Weather and animal diseases and parasites; diseases of poultry and its relation with weather and thermal comfort.

1. Submitted by :
Abhilash Singh
Dept. of Agricultural Meteorology
CCSHAU, Hisar
Assignment
AGM – 602
UNIT - V

2. Disease is defined as a departure from health, and includes any
condition that impairs normal body functions.
Two main Types of Diseases:
1. Infectious Diseases are caused by : Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa, Fungus,
Parasites Etc.
2. Non-infectious diseases are caused by Poison, Nutritional problem,
Injury, Stress, Poor housing & management

3. The threat of climate change and global warming is now recognized worldwide
and some alarming manifestations of change have occurred.
Climate change has negative impact on productive and reproductive
performance of livestock, increased incidence of livestock diseases and parasitic
infestation, decreasing trend of feed and fodder resources, water.
Majority of the respondents perceived an increased environmental temperature,
decreased precipitation, increased frequency of extreme weather conditions and
summer season length.
The Asian continent, because of its size and diversity, may be affected
significantly by the consequences of climate change, and its new status as a 'hub' of
livestock production gives it an important role in mitigating possible impacts of
climate variability on animal health.

4. 1. heat-related diseases and stress,
2. extreme weather events,
3. adaptation of animal production systems to new environments,
4. and emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases, especially vector-borne
diseases critically dependent on environmental and climatic conditions.
To face these new menaces, the need for strong and efficient Veterinary Services
is irrefutable, combined with good coordination of meteorological services.
Asian developing countries have acute weaknesses in these Services, which
jeopardizes the global surveillance network essential for early detection of
hazards.
Indeed, international cooperation within and outside Asia is vital to mitigating
the risks of climate change to animal health in Asia.

5. HEAT STRESS IN DAIRY CATTLE
Cattle are unable to dissipate their heat load efficiently.
Their sweating mechanism is poor and they rely on respiration to cool
themselves.
A further disadvantage is the fermentation process within the rumen generates
additional heat that cattle need to disperse.
As they cannot get rid of heat effectively they accumulate a heat load during the
day and dissipate heat at night when it is cooler.
Although during hostile weather conditions or in the tropics with insufficient
environmental cooling at night cattle will even accumulate heat that they cannot
disperse.

6. High humidity and temperature levels in large buildings combined with
poor air flow has been blamed for a 5-15% decrease in milk production
and lowered conception rates, due to high cortisol (stress hormone) levels
depressing intakes.
As with any chronic forms of stress, cows can experience metabolic
changes which can result in stress-related illnesses and depressed
immunity.
This can lead to a lowering of the cow's defenses against mastitis-causing
pathogens.
This, coupled with conditions in cattle housing that may favour the
spread of bacteria can lead to an increase in clinical mastitis and raised
Somatic Cell Counts.

7. Temperature alone is not a good way of measuring heat stress. Various
indexes have been developed which take into account such factors
as ambient temperature, relative humidity and evaporation rate. These are
known as THI (Temperature Humidity Index).
Heat Stress is not only related to ambient temperature but also
associated with humidity and air movement. When the humidity increases
the animals evapo-transpiration is reduced and the animal cannot cool
itself. This inability to cool itself increases the core body temperature and
greatly depresses feed intake.

8. Extensive Grazing and heat load
One disadvantage of the temperature-humidity index (THI) is that it may not predict the true
extent of heat stress in extensive grazing systems because it does not account for accumulated heat
load.
Another shortfall of THI is that it does not account for solar radiation and wind speed which can
affect heatload of cattle.
The "Zone of Comfort” of Bos Taurus cattle range between a range of 4ºC -24ºC (39° F- 75° F).
Within this temperature range animals are most efficient.
The “Zone of Comfort” of Bos Indicus e.g. Zebu, is 10°C (50°F) to 27°C (81°F).
Each genotype has a different and characteristic “zone of comfort” Science has established that
under heat stress conditions, Bos Indicus breeds and their crosses have better heat regulatory
capacity than Bos Taurus breeds, due to differences in metabolic rate, food and water consumption,
sweating rate, and coat characteristics and colour.
The most severe heat stress occurs when both ambient temperature and relative
humidity are high and night temperatures do not decrease sufficiently to allow
cattle to dissipate their body heat.

9. Typical visible signs of Heat Stress
Slobbering,
High respiratory rates (panting),
Bunching (in the shade if it’s available),
Open mouth breathing,
Lack of coordination, and trembling.
Seek shade or align themselves with the sun if there is no shade.
Splash water if it is available.
Eat and ruminate less.
Become unresponsive, lie down and start to die when their body temperature reaches 41.5°C.
Thirst is increased. Drinking water intake increases markedly.
Decreased activity.
Agitation and restlessness.
Increased urination (with heavy electrolyte loss)
Crowding over the water troughs.
Refusal to lie down.
Slower growth rates.
When the relative humidity exceeds 50%, the dissipation of heat by evaporative cooling
becomes much more difficult and signs of heat stress develop sooner.
If you see these signs, assume the cattle have high heat loads, and minimize
the stress immediately, but handle the animals gently to avoid increasing
their stress even more.

10. Invisible signs of heat stress
Ruminal pH is typically lower in heat stressed cattle.
Rates of gut and ruminal motility are reduced, thus slowing passage of feed through
the digestive tract.
Increased peripheral blood flow.
Some indigestibility of feed.
The huge water flux resulting from increased water consumption also causes heavy
loss of electrolytes. Potassium (K+ ) loss from the skin increases by 500% in unshaded
cattle. In attempts to conserve K+,cows increase urinary excretion rates of sodium
(Na+).
Alters the production of reproductive hormones essential for pregnancy.
Changes the balance of developing follicles in the ovary.
Embryonic development is affected.
Bicarbonate (HCO3) is lost.

11. Stress hormones appear in the blood.
Gene function is disturbed.
Heat shock proteins are activated to shut down metabolic reactions and to protect heat-sensitive
tissues.
Responses to intercurrent diseases or pathogens decline rapidly.
Lower conception rates.
Lowered fertility of bulls.
Increased foetal and postnatal mortalities.
Increased susceptibility to parasitic and non parasitic diseases.
Resources being diverted to unproductive efforts by the animal to restore balance
(homeostasis).
All production is stopped due to loss of homeostasis.
The incidence of respiratory infections increases due to compromised immune response and an
over stressed respiratory system.
Higher mortality.
Slower recovery from environmental and other production stresses.

12. What to do ?
Offer shade.
Shade will reduce heat loads in cattle.
If cattle can be moved to shaded pens, the severity of the heat stress will be reduced.
Unshaded pens with a south or west slope offer more sun exposure, so are significantly worse
for cattle than unshaded pens with a east or southeast slope.
Offer water.
Water consumption is driven by environmental temperature.
At 32 degree Celsius (90 F), water consumption may be almost twice that at 21 degree Celsius
(70 F) and 50% greater than at 27 degree Celsius (80 F).
Keep good quality fresh water in front of the cattle at all times.
If water space is limited, temporary water sources, in the form of tubs or portable troughs,
should be provided.
Heat stress in cattle can be lessened by providing water via sprinklers or fire hoses.

13. Even rather short periods of watering can be beneficial in decreasing heat stress in cattle.
Droplet size is extremely important.
Misting water onto cattle may only add to the heat stress by adding humidity.
Use a sprinkler that produces large droplets.
Watering the ground with hoses and allowing the cattle to stand in the water or on the wetted
ground offers significant relief.
Cattle may not be accustomed to sprinklers and fire hoses, which may scare them and provide
additional stress.
If this is the case, it is best not to use sprinklers or hoses during the hottest part of the day.
Restrict their use to the cooler hours of the morning or early evening.
Avoid overworking the cattle.
Body temperatures of cattle exposed to high daytime temperatures tends to peak in the early
evening, declining in the night to reach a low point in the hours after sunrise, then slowly
building throughout the day.

14. Work with cattle in the early morning, and avoid afternoon/evening work when body
temperatures are already high.
If possible, under prolonged heat stress conditions, avoid working the cattle at all.
If at all possible, avoid transporting cattle during periods of heat stress.
If transportation can’t be delayed, do it during the cooler evening or early morning hours to
avoid any additional stress.
Transportation of cattle during heat stress events is thought to be a contributor to dark cutters.

15. Introduction
Climate change could present potential challenges to cattle and sheep
producers in the future.
Extreme weather events can impact production performance, eg by adversely
affecting fertility or growth and may lead to welfare issues.
The three main worries on beef and sheep farms are heat stress, drought and
flooding.
Forward planning is crucial to reduce cost, risk and concern in future.

16. What to do ?
Farmers should draw up action plans for coping with periods of uncharacteristic weather and its
aftermath
In dry periods, house finishing cattle quickly to free up grass for other stock and to prevent
weight-loss
Investigate the potential for growing drought-tolerant forages, such as Berseem, chicory,
Lucerne, Cowpea, Shaftal etc.
Identify areas that may flood in extreme rainfall events and establish an evacuation plan.
During floods, livestock need food and clean water. Be aware that existing stocks and supplies
may have become contaminated.
Consider providing extra forage to stock during cooler times of the day, to help compensate for
reduced feeding activity in the heat of the day.
Make a disaster kit and place it in a central location. Let all workers know where it is and check
the contents regularly

17. Drought
The threat of drought is likely to increase in the INDIA.
Farmers should have action plans in place for before, during and after periods
of low rainfall
Targets
 Identify ways to reduce impacts on performance
 Prevent heat stress from becoming an additional problem
 Consider using drought-tolerant forage varieties.

18. Management guidelines for cattle
During dry periods place bales of straw in fields for additional feed.
If straw intake exceeds 2kg per head per day, supplementary feeding will be required to
maintain condition and performance.
Monitor pasture cover during dry periods.
Be aware that hungry calves may gorge themselves if they are presented with new
feedstuffs, which may lead to acidosis.
Introduce additional feed slowly before extreme shortages occur.
Investigate the potential for growing drought-resistant forages, such as Berseem, chicory,
Lucerne, Cowpea, Shaftal and cocksfoot etc.
Body condition has a major impact on fertility, so supplementary feeding will help
maintain herd performance by ensuring cows are in the correct condition for service and
pregnancy.
When drought ends, the resulting surge of grass may increase the risk of grass staggers
(hypomagnesaemia) and worm control will also be important.

19. Flooding
When the threat of flooding is increasing, the plans should be put in place to include
actions that should be taken before, during and after a flood.
Targets
Identify areas that may flood in an extreme rainfall event.
Establish an evacuation plan
Include flood-related diseases in the herd or flock health plan
Management guidelines
Evacuate animals from flood-prone buildings and fields as soon as possible and move
them to higher ground.

20. Confining animals in a building takes away their ability to protect themselves.
However, the decision should be based on the risk of the building flooding.
The behaviour of animals during stressful events will make handling them more difficult. Well-
designed and maintained handling facilities will help.
During floods, livestock need food and clean water. Be aware that existing stocks and supplies may
have become contaminated.
Account for all stock after the flood.
Identify any missing animals and inform neighbours.
There may be a danger of infectious diseases after a flood, especially when large numbers of animals
have been gathered together on wet ground, eg footrot, blackleg, leptospirosis.
Ensure vaccinations are up-to-date.
Clear debris from fields and check fences and gates before turning animals back out.
Identify areas of grassland or forage that have been damaged by the floodwaters and if necessary,
consider re-seeding.
Clean and disinfect buildings before putting stock back in them Inspect the water supply and feed
stocks for contamination and do not feed anything that may be water damaged or potentially
contaminated with leaked chemicals.

21. Most of the farmers preserved fodder crop in farm of hay for adverse climatic condition,
followed mixed livestock farming, diversifying farming practices and changed planting date,
provided bedding and warmth to their animals to protect them from extreme cold.
Similarly during hot days farmers provided cold water and shed to protect their animals as
adaptation strategies for sustaining livestock production.
Livestock sector both contributes to and is affected by climate change.
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sources, agricultural
activities, including animal production, account for 9% of global anthropogenic gaseous
emissions.
But some dated publications have stated higher levels of agricultural gases emissions,
especially attributed to animal production.
Climate change affects livestock both directly and indirectly.
The livestock production is an integral part of mixed farming systems practiced in the entire
length and breadth of India.

22. The impact of climate change on animal production is categorized by
a) availability of feed grain,
b) pasture and forage crop production and quality,
c) health, growth and reproduction and
d) disease and their spread.
Vulnerability to climate change has hardly been documented in the context of India;
Experimental studies have been conducted on effects of season and climate on production,
performance and other physiological parameters of dairy animals.
These studies have revealed that milk yield of crossbred cows in India (e.g., Karan Fries, Karan
Swiss and other Holstein and Jersey crosses) are negatively correlated with temperature-humidity
index (Mandal et al. 2002a).
The influence of climatic conditions on milk production has been also observed for local cows
which are more adapted to the tropical climate of India.
The estimated annual loss at present due to heat stress among cattle and buffaloes at the all-
India level is 1.8 million tonnes, that is nearly two per cent of the total milk production in the
country, amounting to a whopping over Rs 2,661 crore (Upadhaya, 2010).

23. According to Tailor and Nagda (2005) heat stress has detrimental effects on the reproduction of
buffaloes, although buffaloes are well adapted morphologically and anatomically to hot and humid
climate.
Upadhya et.al, (2007) stated that thermal stress on Indian livestock particularly cattle and buffaloes has
been reported to decrease oestrus expression and conception rate.
Maurya (2010) concluded that the length of service period and dry period of all dairy animals was
increased from normal during drought.
 The outbreak of the disease was observed to be correlated with the mass movement of animals which in
turn is dependent on the climatic factors (Sharma et al. 1991).
Singh et al. (1996) reported that higher incidence of clinical mastitis in dairy animals during hot and
humid weather due to increased heat stress and greater fly population associated with hot–humid
conditions.
In addition, the hot–humid weather conditions were found to aggravate the infestation of cattle ticks
like: Boophilus microplus, Haemaphysalis bispinosa and Hyalomma anatolicum (Basu and
Bandhyopadhyay, 2004; Kumar et al., 2004).
Keeping view in mid a study on climate change impacts on livestock as perceived by farmers and
adaptation strategies to sustain livestock production different agro climatic zones of India was conducted.

24. Shifts in weather patterns, from drought conditions to heavy rains, strongly affect animal
performance (growth, production, reproduction), as well as fostering disease occurrences that
threaten animal health and welfare.
The emergence or re-emergence of unexpected sanitary events is currently accelerating.
It is estimated that five new emerging infectious diseases appear each year, of which three are
potentially zoonotic (zoonosis: a disease that can be transmitted from animals to people or, more
specifically, a disease that normally exists in animals but that can infect humans) with the ability
to affect multiple species including humans.
Moreover, climate change influences the epidemiological evolution of pathogens and the
extension of the spatial distribution of vectors such as flying insects and ticks which can lead to
the propagation and further geographic extension of diseases like Rift Valley Fever, bluetongue,
West Nile fever or Lyme disease, affecting both humans and animals.

25. It also influences the distribution of predators and rodent populations and therefore triggers
massive changes in the structure and functions of ecosystems and species, with predominantly
negative consequences for biodiversity.
Knowing that animal diseases generate nearly 20% of losses in production, with direct impacts
on food availability and affordability, and that one billion people suffer from malnutrition, the
provision of sufficient safe food products will become a growing challenge.
Indeed, domestic animals represent a means of subsistence for hundreds of millions of families
around the world.
It is estimated that one billion people, 700 million of whom live in poverty, depend on their
animals for food, income or draught power, and the supply of other essential animal origin non-
food products, such as wool and leather.
Moreover products of animal origin such as milk, eggs and meat contain precious nutrients and
are an inherent part of any food security policy including child growth and brain development:
worldwide demand for these products is rising and is set to increase by more than 50% in the
coming decades.

26. Diseases of
Poultry

27. 1.Avian influenza or Avian flu
or Bird flu
Avian influenza refers to a type of influenza caused by viruses
(Orthomyxovirus type A) adapted to birds.
There are several subtype of Avian Influenza virus. Among them, H5N1
has been causing global concern as a potential pandemic threat.
Signs:
1. Sudden death.
2. Marked loss of appetite, reduced feed consumption.
3. Drops in egg production.
4. Depression.
5. Nasal and ocular discharge.
6. Coughing.
7. Swollen face.
8. Cyanosis of comb
9. Diarrhea, often green
10. Paralysis.

28. Treatment:
None, but good husbandry,
nutrition and antibiotics may reduce losses.
Prevention
Hygiene, quarantine, all-in /all-out production, etc. Minimize contact with wild birds,
controlled marketing of recovered birds.
Vaccination is not normally recommended because, vaccinated birds may remain carriers if
exposed to the infection.
In outbreaks a regime of slaughter, correct disposal of carcasses, cleaning, disinfection,
isolation, 21-day interval to re-stocking should be followed.

29. 2.Marek's diseaseMarek's disease is caused by Herpes virus.
The route of infection is usually respiratory.
The disease is highly contagious being spread by infective feather-follicle dander, fomites,
etc.
The virus survives at ambient temperature for a long time (65 weeks) when cell
associated.
The virus is resistant to some disinfectants. It is inactivated rapidly when frozen
and thawed.

30. Signs:
1. Paralysis of legs, wings and neck.
2. Loss of weight.
3. Vision impairment.
4. Grey iris or irregular pupil.
5. Skin around feather follicles raised
and roughened.
Treatment:
None. antibiotics to control secondary bacterial
infection.
Prevention:
Hygiene, all-in/all-out production, resistant
strains, vaccination.
It is common practice to use combinations of the
different vaccine types in an effort to broaden the
protection achieved.
Genetics can help by increasing the frequency of
the B21 gene that confers increased resistance to
Marek's disease challenge.

31. 3. Ranikhet Or Newcastle
Or Paramyxovirus 1
Disease
Ranikhet or Newcastle disease is a highly
contagious viral disease caused by
Paramyxovirus (PMV)-1
This disease affects poultry of all ages.
Affected species include chicken, turkey,
pigeon and duck, occasionally
mammals(Conjunctivitis).

32. Signs:
1. Sudden Death
2. Depression.
3. Inappetance.
4. Coughing.
5. Diarrhoea.
6. Paralysis.
7. Twisted neck.
8. Severe drop in egg production.
9. Moult.
Treatment
None, antibiotics to control secondary bacterial infection.
Prevention:
Quarantine, biosecurity, all-in/all-out production, vaccination.

33. 4. Fowl Pox Or Pox Or Avian Pox
Fowl Pox is a relatively slow-spreading viral disease characterized by skin lesions and/or
plaques in the pharynx.
Fowl Pox affects chickens, turkeys, pigeons & canaries.
It is transmitted by birds, fomites, and mosquitoes
Signs:
1. Warty, spreading eruptions and scabs on comb and wattles.
2. Depression.
3. Caseous deposits in mouth, throat and sometimes trachea.
4. Inappetance.
5. Poor growth.
6. Poor egg production.

34. Treatment
None, antibiotics to control secondary bacterial infection.
Prevention:
Quarantine, biosecurity, vaccination (good cross-immunity) .

35. 5. Avian Leukosis or Myelocyto-matosis
Caused by an avian retrovirus.
This condition has until now been seen only in meat-type chicken.
Transmission is by congenital infection from antibody-negative females, bleeding and
vaccination needles.
Signs
1. Depression.
2. Emaciation.
3. Persistent low mortality
4. Enlargement of abdomen, liver.
5. Many are asymptomatic.

36. Treatment
None
Prevention
Good hygiene
Eradication - checking of antigen in the albumen is a
basis for eradication

37. 1. Fowl Cholera or Pasteurellosis
Fowl Cholera is a serious, highly contagious disease caused by the bacterium Pasteurella
multocida.
A range of avian species including chickens, turkeys, and water fowl are infected by fowl
cholera.
The route of infection is oral or nasal.
The bacterium is easily destroyed by environmental factors and disinfectants
Signs:
 Depression.
 Ruffled feathers.
 Loss of appetite.
 Diarrhoea.
 Coughing.
 Nasal, ocular and oral discharge.
 Swollen and cyanotic wattles and
face.
 Sudden death.
 Swollen joints.
 Lameness.

38. Treatment:
Antibacterial drugs i.e.
Sulphonamides, tetracycline,
erythromycin streptomycin,
penicillin.
Prevention:
Biosecurity, good rodent control,
hygiene, bacterins at 8 and 12
weeks, live oral vaccine at 6
weeks.

39. 2. Tick Fever or Spirochaetosis
Tick Fever or Spirochaetosis is caused by Borrelia anserina also known as
Spirochaeta gallinarum.
It is transmitted by ticks, Argas persicus and occasionally by infected faeces.
There are two forms of the disease, mild and acute.
The acute form can sometimes kill birds with no prior symptoms or warnings,
though this is rare.

40. Signs:
1. Depression.
2. Cyanosis.
3. Thirst.
4. Often diarrhea with excessive urates.
5. Weakness and progressive paralysis.
6. Drops in egg production
Treatment:
Antibacterial drugs i.e. Sulphonamides, tetracycline, erythromycin streptomycin,
penicillin.
Prevention:
Control vectors, vaccines in some countries.

41. 3. AvianTuberculosis
Avian tuberculosis is a bacterial infection, caused by Mycobacterium avium,
of poultry, game birds, cage birds etc.
Transmission is via faecal excretion, ingestion, inhalation, offal and fomites.
The disease has a slow course through a flock.
The bacterium can resists heat, cold, water, dryness, pH changes
and many disinfectants.

42. Signs:
1. Severe loss of weight with no
loss of appetite.
2. Pale comb.
3. Diarrhoea.
4. Lameness.
5. Sporadic deaths.
Treatment:
None recommended.
Prevention:
Market after one season, hygiene,
cages, elimination of faeces etc.

43. 4. Infectious Coryza
Infectious Coryza is caused by Haemophilus paragallinarum and is
seen especially in multi-age farms that are never depopulated.
The route of infection is conjunctival or nasal with an incubation
period of 1-3 days followed by rapid onset of disease over a 2-3 day.
Transmission occur via exudates and by direct contact, but not by egg.
The bacterium is easily killed by heat, drying and disinfectants.

44. Signs:
1. Facial swelling.
2. Purulent ocular and nasal
discharge.
3. Swollen wattles.
4. Sneezing.
5. Dyspnoea.
6. Loss in condition.
7. Drop in egg production of 10-
40%.
8. Inappetance.

45. Treatment:
Antibacterial drugs i.e.
Sulphonamides
tetracycline
erythromycin
streptomycin
 penicillin.
Prevention:
All-in/all-out production policy.
Bacterin at intervals if history justifies or if multi-age.
at least two doses are required.

46. 1.Mycotoxicosis
Mycotoxicosis refers to all of those diseases caused by the effects of toxins produced
by fungus.
There are different types of toxin:
Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus.
T2 fusariotoxins by Fusarium spp.
Ochratoxin by Aspergillus ochraceus;
Rubratoxin by Penicillium rubrum.
Route of infection is by ingestion of fungal spores.
Once toxins have been formed it is difficult to avoid their biological effects.
Signs:
1. Diarrhoea.
2. Paralysis or incoordination.
3. Reduced feed efficiency.
4. Reduced weight gain or egg production / hatchability.
5. Pale shanks, combs, bone marrows.

47. Treatment:
The most effective treatment is removal of the source of toxins. Addition of antifungal feed
preser-vatives is also helpful.
Administration of soluble vitamins and selenium(0.2 ppm), along with finely divided copper
sulphate in the feed 1kg/ton for 7 days has been used.
Prevention:
Mycotoxicoses may be prevented by careful choice of feed raw materials, reduction in water
content of the raw materials and hygienic storage.
Antimycotic feed additives may also be used but may not deal with toxins already
formed.

48. 2. Aspergillosis
A fungal infectious disease, caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, in which the
typical sign is gasping for breath.
Signs:
1. Inappetance.
2. Weakness.
3. Silent gasping.
4. Rapid breathing.
5. Thirst & Drowsiness.
Treatment:
Usually none. Environmental spraying with effective antifungal antiseptic may
help reduce challenge.
Prevention:
Dry, good quality litter and feed, hygiene, Thiabendazole or Nystatin has been
used in feed.

49. 1.Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites, belonging to the genus Eimeria that live in the
lining of the intestine.
Signs:
1. Huddling.
2. Weight loss.
3. Depression.
4. Tucked appearance, ruffled feathers.
Watery diarrhoea that may occasionally be blood stained or contain clumps of mucus or shed
mucosa.
Prevention:
Use of coccidiostats routinely.

50. 1.Roundworm
 Round worm disease is caused by
 Ascaridia galli in fowl
 A.dissimilis in turkeys
 and A. columbae in pigeons.
Signs:
1. Loss of condition.
2. Poor growth.
3. Listlessness.
4. Diarrhoea.
5. Wasting.

51. Treatment:
Flubendazole
Levamisole
Piperazine as locally approved.
Prevention:
Prevention of contamination of feeders and drinkers with faeces is the regular treatment
to prevent the disease.

52. 1.Rickets
Rickets is caused by Vitamin D deficiency or phosphorus/calcium imbalance.
Signs:
1. Lameness.
2. Hock swelling.
3. Soft bones and beak.
4. Poor growth.
5. Birds rest squatting.
6. Reduction in bodyweight.
Treatment:
Over-correct ration with three times vitamin D for 2 weeks, or Vitamin D or 25-hydroxy
vitamin D in drinking water.
Prevention:
Supplementation of vitamin D, proper calcium and phosphorus levels and ratio,
antioxidants.

53. 2.Nutritional Roup
This disease is caused by deficiency of Vit-A and it affects birds of all ages.
Signs:
1. Lameness
2. Discharge from nostrils and eye
3. Swelling beneath eye
Treatment:
Supplement of vitamin A
Prevention:
Feeding of Vitamin A rich food-green fresh leaf, yellow maize

54. 3.Crop Bound
This disease is caused by overeating of rough and fibrous food.
Treatment:
One table spoon full of castor oil, but in acute cases surgical removal of crop content.
Prevention:
Avoid overeating of rough and fibrous food.

55. 4.Feather Picking
This disease is caused by overcrowding of birds and nutritional deficiency.
Signs:
1. Birds start picking feather, toes, combs etc of one another.
Treatment:
2-4% extra salt in the feed. In acute cases trimming of upper mandible by sharp knife.
Prevention:
Ensuring good space and nutrition for birds

56. Heat Stress
Heat stress results from a negative balance between the net amount of energy flowing
from the animal’s body to its surrounding environment and the amount of heat energy
produced by the animal.
This imbalance may be caused by variations of a combination of environmental factors
(e.g., sunlight, thermal irradiation, and air temperature, humidity and movement), and
characteristics of the animal (e.g., species, metabolism rate, and thermoregulatory
mechanisms).
Environmental stressors, such as heat stress, are particularly detrimental to animal
agriculture.
The issue of environmental stress has quickly become a great point of interest in animal
agriculture, particularly due to public awareness and concerns.

57. Usually it is A condition caused by high environmental temperature, especially
associated with high relative humidity and low air speed.
Signs:
1. Panting.
2. Increased thirst.
3. Reduced feed consumption.
4. Reduced egg production.
5. Legs and wings outstretched.
6. Prostration.
Treatment:
Cool water, maximise airflow, if relative humidity is low then wet the roof and fog.
Prevention:
Houses of optimal height and insulation, painted white to reflect heat, evaporative
coolers, feed-ing during cooler hours.

58. Chickens being warm blooded (homeothermic-capable of maintaining a constant body
temperature despite variations in the temperature of the surroundings), have the ability to
maintain a rather uniform temperature of their internal organs ( homeostasis).
However, the mechanism is efficient only when the ambient temperature is within
certain limits.
Birds cannot adjust well to extremes.
Therefore it is very important that chicks be housed and cared for so as to provide an
environment that will enable them to maintain their thermal balance.
The thermoneutral zone, is the range of temperatures (ambient temperature) at which
an animal does not have to actively regulate its body temperature.
Regulation of body temperature occurs through raising the metabolism.
Therefore, when the birds do not have to regulate their body temperature, they do not
have to raise their metabolism, hence the constant metabolism in the thermoneutral zone.

59. The confines of the internal body temperature of birds show more variability than
mammals, so much so that there is no absolute body temperature.
In the adult chicken this variability is between 40.6 degrees centigrade and 41.7
degrees centigrade.
The chicken is continually producing heat through metabolic processes and muscular
activity, and the heat lost from the body must equal the heat produced or the body
temperature will rise.
Methods of Heat Liberation:
1.Radiation – when the temperature of the bird’s surface is greater than the adjacent air,
heat is lost from the body by radiation, and ceases when the temperature of the
surrounding air is reduced to, or below, the temperature of the bird’s surface area.

60. 2.Conduction – when the surface of the bird comes in contact with any surrounding object,
either air, or some solid material, as when the bird sits on a cool floor.
3.Convection – when cool air comes in contact with the surface of the bird the air is
warmed. The heated air expands, rises, and heat is carried away as the warmer air moves on.
When the speed of air moving over the body is increased, as by fans, the amount of heat lost
from the bird by convection increases. As the ambient temperature rises, heat lost by
convection decreases, and when it reaches body temperature there is little loss by this
method. In still air there is none.
4.Vaporization of water – as a replacement for moisture lost through sweat glands in most
mammals, the chicken uses a process of evaporative cooling by the vaporization of moisture
from the damp lining of the respiratory tract. Heat lost in this manner is a major method of
heat elimination from the body of the bird when the ambient temperature is high.
5.Fecal Excretion – a small amount of heat leaves the body with fecal excretions.
6.Production of eggs – heat lost with the laying of an egg is evident, but of minor
importance.

61. Lethal Body Temperature
When the heat produced by the bird is greater than that dissipated through the
various process of elimination, the deep body temperature rises.
When it gets to a certain point the bird dies of heat prostration.
This is said to be the upper lethal temperature which is about 47 degrees centigrade.
Mechanism to maintain Body Temperature:
At 21 deg centigrade, 75% of all heat generated by the bird is lost through radiation,
conduction and convection.
This is influenced by the ambient temperature.
Cold weather make these systems do their job well.
But when the environmental temperature are at or near the body temperature of the
bird, they operate only a little or not at all.

62. The hen’s ability to dissipate heat is influenced by the skin temperature rather than by the
deep body temperature.
As the temperature of the air surrounding the bird decreases, the blood vessels in the skin
contract, thus reducing the blood flow, which in turn acts to reduce the amount of heat lost
from the body.
When the temperature of the surrounding air increases, the blood vessels dilate, increasing
the flow of blood, thereby increasing the amount of heat lost.
PANTING-when radiation, conduction and convection are unable to transfer all the heat
produced, this is the mechanism that takes over.
Panting is a means of bringing more outside air in contact with the membranes of the
respiratory tract.
Heat is removed from the body by the coming air itself.
And because the outside air has a lower humidity, more moisture is absorbed from the
bird, along with its content of heat.
This is known as insensible heat loss.
Adequate housing, from an environmental standpoint ,is what is necessary to meet the
optimum requirements for best growth, freedom from stress, good egg production, high
fertility, and the most efficient utilization of feed.
Briefly, adquate housing must provide the flock with optimum air quality and
temperature conditions so that performance may be optimized.

63. Ammonia Concentration
Ammonia in a poultry house can become troublesome when the concentration is high.
It is nauseating to the caretaker, irritates the eyes and affects chickens.
Ammonia is measured in parts per million (ppm).
Normally 15 ppm will prove uncomfortable for human beings; 50 ppm for 8 hours is
considered the maximum allowable concentration.
Tolerance level for chickens
Continuous high concentration lessens the activity of the cilia of the respiratory tract of
chickens.
With laying birds, 30 ppm are probably slightly injurious, affecting egg production and general
health of the birds, while 50 ppm produce serious trouble, particularly growth.
Much higher concentration though can be tolerated (100ppm) for short periods.
However, the amount produces a higher incidence of breast blisters, and water consumption is
higher.
Thus for practical purposes, ammonia concentration should not be over 25 ppm.
Reducing ammonia fumes
Increasing ventilation, replacing litter, reducing ph of the litter to below 7.0 ( ammonia release
is rapid when ph is 8 or above)

64. Types of Poultry Houses based on Ventilation System:
1) Open-sided Poultry House – most of the poultry houses in the world are conventional or
open-sided, that is they rely on free flow of air through the house for ventilation.
Cooling the Open-sided House:
sprinkle the house roof
 sprinkle the ground area outside the house
 use foggers in the poultry house
 use fans outside of or in the poultry house
2) Controlled-environment House (tunnel-ventilated house) – a type of house wherein inside
conditions are maintained as near as possible to the bird’s optimum requirements.
Completely insulated with no windows.
Air is removed by exhaust fans and fresh air is brought in through intake openings. Artificial
light, rather than natural daylight is used to illuminate the interior.
The houses are not heated except for brooders.
The heat from the birds is used to keep inside temp within the range for maximum
efficiencies.

65. Types of Poultry Houses based on Design:
Several innovations in house design have evolved over the years.
Their importance is based on many factors including reduction in floor space per bird,
less labor, higher fertility with breeding birds, better disposition of droppings, and
improved sanitation.
Each of these houses can use either the open-sided or environmentally controlled
systems.
1) Cage house – most variations are the result of climatic conditions. In cool to cold
climates, the environmentally controlled house is almost a must. In mild climates, only
a roof over the cages seems to be necessary.
2) Slat and Litter house – the slat and litter house is constructed so that a part of the
floor area is covered with slats. Although built primarily for those birds producing
hatching eggs, particularly meat-type breeders, the house may also be used for growing
birds, but they must be trained to use the slats when they are young.

66. 3) All-slat house – commercial laying birds may be kept on an all-slat floor.
The advantage is that it requires less floor space per bird than when the birds are kept
on a litter floor.
On litter, commercial laying pullets will require about 2 sq feet of floor space per
bird. When they are kept on an all-slat floor, 1 sq foot is enough.
4) High-rise house – to overcome many of the evils of conventional handling of wet
manure, the high-rise house has become increasingly popular.
It provides for in-house drying and sheltered accumulation of the droppings until the
flock is sold or until disposal of the manure can be arranged.
A high-rise house is essentially a two-story house.
The top floor is for the birds in cages or on a slat floor.
The bottom floor, with no ceiling, is directly underneath and is used for the
accumulated manure.
Each is about 7 feet high.

67. Cooling the House:
Moving more air through the poultry house when the outside temperature gets above
29.4 degrees centigrade is not the solution to providing a comfortable environment for
the birds.
The four accepted methods of cooling the birds are :
1) Low-pressure fogging system – fogging nozzles that operate at regular water
pressures are installed throughout the house or over the birds in cages.
2) Pad-and-Fan system – exhaust fans in the house draw incoming air through a wet
pad where the evaporation of moisture from the pad reduces the temperature of the
incoming air.
3) Fog-and-Fan system – this is similar to the pad-and-fan system except that
incoming air is drawn through a hood in which high-pressure foggers have been
installed. As air is drawn through the fog, its temperature is reduced.
4) High-pressure fogging system – special nozzles convert water from liquid to vapor
form. This change has a great cooling effect on the air in which it comes in contact.

68. Under high temperature conditions, birds alter their behavior and physiological homeostasis
seeking thermoregulation, thereby decreasing body temperature.
In general, different types of birds react similarly to heat stress, expressing some individual
variation in intensity and duration of their responses.
A recent study showed that birds subjected to heat stress conditions spend less time feeding,
more time drinking and panting, as well as more time with their wings elevated, less time
moving or walking, and more time resting.
Animals utilize multiple ways for maintaining thermoregulation and homeostasis when
subjected to high environmental temperatures, including increasing radiant, convective and
evaporative heat loss by vasodilatation and perspiration.
Birds have an additional mechanism to promote heat exchange between their body and the
environment, which are the air sacs.
Air sacs are very useful during panting, as they promote air circulation on surfaces
contributing to increase gas exchanges with the air, and consequently, the evaporative loss of
heat.

69. However, it is worth noting that increased panting under heat stress conditions leads to
increased carbon dioxide levels and higher blood pH (i.e., alkalosis), which in turn hampers
blood bicarbonate availability for egg shell mineralization and induces increased organic acid
availability, also decreasing free calcium levels in the blood.
This process is very important in breeders and laying hens, as it affects egg shell quality.
However, although many studies have attempted to characterize the physiological mechanisms
associated to the egg quality decrease in heat stressed birds, there is no definitive knowledge,
and several potential pathways are still under investigation, including changes of reproductive
hormones levels and of intestinal calcium uptake.
Heat stress can affect the reproductive function of poultry in different ways.
In females, heat stress can disrupt the normal status of reproductive hormones at the
hypothalamus, and at the ovary, leading to reduced systemic levels and functions.
Also, negative effects caused by heat stress in males have been shown in different studies.
Semen volume, sperm concentration, number of live sperm cells and motility decreased when
males were subjected to heat stress.

70. Many studies have been published about the effects of heat stress on the efficiency of broiler
production. Heat stress results in estimated total annual economic loss to the U.S. livestock
production industry of $1.69 to $2.36 billion; from this total, $128 to $165 million occurs in the
poultry industry.In a recent study, broilers subjected to chronic heat stress had significantly
reduced feed intake (−16.4%), lower body weight (−32.6%), and higher feed conversion ratio
(+25.6%) at 42 days of age.
Many additional studies have shown impaired growth performance in broilers subjected to heat
stress. It has been reported that chronic heat exposure negatively affects fat deposition and meat
quality in broilers. In fact, recent studies demonstrated that heat stress is associated with
depression of meat chemical composition and quality in broilers.
Another recent study demonstrated that chronic heat stress decreased the proportion of breast
muscle, while increasing the proportion of thigh muscle in broilers.
Moreover, the study also showed that protein content was lower and fat deposition higher in
birds subjected to heat stress.

71. Thank
You