taste left (even though these terms do not have much
meaning in pop culture) in such depictions.
We can consider these presentations as the expression of freedom of thought and
speech, but on the other hand it can also be considered that it does not show a very wide
difference between popular, vernacular and vulgar50
in the sense that it does not promote the
most valuable aspects of the human behavior.
The working-single-parent lifestyle many black women (and often the singers and
listeners’ own mothers and sisters) have to cope with everyday simply is not hip or
“glamour” enough to help anyone dream, evade or just want to relive on a screen.
By advocating a non-conformist, hedonistic and social status seeking attitude, we can
consider that pop-culture artists and audiences are not at the moment they do or watch these
48
Complete image can be found here: (http://www.ddotomen.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/06/suckafree_whiteLARGE.jpg)
49
MTV site. (http://www.mtv.com/news/1878772/nicki-minaj-anaconda-art-supermodels/)
50
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vulgar)

creations in search of enhancement, but rather of diversion from reality for the viewers and,
by exploiting these needs, of material achievement and recognition for the performers.
Considering hip-hop as a single track movement would certainly also be a stereotype;
in fact some artists intend to give a higher quality product and offer a more positive message.
In this regard, we can cite among others the name of Erykah Badu. She stands as a proud
representative of the black women of America, but can also resort to marketing-like
techniques to make her point, like in her “window seat” musical video51
in which she strolls
down the street in Dallas where J. Kennedy was shot (a strong historical evocation), while
getting totally undressed to advocate standing alone against social pressure (which may in
fact seem mainly commercial). We can consider this as evidence that very different messages
can resort to very similar ways. At this point, we can wonder if a message can have any
chance of success without conforming to some stereotypes and using marketing techniques.
Reality has not much appeal for a vernacular, mainly black, culture rejecting the
dominant social order where they do not find satisfactory solutions for their social and
material needs, thus trying to rearrange it following their own codes and longings.
Reality Television:
If we are to mention “reality TV”, it does not feature reality but scripted ordinary lives
to try and turn them exciting, attractive or mildly shocking to comply with the audience’s
voyeurism. No wonder if we cannot but find in these digital realities the usual images aimed
at proving that the viewers’ pop culture prejudices built and transmitted by the media are
founded.
This can be particularly observed in the black (so-called) reality TV shows such as
Real Housewives of Atlanta, Love and Hip Hop, and Basketball Wives, which “reinforce
harmful racial stereotypes and teach viewers to disrespect black women”. The danger is not
only about how these shows are influencing adult viewers, but also how they are impacting
the minds of children”; let us not forget that TV watching is (often an important) part of a
child’s education.52
51
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hVp47f5YZg)
52
The Grio. Excerpts from (http://thegrio.com/2013/06/05/from-julia-to-nene-thoughts-on-the-impact-of-
reality-tv-on-black-women/)

Another post from the Grio explains that “The current popular depiction of black
women on television is caught between two extremes”: “an emotionally complex, intelligent
and self-made woman in the character of Olivia Pope on the ABC show Scandal” and “At the
other end of spectrum, there is the gimmicky, low-rent version of Olivia Pope, mostly seen
on “reality” television”. “From the perspective of superficial appearances, these black woman
seem to operate from a somewhat similar privileged segment of society” 53
not having to cope
with the harsh realities most black women experience.
These very successful shows (and “out-of-show” relations) feature more temper
throwing, shallowness, ego-conflicts, gossiping and catfights than expected from mature
public personalities; we can wonder if the audiences really appreciate and consider as normal
behavior these demonstrations of immaturity or if they just enjoy seeing them making fools
of themselves and forget for a while their own problems.
“We Need More Women (and Black) Superheroes” (Esquire Magazine) 54
A popular culture review would not be complete without mentioning Comics
characters. Some comics have been made aimed at black people, some general public
oriented feature black characters, usually with a not leading role. Black women are not very
present in comics as writers or artists either; “in this industry dominated by white men, these
women have to make their way by writing their own rules"55
and publish in independent of
self created networks. Mainstream comics are evolving though: Marvel Comics, the leading
brand is renewing its “cast” of superheroes, as they use to when the characters start aging.
This time, Marvel Comics has made a more diverse choice by introducing a new black
character for Captain American and a woman to be the new Thor. In past times, some
diversity representatives had been introduced: a black Green Lantern in 71, a black Hispanic
Spider-Man in 2008 (following Obama’s election), and even a Muslim girl as Ms. Marvel in
2013, not to mention the female versions of male heroes like Supergirl or She-Hulk56
.
To this date all the diversity has been very appreciated and brought a surge in sales:
"It's not like it doesn't come from a place of good-heartedness, but if we didn't get the kind of
53
The Grio (http://thegrio.com/2013/03/31/womens-history-month-reality-tv-and-the-changing-image-of-the-
african-american-leading-lady/)
54
Esquire is a magazine for men. (http://www.esquire.com/blogs/culture/more-women-superheroes)
55
The Post Racial Times (http://thepostracialtimes.com/2014/01/28/black-women-in-comics-a-panel-discussion-
at-nycs-annual-black-comic-festival/)
56
(http://www.esquire.com/blogs/culture/more-women-superheroes)

response we do every time we try to introduce one of these characters, we wouldn't keep
doing it" explained Marvel Comics executive editor Tom Brevoort to CNBC.57
We can suppose that it will not be too long before a main superhero character will be
a black woman (such has already been the case for DC Comics’ Cat Woman, which also
became a movie). In comics, just as in many forms of fiction, the audiences are in fact
expecting and welcoming more diversity.
This should not mislead us into excessive conclusions: Marvel Movies will not feature
a new cast with (even) more diverse leading superheroes for the moment; they are not
convinced the audiences are already willing to accept that; movie production is very
expensive and implies higher risks. Marketing is not meant to be socially disruptive, their
strategy is more trying to sense the evolutionary trends and exploit them.
Black Women in Cinema: Hollywood (also) is a Man’s World
Hattie McDaniel appeared in more than 300 movies, she won the Best Supporting Actress award for her role as
Mammy in the 1939 epic Gone With the Wind
57
CNBC site: Everett Rosenfeld, Jul. 24 2014 "What Marvel Comics' new era of diversity means for sales",
(http://www.cnbc.com/id/101865761)

According to the 2013 Women’s Media Center’s Annual Report58
on the status of
women in TV, news, movies, and even social media, Women are less present (about 30% of
the speaking roles), less paid, less likely to have leading or even speaking roles in the movies,
and much more likely to appear naked; with very little evolution if any since 1999. Here
again, the main discrimination lies on gender disparity more than ethnicity: lower paid, less
leading roles in movies and series.
Black actresses face even harder times: in show business, black women are only 14%
of the female performers, none of them ranking among the top ten in fame or earnings59
.
They are often still portrayed according to the traditional images and roles. Unfortunately,
Affirmative Action policies (or the more up-to-date “diversity”) seem to have led mainly to
giving away the least positive, important and interesting roles to black people, thus
comforting the negative image of the minorities.
Besides popular culture, some movies do show a different point of view; in this field
we can cite Dear White People60
, bearing the point of view of “a black face in a very white
place”61
. The film follows four black students at a predominately white Ivy League where a
popular "African American themed" party takes place” 62
.
Apart from the social and race-relations message, this movie is interesting by the way
it has been financed and received: Justin Simien, now 32, the director presented a first trailer
in 2006. It made the buzz and was seen more than a million times on Internet. He then
proceeded to raise funds in 2012 through the crowd-funding63
Web site, Indiegogo64
, where
he raised more than $40,000, enough to make a more professional trailer to obtain the
financing and support needed for a full size production.
Presenting the vision of educated black (girls and boys) millennials, the movie, shot in
three weeks, has received the Special Jury Award at the Sundance Film Festival in 2014,
raising controversies.
58
San Diego University: LAUZEN Martha M.
(http://womenintvfilm.sdsu.edu/files/2013_It%27s_a_Man%27s_World_Report.pdf)
59
Forbes Magazine site. (http://www.forbes.com/sites/dorothypomerantz/2014/08/04/sandra-bullock-tops-
forbes-list-of-highest-earning-actresses-with-51m/)
60
(http://www.dearwhitepeoplemovie.com/)
61
Justin Simien in (http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/style-blog/post/dear-white-people-hollywood-are-
you-listening/2012/06/20/gJQAIIH3qV_blog.html#)
62
Indiewire. (http://www.indiewire.com/article/project-of-the-day-dear-white-people-race-riot-in-an-ivy-league)
63
Investorwords. (http://www.investorwords.com/19355/crowd_funding.html)
64
Financing non-profit or with an uncertain return on investment projects is very difficult, bankers are not
philantropists. This is why many projects resort to crowdfunding. Indiegogo (founded 2008) is one of the
leading crowdfunding sites, aiming at raising funds for any kind of project. (https://www.indiegogo.com/)

As Justin Simien puts it:
"There are some knee jerk reactions to the phrase "Dear White People" and I get it.
No one wants to be called racist, and some folks are still waking up from the fantasy that
having a Black president means America has somehow become "Post-Racial."65
After these presentations, the distribution "was picked up by Roadside Attractions, who has
slated an October 17 (2014) release date"66
. Movie making is indeed a long and often
winding road for black people to attain success. This success can be awarded on a great
synopsis, a lot of will and a clever use of social media and networks, teaming with a
multiracial and dedicated team to reach viewers and convince producers and distributors67
.
This is one of a (scarce) kind (we can mention “Boys n’ The Hood”) of black movies
appealing to more general audiences, even though we can wonder if a “college flick” can be
able to appeal to mass audiences: this is “quality”, not totally “popular”.
Lupita Nyong’o, Oscar winning actress of 12 Years a Slave and America’s 2014
“sweetheart” is one of the few trees that hide the forest in Hollywood; some African
American top performers have been or are very successful in major blockbusters, even
though their incomes come to fractions of what the mainstream actors get, and generally not
with a leading role. A special place should be made for black movies. History based (from
Roots to Black Venus, Invictus or 12 Years a Slave) films can be very successful and they
can participate in turning the whole audience more conscious about race relations and history,
but they hardly promote an evolution in the image of the black people as a whole.
In both contexts (blacks for blacks, and blacks for wider audiences), to succeed in art
and media, black people and even more black women need great talents, a huge amount of
work and embodying the roles they are intended to play night and day. This is not very
different from their mainstream counterparts, but African Americans are limited to much
fewer opportunities and market segments.
Some evolution is showing though:
“In 2005, Franklin Leonard surveyed almost 100 film industry development executives about their
favorite scripts from that year that had not been made as feature films. Since then the voter pool has grown to
about 500 film executives”. “Over 225 Black List screenplays have been made as feature films. Those films
65
Justin Simien in (http://www.indiewire.com/article/project-of-the-day-dear-white-people-race-riot-in-an-ivy-
league)
66
Indiewire. (http://blogs.indiewire.com/thompsononhollywood/racially-charged-college-satire-dear-white-
people-challenges-audiences-at-sundance)
67
Filmindependent. (http://www.filmindependent.org/blogs/how-dear-white-people-went-from-script-to-
sundance/#.U9Xv7ajEreY)

have earned over $19BN in worldwide box office, have been nominated for 171 Academy Awards, and have
won 35, including Best Pictures SLUMDOG MILLIONAIRE, THE KING'S SPEECH, and ARGO, and seven
of the last twelve screenwriting Oscars.” 68
Even if this is not specifically a list of “black talents” (my italics), Ebony magazine
explains that it constitutes a “script-database service dedicated to finding and promoting
unknown writers (which) has done what agents and film executives couldn’t: give diverse
candidates a chance” 69
.
Interesting as this evolution can be, black movies and those featuring black main roles
still are particular creations and not an integrating part of Hollywood mainstream message, so
the influence on the evolution of the image of African Americans is limited. Individual
successes are only (noticeable and positive) little waves on the sea of established perceptions
and practices.
Black Women in Soaps and Series
Once again, a difference should be remarked between mainstream and black series. In
the former, the lack of diversity and the fact that the leading roles are usually not played by
black people are blatant.
Several networks are currently dedicated to black programming, there has not been
always so; in the early days of television, black actors were only found in stereotypical roles,
explains Complex, a pop culture network. The first all-black situational comedy was that
Amos 'n' Andy (1951-1953) this show was stopped because of complaints that it continued to
perpetuate stereotypes70
.
“Black sitcoms were largely dormant until the '70s, then finally hitting a stride in the
'80s. In the '90s, that stride became a sprint, with networks scrambling to reach black
audiences. This coincided with a celebration of black culture, as Afrocentrism was embraced
by hip-hop and it became commonplace to see Malcolm X hats and Howard University
sweatshirts in music videos and in the streets. It felt like the perfect marriage of African-
American culture and popular culture.”71
Complex observes a great decline in the number of black sitcoms but states that many
of them left an important legacy, and more particularly the “Cosby Show” from the eighties,
68
Blacklist. (http://www.blcklst.com/)
69
Ebony. (http://www.ebony.com/entertainment-culture/could-the-black-list-change-the-game-for-black-
hollywood-writers-032#.U9JqPqjEreY)
70
Complex. (http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/02/best-black-sitcoms/)
71
Complex. (http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/02/best-black-sitcoms/)

generally recognized to be one of the best all-times TV show, featuring the African American
successful family everybody would love to see72
.
Apart from this one, sometimes considered too mainstream by those who would have
preferred a more militant stand, most black sitcoms present black people, families or groups
in a more complicated, often more pessimistic light, and not necessarily more realistic. But
we have mentioned that realism is not the first element of attraction for the audiences.
Some newer series try to present a positive view of the black family, let us mention
the case of “black-ish”, a series presenting a successful black family concerned about their
identity in a modern and diverse society: the father, Andre Johnson (Anthony Andersen) is a
successful black man trying to raise a family that’s “real,”73
which in his perception
means "black and not black-ish"74
“I didn’t want to tell a story about a family that happened to be black, but about a
family that was actually black,” black-ish creator Kenya Barris told The New York Times. “I
felt like race was being talked about less than ever, when I feel it should be talked about
more.” 75
Some other series try to present personal or creative views of black realities. In this
sense, we can mention “The Misadventures of an Awkward Black Girl”76
a successful series
created by Issa Rae (28) and meant to become a big screen movie: her assumed awkwardness
is what makes her attaching and in her own perception, her series “fills a void in American
TV”77
.
Very few series dare or seem interested to portray real day to day specificities of
African American women’s lives, so it would be worth noting the choice of the creators of
“how to get away with murder” in showing some real life hair care “rituals”78
thus presenting
them to a more diverse audience and helping black women seeing these practices as simply
72
Bill Cosby's past personal misconduct should not devaluate the merit of the series of showing a black
"normal" and succesful family as a possible aim and model since the eighties.
73
The Daily Beast (digital native newspaper). (http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/09/24/black-ish-
keeps-it-real-about-the-invisible-black-man.html)
74
Black-ish series trailer: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IufXnZ3gSPc)
75
Daily Beast. (http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/10/01/black-ish-is-the-new-modern-family.html)
76
RAE Issa. (http://awkwardblackgirl.com/)
77
Huffington Post. (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/05/issa-rae-awkward-black-girl_n_4209313.html)
78
Fusion: (http://fusion.net/story/52053/how-to-get-away-with-murder-excels-at-revealing-slices-of-black-
culture/?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=socialshare&utm_content=desktop+left)

normal. Black women’s hair can be considered as a beauty asset or not, in any case it clearly
is part of their identity and culture.
Two other very successful recent series should be mentioned. Scandal (ABC) presents
a complex, intelligent and interesting black woman’s leading role in an upscale setting, while
Empire (Fox) features (ex)criminal and violent black people, leading some columnists to
consider they push black stereotypes and should aim at higher levels for black people’s
image. Others contend that this kind of black people exist, so it would not be logical to ignore
that totally in a TV show: “black characters are free to be as flawed as any other human
beings79
".
Another recent success in series with black actors is called “Orange is the New
Black”, featuring the lives of female prison inmates. This is yet another series presenting
more problems (namely crime and consequences) and ways to cope with, than positive views
and hopes of social evolution for black women. In all these TV features, women are
portrayed with complex and unbalanced couple and family lives. More generally we can
acknowledge that there seldom can be found a positive portrayal of black women in TV
shows.
Most audiences are supposed to make a difference between these fictional
representations and real life, but we all know that impregnation and constant showing of
marginal behavior can lead to consider them as normal and acceptable references if not
necessarily models to follow.
From a need of diversion, and the subsequent wants in terms of TV programming,
marketing is leading to a higher marginalization of the black women; white females can be
found playing fools on TV but this is not as dominant as it is for African Americans, so the
differentiation is easier to make outside the black community than for them.
79
Daily Beast. http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/03/11/the-cookie-conundrum-is-empire-wrong-to-
portray-blacks-as-criminals.html

1.1.3. African American Women in advertising and media
1.1.3.1. Media and black women’s image
After examining the fiction creation presented in the main media, in this part we will
focus more particularly on the editorial, iconographic and commercial aspects of media80
.
Media business as any other business is meant to bring profits to its owners and
financers, but it also constitutes a very strong influencing force on public opinion as well as
on purchase decisions. The American media are usually presented as the “Fourth Estate”,
they play an important role as democracy’s watchdog, a role guaranteed by the U.S.
Constitution, adopted in 1789. In 2010, a Mediamark Research survey revealed “98% of
Americans have a television; 82% of those watch "prime time" and 71% cable programming
in an average week. 84% percent of Americans listen to radio regularly. 79% percent are
newspaper readers.”81
In 2014, the figures concerning the use of Internet are overwhelming:
280 million users, 86,75% of the population are connected82
via computers, smartphones,
PDAs or digital TV principally.
Black Women’s Image in Mainstream Media
We have seen that the usual representation of fictional works featured in media is an
important part of the maintaining of mostly negative stereotypes and prejudices against black
women, despite some higher quality features. But fiction can have its rules to attract and
retain its audiences without pretending expressing truths or exerting pressure on the readers,
listeners or viewers to conform to standard reference models. Fiction can be influential but it
still is fantasy by essence; advertisements are known for presenting facts and products in the
most profitable way for the announcer, not the most loyal or trustworthy; but media and
particularly journalists are normally expected to being loyal, objective and well informed,
and credited with being such unless otherwise proven.
This is not always true since media can be purely informational (even though real
objectivity seems impossible) but they can also sustain opinions, parties or interests, playing
the part of being the voice of a lobby or simply expressing personal points of view. This can
particularly be noticed in the blogosphere where the opinions expressed can be those of
recognized journalists or renowned specialists, but also the right of self-expression exerted by
80
Pew Research Center’s State of the News Media 2015 : African American media.
(http://www.journalism.org/2015/04/29/african-american-media-fact-sheet/)
81
USA embassy in Germany site: (http://usa.usembassy.de/media.htm)
82
(http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/)

everybody without any other control than the readers’. In this part, we will concentrate more
precisely on established media, comporting an editorial staff and not just a single person’s
work, even though the difference is not always easy to define in terms of content.
Media, and particularly press media are in great financial turmoil; many, not to say
most written titles are scarcely or not profitable, being under pressure because of the advent
of digital media. After having been compelled to publish partly or totally free digital editions,
many newspapers are becoming all-digital since paper press is often no longer viable.
Profitable or not, business or non-profit, all media from radio to TV have to rely on
advertising (sometimes also on grants and donations) to make ends meet. In this logic they
have to adapt their editorial line not only to their target audience (who does not necessarily
want objectivity but sometimes a specific orientation), but also to the objectives and demands
of their financing partners.
Editorial staff, owners, advertisers and other financial partners are the many internal
stakeholders who shape the organ’s discourse to meet the waits and respect the opinions and
feelings of their audiences and other external stakeholders (society, economic interests,
policy-makers…). Moreover they have to attain and maintain a positive image and avoid
taking chances with public confrontation or legal action. This certainly is a very narrow and
tricky path to follow, so it is no wonder that most media keep a high political correctness and
disavow or take sanctions against their spokespersons or representatives when they are
considered offensive by one of the stakeholders.
In this context, we could hope that media would behave as models of diplomacy and
deep thinking. Such is often not the case except for the most important mainstream
informational titles. We might explain this by the fact that people do not want simply news
and data, but processed information to fit into their knowledge and value system, which
obviously implies interpretation and thus introducing bias and judgments according to the
stereotypes they have adopted and the prejudices they believe in. Information that would not
fit with the receptor’s beliefs would risk causing a cognitive dissonance, and so would be
rejected or reinterpreted for moral comfort. In simpler terms, media cannot but give the
audiences what they expect and are ready to accept, not necessarily genuine truths.
Another aspect to consider is that news and reality have to be timed and showcased to
maximize impact and appeal to the attention and memory of the audiences in order to sell
(copies or advertisements). In other words we could consider that whereas reality TV
presents scripted stories trying to resemble reality (but with a more attractive setup), media

information and analysis present true realities but are also compelled to do it in an attractive
way (the attraction comes from the emotions raised: surprise, joy, sadness, fear, anger or
repulsion). Modern media can in this sense be considered as a show business; this seems the
price to pay to succeed in transmitting a message and attaining the communication objectives
of the organization (this last point will be developed later in the marketing part).
At this point it may be useful to precise that we are not considering Internet and the
social media as being of a different nature than the other (older) ones: they allow creation,
transmission of information, and more generally communication. The main differences are
obviously immediateness and interactivity, permitted by the information technologies (IT),
bringing with them an access to many more actors and being able to obtain a much wider
feedback in terms of opinions and in financial possibilities, as the filmmaking by crowd-
funding example has shown. Yet the people and the needs (getting information and
opportunities, appreciating, reacting) do not change fundamentally with technical evolution.
In all media, the cultural references and opinions of their own social groups influence
the publishers who cannot avoid coloring the information contents. Most of the time this
editorial angle is chosen and assumed. Black media have (and have always had) a particular
role to play in informing, emboldening, empowering and helping black people stand for their
rights and cope with social realities.
Black press history is almost two centuries old, with the first black newspaper being
published in 1827 by Rev. Samuel Cornish and John B. Russwurm. At that early (antebellum)
time “the established press routinely denigrated African Americans in print, even to the
extent of questioning both the integrity and morality of the entire race." 83
Even though white
people would sometimes take a stand to defend blacks, “the editors of Freedom’s Journal
proclaimed in the first issue, “Too long have others spoken for us ... We wish to plead our
own cause.”
Since the 1990s, technical evolution linked with IT brought harsh times for all media,
particularly press, caused black media to lose audiences, market shares and announcers. The
massive consolidation movement in the media sector did the rest, forcing many of them to
sell or worse, go bankrupt and disappear: In 2014 there is not a single black-owned full-
83
National Newspaper Publishers Association (NNPA): African American owned media. (http://nnpa.org/about-
us/black-press-history/)

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