OCR A2 History - African American Presidents

1. Presidents Positives/Negatives
Johnson 1808-75
Democrat - 1865-9
Forced to support CR Bills as Congress overruled his veto's. Allowed de facto ignorance of
laws/black codes. Pardoned southerners/gave back promised AA land to restore then to US.
Roosevelt 1882-1945
Democrat – 1932-44
Forced to exclude AAs from ND in order to pass it through Congress. Depression hit AAs hard ->
encouraged fairer wages/lower working hours. Minor help -> executive order to ban discrimination
at work.
Truman 1884-1972
Democrat – 1944-53
FD -> ended segregation in army in 48 -> set up Presidents Committee on CR (excluding CR activists)
to discuss/improve AA living quality -> only highlighted problem no legal change.
Eisenhower 1890-1969
Republican – 1953-61
Only active as last resort. Appointed AA as chief SC judge but didn’t enforce B vs. B or act in 56
when Daniel stopped integration. 57 Little Rock – sent in Rangers
Johnson 1908-1973
Democrat – 1963-69
Used JLK’s death/southern background to join Democrats and Republicans and push for CR
legislation -> 64 CRA+65 VRA. Vietnam -> took funding/attention -> MLK spoke out -> ended
president-CR leader link. Used shock of MLK’s death to push 68 FHA through.
Nixon 1913-94
Republican - 1969-74
Strong-line against militant groups. Affirmative Action –> 69-74; 1% to 12% employment in Phili.
Bussing -> 74; less segregation in southern schools. Brought 3 branches together -> 72 EOA + 71 G
vs. DPC. Only to harm TUs/buy votes. 72 WS -> lost power
Reagan 1911-2004
Republican – 1981-89
Actor -> conservative -> hard line on student. Opposed 65 VRA as ‘humiliating’ -> opposed AA
positive/focused legislation. ‘Colour-blind’ to ignore affirmative action -> less AAs in administration
since Eisenhower. Economic down-turn -> 40% of most benefit claims; policies impacted poor worst
-> AAs stuck in poverty when economy recovered. Appointed conservative CSC judge; legislation
stopped but no -ve precedents. Accepted Congress rulings but delay them.

2. President – 1865-69
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Huge questions
surrounding AA’s rights
and their implementation.
• 1865-1877 -
Reconstruction was
enforced on south which
they resented and AA
rights dwindled.
• Johnson and Congress
continued to clash.
2) Changes in law:
• 14th Amendment 1868 –
all AA’s got citizenship and
equal protection under the
law.
• Civil Rights Act 1866 –
(excluding NA) gave all
races citizenship.
• Military Reconstruction
Act 1967 – divided south
into military districts ruled
by northern Army
Generals.
• 15th Amendment 1870 –
forbade denial of vote.
3) Reconstruction:
• Wanted to re-admit south
into the union (was a
southerner) with pre-war
relations quickly to gain
southern supporters.
• Issued 1000’s of pardons
to rebels so rich
plantation owners could
assert their authority.
• Though he begrudgingly
supported the 13th, he
said nothing of AA’s CRs
and allowed the Black
Codes.
• Majority of northerners
saw political advantage in
crushing south and
enfranchising AAs (they
would obviously vote
Republican).
• Could not stop Congress’s
Amendments but could
veto legislation (which
were overridden with
2/3rds majority in
Congress).
4) Impeachment 1868:
• A trial of an authoritative figure for a serious offence and the only way to remove a
President.
• House of Representatives is a prosecutor and the Senate jury.
• Came when Johnson dismissed his successful War Secretary.
• Was acquitted by one vote but weakened and allowed Republicans to rule for the rest of
the year before not re-running at the election.
5) Land Problems:
• After Emancipation
Proclamation, many AA’s had
same lives, just with (little) pay
because of lacking education.
• Most turned to sharecropping.
• Vision of ’40 acres and a mule’
but failed – Johnson's
amnesties meant that only
800,000 acres were ever
available and that was taken
back because of South's
poorness (1/3 mules dead and
50% of machinery gone because
of the war).
• Land owners rose rent on
sharecroppers and the crop-lien
system encouraged cotton
which weakened race relations.
6) Black Codes 1865:
• Varied state by state but all stated that:
• A ‘negro’ had more than or 1/8th black blood.
• Inter-racial marriages were allowed but mixed
were annulled.
• Property could be owned.
• Legal rights were limited.
• AA’s could testify but not against whites or
serve on juries.
• No vote.
• Segregated schools.
• Pre-emptied formal segregation for the 80/90s.

3. President – 1932-44
(re-elected 3 times)
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Previous presidents were indifferent,
incompetent, preoccupied and powerless to
the Democratic Congress men who would
oppose pro-AA legislation.
• However, he was preoccupied with ‘saving
America’ – in which he could not include AAs
because of Democrat opposition.
2) Support for AAs:
• Frankly told NAACP leader White in 1933
that he could not involve AAs in his New
Deal (initiative to increase America’s
economy after 1929 WSC) if it was to be
passed though Congress.
• If insisted on the AA problems, he would
lose Democratic support.
• AAs plight received more support from
Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 (cousin and
wife to FDR) who became aware of problems
after touring the nation as First Lady. She
publicly supported the NAACP’s Anti-
Lynching Bill 1930s to FDR’s embarrassment.
3) New Deal:
• Encouraged a wage rise and cutting of working
hours.
• By 1935, 30% of AA families were on benefits
compared to 10% of whites – illustrating their
poverty and the fair split of federal funding.
• However, urban AA unemployment rates
remained high and sharecroppers were hit hard
by Depression (not covered by the Social
Security Act or the National Labour Relations
Act that helped whites because of Democrats
refusal to vote for pro-AA legislation)
4) Individual Help:
• Supported the 1941 Philip Randolph
demand for fair employment opportunities
by issuing his Executive Order to ban
discrimination in workplaces.
• Set up the Fair Employment Practices
Commission to implement this.

4. President – 1944-53
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Served as a Democratic Senator 1935-1944,
then became Roosevelt’s Vice.
• Authorised atomic bomb on Japan in 1945.
• ‘Fair Deal’.
2) AA help:
• Used his authority as Commander-in-Chief
of Army to end military segregation in 1948.
• Commissioned a President’s Committee in
CRs in 1946 - committee that reported
directly to him on AA welfare/how to gain
their equality in a peaceful way. Included TU
leaders, churches and teachers but not CR
activists. Issued a report in 1947 after
interviewing 250 people; ‘To Secure These
Rights’.
• Identified major CR problems.
3) Impact:
• Created opinion that changed climate so as
future changes were welcomed but did not
create any legislation as was always blocked
by Congress.

5. President – 1953-61
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in
WWII.
• 2 terms as Republican President – popular
because of military past.
• Conception of Presidency; passive not active
(only active as last resort)
• Appointed Earl Warren as Chief SC judge.
• Failed to enforce B vs. B.
• Failed to act in 1956 when Governor Daniel
of Texas sent in Rangers to stop integration
enforcements so as to avoid opposition.
• However, did take action in Little Rock in
1957.

6. President – 1963-69
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• President after JFK’s assassination and won
landslide victory in 1964 election.
• Though not always consistent, he was one of the
few southern Senators who gave support to CR in
50s.
2) 1963 CRA:
• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully
used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience
with Congress/southern background to get
together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and
Democrats that alluded previous presidents.
3) Vietnam:
• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ
and Congress because of war.
• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –
violence against most basic principles/diverted
funds/attention away from CRs in
newspapers/TV.
• Ended tenuous relations with President.
• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing
Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or
mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over
MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

7. President – 1969-74
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Growing BP support meant many more
whites were voting Republican.
• Nixon took a hard line against militants
and wanted a pause in the drama.
• Eisenhower’s running mate in 52, took a
hard line against Communism.
• In 50s in Senate, took moderate line for
AA CRs.
• Ran for Presidency in 60 but Kennedy
won
• Though he opposed militant CR,
affirmative action and bussing were
helpful.
• Watergate scandal ruined reputation in
second term and withdrew rather than
be impeached.
2) Actions:
• Took strong line on law and order but
after early initiative, no CR actions were
taken as he was dominated by WS.
• Meant overcrowding continued and AAs
remained poor (especially in recession)
• However, pervious CR gains provided
momentum for changes in employment
and education.
3) Employment:
• Encouraged affirmative action – meant
that AAs were hired over whites to work
against discrimination over past 100 years.
• Controversial; could positive discrimination
be justified by giving AAs employment
quotas in large companies? Could they
overlook lacking education?
• Some, including SCLC members, thought it
was unwise as the American society was
known for its emphasis on meritocracy.
• Resulting in AA workers in Philadelphia
contracts to rise from 1% to 12% from
1969
• For first time, all three American
Constitutional powers worked together;
Congress passed 1972 Equal Opportunities
Act, giving more power to Equal
Opportunities Employment
Commission/enforcement of federal
guidelines in Courts. SC passed 1971
Griggs vs. Duke Power Company
(expectation of employers for AAs to pass
exam was unreasonable because of past
educational discrimination).
• Didn’t do it for AAs – thought it would split
TUs and was clear that voting equality was
de facto and Nixon was buying votes.
4) Education:
• Desegregation of schools was still implemented
because of liberalism of SC.
• Bussing – mandatory transportation of children
to even out race ratios in schools. An extreme
way to de facto enforce desegregation. Those
who liked closer schools/racist opposed it.
• Effect – by 1972, southern schools were more
integrated than most other US states.

8. President – 1981-89
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Hollywood actor, losing his
liberal views after becoming
president of the Screen Actors’
Guild.
• Governor of California in
1966/70 where he dealt
forcible with student rioting.
• Opposed 1965 Voting Rights
Act as ‘humiliating’ south.
• As president, tended to
oppose welfare and
employment programmes
focusing on AAs.
• Following conservative
economic/social policies was
popular.
• Anti-communist but improved
Soviet ties.
• After opposing positive
legislation while it passed, he
now accepted it and claimed
his administration was ‘colour-
blind’ but this was a way of
resisting affirmative action.
• Appointed fewer AAs to his
administration since
Eisenhower.
2) Effect:
• Presidency coincided with
economic slowdown.
• Reductions in welfare payments
hit AAs hard; in 1980, AAs made
up 11.7% of the population but
made up 43% of Aid to Families
with dependent children claims,
34% of housing subsidiary claims
and 35% of food stamp claims.
• Reagans shit policies impacted
most severely poor AA families
worst.
• After 1983, economy recovered
but many AAs did not benefit
(caught in poverty trap).
3) Judicial Appointments:
• Felt judicial merit should not be
sacrificed for equality.
• Appointment of conservative SC
judge William Rehnquist caused
more cautions interpretations of
CR legislation.
• Though no negative precedents
made, they gave other rulings
that modified previous CR
changes.
4) Congress:
• Forced to accept Congress
ruling which he could delay
but not stop.
• 1982 – renewal of VRA,
Congress strengthened it
with stricter laws
concerning discrimination
against groups of voters.
• 1983 – insisted on MLK’s
birthday becoming a
national holiday to which
Reagan reluctantly agreed.
• 1988 – strengthen the
1988 Fair Housing Act and
passed another CR
Restoration Act over
Reagan’s veto (the 1984
Grove City vs. Bell ruling
that organisations
receiving federal funding
only had to abide by the
CR legislation for the area
they were focusing on was
overruled so that all
aspects of CR legislation
must be met before
funding was allowed).