The document provides context around key events and developments in the American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1781. It describes how the Second Continental Congress met in 1775 and drafted appeals to Britain while also raising an army and navy. It then discusses several major battles such as Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Yorktown, as well as the roles of key figures like Washington, Burgoyne, Cornwallis, and the Marquis de Lafayette. France's entry into the war in 1778 as an American ally helped tip the balance against Britain, leading to the British surrender at Yorktown in 1781 and the start of peace negotiations.

2. Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775 was a clarion call to arms. The
Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia the next month in May, 1775. The
conservative element in Congress was still strong, with no well-defined sentiment for
independence. The Congress hopefully drafted new appeals to the British people and
king, while also adopting measures to raise money and to create an army and a navy.

4. BUNKER HILL and HESSIAN HIRELINGS
The clash of arms continued on a strangely contradictory basis. On one hand, the
Americans were emphatically affirming their loyalty to the king and earnestly voicing
their desire to patch up difficulties. On the other hand, they were raising armies and
shooting British soldiers.
This curious war of inconsistency was fought for 14 months, from April 1775 until July
1776, when independence was officially declared.

5. In June 1775 the colonials seized a hill, now known as Bunker Hill (actually Breed’s Hill),
from which they menaced the enemy in Boston. The British blundered bloodily when they
launched a frontal attack. Strongly entrenched American sharpshooters mowed down the
advancing British. But the colonists ran out of gunpowder and were forced to retreat.

6. Even in July, 1775, the Continental Congress adopted the “Olive Branch Petition,”
professing American loyalty to the crown and imploring the king to end the violence.
But following the bloodshed at Bunker Hill, King George III slammed the door on all hope
of reconciliation. In August of 1775 he officially declared the colonies in an official
state of rebellion. Colonial violence and propaganda was treason, punishable by hanging.
In September, 1775, King George III hired
thousands of German troops to help crush the
rebellion.
The German royalty needed the money; the British
needed the manpower.
Americans called these German mercenaries
Hessians. How did they prove as soldiers?

8. THE ABORTIVE CONQUEST of CANADA
In the fall of 1775, the Americans daringly undertook a two-
pronged invasion of Canada. American leaders erroneously
believed that the conquered French would seize the
opportunity to attack the British.
A successful assault would add a 14th colony, while depriving
Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies.
The bold attack on Canada narrowly missed success. The two
American forces were beaten back and the French-Canadian
leaders showed no desire to welcome the anti-Catholic
invaders.
Gen. Montgomery Gen. Arnold

9. THOMAS PAINE PREACHES
COMMON SENSE
Why did the Americans largely deny any intention of independence? What factors
would cause the change of heart for many Americans?

10. Then in 1776 came the publication of Common Sense, one of the most influential
pamphlets ever written. Its author was radical Thomas Paine. Common Sense highlighted
the following points:
1. Attacked America’s intrepidness and inconsistency
2. Nowhere in the physical universe did the smaller heavenly body control the larger one.
Then, why should England control the vast continent of North America?
3. America had a sacred mission, a moral obligation to the world, to become independent
4. Paine called for independence and the creation of a republic
5. France would not aid America unless a complete break with Britain was made
•American waverers now saw their cause rationalized through self-determination &
democracy
Not all Patriots agreed with Paine’s ultra-democratic approach to republicanism – explain
why

12. JEFFERSON’S “EXPLANATION” of INDEPENDENCE
Richard Henry Lee (VA) declared
American independence on June 7,
1776. His motion was adopted on July
2, 1776.
But John Adams called for a formal
explanation to the colonies and the
world.
Congress appointed a committee to
prepare a statement. Thomas
Jefferson was appointed to draft the
document.

13. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was approved by Congress.

16. PATRIOTS and LOYALISTS
Nathan Hale Loyalists Fleeing

17. The war of independence was also a civil war. Like many revolutions, the American
Revolution was a minority movement:
1. Many Americans were apathetic or neutral
2. Both Patriots and Loyalists competed for civilian allegiance
3. The British proved inept at exploiting colonial division
Loyalist (Tories), approx. 20% of the population, remained loyal to the crown:
1. Loyalists were in a “no-win” situation
2. Conservatives generally remained loyal (older; more content with their lot; feared
change)
3. Loyalists were least numerous in New England

18. The American Revolution was also an American civil war. Families & friends sometimes
bitterly split over their loyalties. Benjamin Franklin suffered an irreparable split with his
son, William, over the war.

20. THE LOYALIST EXODUS
The persecution of Loyalists was relatively mild
prior to 1776. The retaliation worsened after
1776 – many estates were confiscated and sold.
Approximately 50,000 Loyalists bore arms for
the British. And Loyalists aided the British by
providing intelligence and inciting Indians – the
British never fully utilized them (mistrust).

21. GENERAL WASHINGTON at BAY
Disaster befell the Americans in the summer
and fall of 1776. Outgeneraled and
outmaneuvered, they were routed throughout
the mid-Atlantic region. Washington and his
army were on the verge of annihilation.
The wonder is that Gen. William Howe did not
speedily crush the demoralized American
forces. Why did he allow Washington off
of the hook?

22. During the early months of the war, Gen. Washington was being out-fought by British forces. As his
army teetered on the brink of collapse, Washington utilized one of his greatest strengths –
establishing an elaborate spy network to gather intelligence on the enemy to keep them off balance.

23. Washington, who was almost counted out, stealthily re-crossed the Delaware River and
attacked Trenton on December 26, 1776. He surprised and captured 1,000 Hessians who
were sleeping off their Christmas celebration.

25. BURGOYNE’S BLUNDERING INVASION
London officials adopted an intricate scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River Valley
in 1777. If successful, the British would sever New England from the rest of the
states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force was under the
command of Gen. John Burgoyne.
Gen. Horatio Gates

26. As Howe was defeating Washington at Brandywine Creek and Germantown, Burgoyne was
trapped at Saratoga. Unable to move, Burgoyne surrendered his army at Saratoga on
October 17, 1777, to American Gen. Horatio Gates.

27. Gen. Howe, commanding the other half of the
British force, embarked for an attack on
Philadelphia, where he would engage and
destroy Washington’s army.
Washington transferred his army to the
vicinity of Philadelphia, where in late 1777, he
was defeated in two pitched battles –
Brandywine Creek & Germantown.

28. After his two victories, Gen. Howe settled down comfortably for the winter in
Philadelphia. Washington retired to winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, his
frostbitten and hungry men were short of about everything except misery. Morale was
low and Washington pleaded for provisions that would not be forthcoming.

30. It was during this brutal winter
camp that Washington’s
tattered army was whipped into
a professional army by a
Prussian drillmaster, the
profane but patient Baron von
Steuben.

32. Saratoga ranks high among the decisive battles of American history. The victory
revived the faltering colonial cause and it made possible the urgently needed foreign aid
from France which in turn helped ensure American independence.
Leading the negotiations with the French govt. was America’s most gifted diplomat, Ben
Franklin. Unlike many of his fellow Founding Fathers, Franklin remained at all times a
pragmatist and an astonishingly flexible thinker.
Franklin was respected and effective in
both Paris and London because he
demonstrated courteous deference to
Old World European traditions, even
when he might detest them.

33. STRANGE FRENCH BEDFELLOWS
France, eager for revenge against Britain, was eager to enflame the quarrel between its
rival and the American colonies. France saw an opportunity to regain its former position
and prestige.
And America’s cause rapidly became something of a fad in France. Bored aristocrats
were intrigued by the ideal of American liberty and French officials saw support as a
relationship of convenience.
After Lexington & Concord in 1775, French agents secretly provided war materials.
About 90% of all gunpowder used by Americans in the first 2 ½ years of the war came
from France.
Secrecy enshrouded French-American policy because open aid might provoke Britain to
war, and France feared that the American rebellion might fade out. The Declaration of
Independence and the American victory at Saratoga proved American resolve to the
French.
After its defeat at Saratoga, Britain belatedly passed a measure that in effect offered
Americans home rule within the empire. This had been the American demand. Ben
Franklin deftly used this leverage to secure direct and open French aid.

34. Louis XVI was reluctant to intervene, but his
ministers convinced him to act.
It was better to fight Britain while they
could have America as an ally.

35. So France, in 1778, offered the Americans a treaty of alliance. The treaty offered
everything Britain was offering – plus independence.
1. Both allies bound themselves to wage war until the U.S. had won its freedom and until
both agreed to terms with the common foe.
2. It was the first entangling military alliance for America – would later cause problems.
3. There was reluctance to a certain extent on the American side, but desperation demanded
drastic action.

36. THE COLONIAL WAR BECOMES a WORLD WAR
With the Franco-American alliance, Britain finds itself at war with France in 1778.
Spain and Holland declare war on Britain in 1779. Finding itself in a survival struggle,
the war in America becomes a secondary scuffle. Americans deserve credit for keeping
the conflict alive until 1778, but they did not achieve independence until the conflict
erupted into a multi-power world war that was too big for Britain to handle. France’s
involvement forced the British to change their American strategy. The British would
reposition and dilute its strength in America.

37. THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN
The British devised a plan to conquer the American South, where the Loyalists were
numerous. Loyalists and Patriots fought bitterly. Using tactics of delay and guerrilla
warfare masterly, Gen. Francis Marion and Gen. Nathanial Greene drove British Gen.
Charles Cornwallis from the deep South.
Gen. Nathanial Greene
Gen. Francis Marion
Gen. Charles Cornwallis

38. THE LAND FRONTIER and the SEA FRONTIER
On the frontier, the majority of Indian tribes
sided with the British. Mohawk chief Joseph
Brant believed that a victorious Britain would
restrain American expansion into the West.
By 1779, the Americans had defeated the
biggest Indian threats.

40. YORKTOWN and the FINAL CURTAIN
Why was the period of 1780-1781 one of the darkest periods of the war for
America?
How was Gen. Cornwallis blundering
into a trap?
Essentially, what role did the
French play in the British surrender
at Yorktown on October 19, 1781?
How long did fighting continue after
Yorktown?
Why was it imperative for America
to keep the cause alive during this
time?

41. The French, at left, and the Americans, right, accept the surrender of the British
redcoats at Yorktown.

44. PEACE at PARIS
The American victory at Yorktown marked
the practical end of the war. Britons
were weary of war and the British
military suffered setbacks in S. Asia.
Three American negotiators gathered at
Paris: Ben Franklin; John Adams; John
Jay

46. A tangle of alliances complicated the peace process. France was committed to
satisfying Spain (for its support) and America had promised France it would not
negotiate a separate peace with Britain (alliance of 1778).
Of the 3 American negotiators, Jay was the most determined to freeze-out the French.
He quickly figured out France’s game (keep America weak). Jay also distrusted the
Continental Congress which was under the influence of the French.
Fearing that France may secretly cut a deal with the British, undermining America, Jay
negotiated a separate peace. Britain seized this opportunity to split the Franco-
American alliance.
France protested the Anglo-American treaty half-heartedly:
1. Did not want to push America toward Britain
2. Took France off the hook with Spain
3. France was relieved to bring the costly conflict to an end

47. Identify & explain the
provisions of the treaty
for both sides.

48. CHAPTER 8 REVIEW QUIZZES
http://www.historyteacher.net/USProjects/USQuizzes/AmericanRevol1.htm
http://www.historyteacher.net/USProjects/USQuizzes/AmericanRevol2.htm