1. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Late 1700s-Early 1900s:
the Industrial Revolution transformed
the economies of Europe and the United States
from agricultural industrial
majority rural (country) population majority urban (city) population
2. The First Industrial Revolution, 1780s-1860s
run by:
• coal = fuel source
• iron = tools, machines, engines, weapons, railroad tracks
• steam engines = factories & transportation (railroad & steamships)
3. The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870s-1910s
run by:
• oil = joins coal as a fuel source
• steel = stronger than iron better machines, etc.; skyscrapers
• internal combustion engine = automobiles, airplanes
• electricity = power source, lighting, 24/7 factories
• rapid communication = telegraph, telephone, radio
4. Industrialization
Began in the United Kingdom of Great Britain in
the 1780s due to available
• capital
• population growth
• coal and iron deposits
• navigable rivers and ports
5. Capital
Since 1500s, England =
world’s leading
commercial power
(powerful navy with
colonies in Americas
and Asia)
6. Capital
Overseas trade vast
wealth capital
(surplus money)
available to invest in
machines and factories
18c British Port
7. Agricultural Revolution
Improved farming increased food supply
population explosion
• 1700-1870: 270% increase in crop yield
• 1700-1801: British population grew from
5.5 million to 9 million
Also, lower food prices more money to buy
manufactured goods
Yield Ratio for Grain Crops, 1400-1800
8. Agricultural Revolution
• The enclosure movement created
larger, consolidated land holdings.
• Crop rotation replenished the soil.
• Jethro Tull’s seed drill (1701) and cast
iron plough (1730) increased yields.
• Drainage of British wetlands added 10–
30% more arable land.
• Animals were selectively bred for
specific traits.
9. Coal and Iron
• Population explosion wood shortage
coal mining as alternative energy
10. Coal and Iron
• Thomas Newcommen invented the steam
engine to pump water from coal mines (1702).
• Coal = excellent to heat water for steam engines
11. Coal and Iron
• Abraham Darby
used coke to
improve smelting
to make pig iron.
• Henry Cort
produced
wrought iron
through the
puddling process
(1783).
British Pig Iron Production
The Eiffel Tower, Paris, France is
made of wrought iron, 1887-1889.
12. The Iron Bridge, England, 1781 was the world’s first cast iron bridge.
13.
14. Navigable Rivers and Ports
• Transportation costs fell sharply as canals
connected the interior to the Atlantic via
England's navigable rivers.
15. Textiles
• England = was
traditional
center of
wool textiles
in the Middle
Ages
• Trade with
Egypt, India,
and Americas
cotton to
Great Britain
17. Cottage Industry
• The cottage industry was a method of
subcontracting production of goods,
especially the weaving of cloth.
• Merchants supplied, or put out, raw
materials to rural workers to complete
at home and then paid piecework for
the finished product.
• It let workers supplement income
without having to travel and without
loss of time for farm, housework, or
family.
18. Textile Inventions
Late 1700s: new inventions increased
production but required workers to go to
the new machines near rivers (water mills
= power source) factory production
• John Kay's flying shuttle (1732)
• James Hargreaves's spinning jenny
(1764)
• Richard Arkwright's water frame
(1769) The “Water Frame”
19. Factory System
• James Watt's coal-fueled
steam engine (1769) freed
factories from river-powered
water wheels making steam-
powered machinery practical
factories near coal mines
for fuel, water for
transportation of goods
Manchester, England
• Shoes, furniture, munitions,
paper, and printing were soon
mechanized too.
23. 1813 2400 looms 150, 000 workers
1833 85, 000 looms 200, 000 workers
1850 224, 000 looms >1 million workers
Textile Factory
Workers in England
24. Factory Workers
• By 1840: cotton cloth = Britain’s
#1 product, sold worldwide
• Excess population and loss of
traditional farm jobs
competition for jobs factory
owners take advantage of
workers
• Unskilled women and children =
2/3 of industrial workforce.
Children were paid 1/3 or less of
man’s wage.
Stereotype of a Factory Owner
25. Engraving of interior textile mill, bad conditions
This engraving from Frances Trollope's Michael Armstrong, Factory Boy
depicts the hardship of the times. Here a boy is tearfully leaving his
family to work in a textile mill. (British Library)
Engraving of interior textile mill, bad conditions
Factory Workers
• Working hours = 12-16 hours/day,
6 days/week
• Hot temperatures & dangerous equipment
frequent (sometimes fatal) accidents
26. Factory Workers
• William Blake described British textile
mills as "satanic".
• Workers resisted in the Luddite
rebellion (1812).
• Miners faced cave-ins, explosions, tight
spaces, and poisonous fumes.
• Friedrich Engels reported the hellish
Condition of the Working Class (1844)
and wrote the Communist Manifesto
(1848) with Karl Marx.
The Luddites: 1811-1816
Attacks on the “frames”
[power looms].
27. “I think that if the Devil had a
particular enemy whom he
wished to unmercifully
torture the best thing for him
to do would be to put his
soul into the body of a
Lancashire factory child and
keep him as a child in a
factory the rest of his days.”
28. “[Because of pain] I could
scarcely walk, and my
brother and sister used
to take me under each
arm, and run with me to
the mill, and my legs
dragged on the ground …
and if we were five
minutes too late, the
overlooker would take a
strap, and beat us till we
were black and blue. ”
29. “We worked as long as
we could see. I could
not say at what hour
we stopped. There was
no clock in the mill …
[We] were not
permitted to have a
watch. There was one
man who had a watch
but it was taken from
him because he told
the men the time.”
30. “The master went by
the name Tom the
Devil. He was a very
bad man … The master
started beating me with
a stick over the head till
it was full of lumps and
bled. My head was so
bad that I could not
sleep for a long time,
and I never been a
sound sleeper since.”
31. “A young woman was [sick]
and so she stopped her
machine. The overlooker
knocked her to the floor. She
got up as well as she could.
He knocked her down again.
Then she was carried to the
apprentice house. Her bed-
fellow found her dead in bed.
There was another, Caroline
Thompson. They beat her till
she went out of her mind.”
32. “I got so bad in
health, that when
I pulled the
baskets down,
I pulled my bones
out of their
places.”
33. “[O]ne young girl was]
drowsy and sleepy; and her
thumb came into contact
with the machinery … I
heard the snap, and by the
time I came up to her, her
thumb was away from her
hand. She held her hand
out to me with her thumb
gone, the same as if it had
been cut with a razor.”
34. “It happened one evening,
[Mary Richards’] apron was
caught by the [machinery]. In
an instant the poor girl was
drawn by an irresistible force
and dashed on the floor. She
uttered the most heart-
rending shrieks!”
35. “… She whirled round and
round with the shaft - the
bones of her arms, legs,
thighs, etc. successively snap
asunder, crushed, seemingly,
to atoms, as the machinery
whirled her round, and drew
tighter and tighter her body
within the works …”
36. “… her blood was scattered
over the frame and streamed
upon the floor, her head
appeared dashed to pieces …
When she was extricated,
every bone was found broken
- her head dreadfully
crushed.”
37. “If I had a thousand pounds,
I would give them to have the use of my limbs again.”
38. Factory Workers
1833: The Factory Act
reduced child labor hours.
Inspectors could issue
fines.
1842: The Mines Act
prohibited women and
boys under 10 from
working underground.
1847: The Ten Hours Act
shortened the workday for
teens and women.
Girl mine worker dragging coal
This engraving of a girl dragging a coal wagon in the mines was one of several
that accompanied a parliamentary report on working conditions in the mines.
They shocked public opinion and contributed to the Mines Act of 1842.
(British Library)
Girl mine worker dragging coal
39. Railroads
• Steam engines also
powered railroads.
• 1830: George and
Robert Stephenson’s
Rocket traveled 16
mph first public
railroad of 32 miles of
track linking
Manchester to the
port of Liverpool,
England increased
global trade
40. Railroads
By 1850: trains = 50+
mph. Parliament, the
Bank of England, and
financiers like "Railway
King" George Hudson
invested in 6000+ miles of
railroad construction
during Railway Mania.
41. Railroads
Building railroads =
job opportunities
for farm laborers
and peasants
Cheaper
transportation
cheaper goods
more consumer
demand more
sales more
factories and more
machines
42. Steamship
• American Robert
Fulton introduced
the commercial
river steamboat
(1807).
• Isambard
Kingdom Brunel's
SS Great Western
was first
steamship to
cross the Atlantic
Ocean (1838).
43. Map of the main
steamship travel
routes, 1920.
44.
45. "Workshop of
the World“
Britain became
the "workshop
of the world“
producing
• 2/3 of
global coal
• 1/2 of
global iron
and cloth
• 1/5 of all
global goods
46. "Workshop of the
World"
Crystal Palace in
Hyde Park, London,
housed the Great
Exhibition of 1851,
the first great world's
fair. It was
championed by
Prince Albert. 13,000
exhibits showcased
British and foreign
industry and culture
to six million visitors.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51. The Second Industrial Revolution—Land
Transportation
• British engineer Thomas Hancock and
American inventor Charles Goodyear
vulcanized rubber tires (1844).
52. The Second Industrial Revolution—Land Transportation
• Nikolaus Otto's gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine (1868) drove Carl
Benz's and Gottlieb Daimler's automobiles (1880s).
54. The Second Industrial
Revolution—Land
Transportation
• Rudolf Diesel's
engine (1893)
powered electric
and water plants,
mining and drilling
equipment,
factories, and oil
pipelines in
addition to trucks,
ships, and boats.
58. The Second Industrial Revolution—Sea
Transportation
• Steel plates (1858) spurred rapid
shipbuilding improvements climaxing in the
tragic voyage of SS Titanic (1912).
61. The Second Industrial Revolution—Sea Transportation
• Experimental submarines appeared in 1860s and first saw combat during the
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).
The Ottoman submarine Abdül Hamid (1886) was the
first submarine to fire a torpedo while submerged.
64. The Second Industrial Revolution—Air Transportation
• Americans Orville and Wilbur Wright flew a plane (1903).
65. The Second Industrial Revolution—
Newspapers
• London Times was able to printed 1100
newspaper copies per hour by 1814.
• The penny press reduced costs and made
news accessible to the masses. British
Charles Knight’s Penny Magazine circulated
200,000 copies in first year (1832).
• British newspaper circulation grew over
300% from 1836 to 1854.
66. The Second Industrial Revolution—High-speed Communication
• Samuel Morse's telegraph (1844) enabled high-speed long-distance
communication. Undersea telegraph cables tethered Britain to France (1850)
and Ireland to Canada (1858).
67. The Second Industrial Revolution—
High-speed Communication
• Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell
patented the telephone (1876).
68. The Second Industrial Revolution—High-speed Communication
• The French Lumière brothers thrilled audiences with silent film (1895).
71. The Second Industrial
Revolution—Steel
• American William
Le Baron Jenney built
the first steel
skyscraper (1884).
French Gustav Eiffel
used wrought iron for
the Eiffel Tower (1889).
73. The Second Industrial Revolution—Electricity
• Alessandro Volta made the battery (1800).
74. The Second Industrial Revolution—Electricity
• British Michael Faraday built an electrical generator (1831) improved by
German electrical engineer Werner von Siemens.
75. The Second Industrial Revolution—
Electricity
• British power plants came two years
after Edison's light bulb (1879).
76. The Second Industrial Revolution—Electricity
• Appliances such as refrigerators, fans, and
vacuum cleaners were in affluent homes
by 1900.
77. The Second Industrial Revolution—Chemistry
• John Dalton's atomic theory (1805) led to Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table
and Alfred Nobel's dynamite in 1869.
78. The Second Industrial Revolution—
Chemistry
• German chemists made soaps,
pharmaceuticals, chlorine, sulfuric
acid, synthetic dyes, artificial
flavors, and fertilizers.
• Photography and silent films used
photosensitive chemicals on
celluloid.
• Rayon, a synthetic fabric, was
commercially marketed in 1905.
BASF-chemical factories
in Ludwigshafen, Germany, 1881
81. The Second Industrial Revolution—Biology
• Charles Darwin proposed natural selection
in Origin of Species (1859).
82. The Second Industrial Revolution—Biology
• Louis Pasteur's germ theory (1870) led to safe milk and packaged foods,
Joseph Lister's surgical antiseptics, and Robert Koch's 1905 Nobel Prize for
isolating tuberculosis bacillus.
83.
84. Urbanization
• New farm machines & falling price
of food unemployed farmers
• Farmers move from country
cities to find work (taking new
railroads to get there). Urban
populations grew by 70% per
decade.
• London’s population
• 1800: 1 million
• 1850: 2.5 m
• 1900: 6 m.
Map of London, 1806
Map of London, 1900
85. Urbanization
Rapid urban growth miserable living
conditions: tenements, pollution, poor
sanitation, disease
1842: Edwin Chadwick reported on
Manchester's filth.
1848: Britain’s first public health law was
enacted after a major cholera outbreak.
1854: Louis Pasteur introduced the germ
theory of disease.
Louis Pasteur doing science stuff.
86. Court for King Cholera
This 1852 drawing tells volumes
about the unhealthy living
conditions of the urban poor in
London.
In the foreground, children play
with a dead rat and a woman
scavenges a dung heap.
Cheap rooming houses provide
shelter for the frightfully
overcrowded population. (British
Library)
Court for King Cholera
87. Urbanization
• 1860s–1870s: Water and
sewage systems were built.
• Thomas Crapper
popularized the flush toilet.
Crystal Palace (1851) visitors
could "spend a penny" to
use a public toilet.
• Frankfurt boasted sewers
that flushed waste “From
the toilet to the river in half
an hour.”
Thomas Crapper’s toilet
allowed people to give
a crap to the sewers.
88. Urbanization
• The British Public Health Act of 1875
mandated running water in new housing.
Regular hot baths and showers followed.
Trash was collected and incinerated.
89. Urbanization
• European population grew
due to a falling death rate.
• Increased food supply
boosted immunity. More
children reached
adulthood. People lived
longer. Viral outbreaks fell
and vaccinations checked
smallpox.
• War claimed fewer victims
from 1815 to 1914.
Edward Jenner developed a
vaccine for smallpox in 1796.
90. Urbanization
1880s–1890s: German doctors introduced new
vaccines.
1910: The urban death rate was same as or less
than rural death rate.
1914: 80% of Britons, 60% of Germans, 45% of
French, and 30% of Eastern Europeans were
living in urban areas.
92. Urban growth, Vienna
This 1873
chromolithograph by G.
Veith gives a panoramic
view of the Ringstrasse, a
broad and handsome
boulevard that had
replaced the old ramparts
of Vienna after they were
pulled down in 1857.
Within the Ring--which
was lined with public
buildings--lay the old city,
clustered round the
cathedral of St. Stephen.
(Museen der Stadt,
Vienna)
Urban growth, Vienna
93. Urbanization
• 1853–1870: Napoleon III hired
Georges Haussmann to
redesign Paris. Razing old slums
for broad boulevards opened
traffic, improved housing,
created parks and open spaces,
and made assembling
revolutionary barricades
difficult.
• Aqueducts doubled the amount
of available fresh water. Sewers
carried filth away.
94. The long, straight avenues that continue to dominate Paris (pictured here
around 1870) were a key feature of Baron Haussmann’s rebuilding plans.
95. An overview of Paris, centring on the Étoile area that Haussmann redesigned.
96. Paris lit up by electricity
The electric light bulb was
invented in the United States
and Britain, but Paris made
such extensive use of the
new technology that it was
nicknamed the "City of
Lights."
To mark the Paris Exposition
of 1900, the Eiffel Tower and
all the surrounding buildings
were illuminated with strings
of light bulbs while powerful
spotlights swept the sky.
(Civica Raccolta delle Stampe
Achille Bertarelli, Milanoi)
Paris lit up by electricity
97. Urbanization
Transportation: Horse-drawn
public rail (1806) gave way to
steam (1825). Horse-drawn
buses (1825) were later driven
by steam (1831), electric trolley
(1882), and combustion motor
(1895).
1870s: Public transit was
introduced via horse-drawn
streetcars. Electrified streetcars
ferried 6.7 billion
passengers/year by 1910.
98. Industrial Era Social
Class Relations:
Landed Aristocracy
• Landed aristocracy
were 3/4 of British
millionaires in 1850.
• Eclipsed by captains
of industry, they
were only 1/4 of
British millionaires
in 1914.
The fictional Grantham family of Downton Abbey.
99. Industrial Era Social Class Relations:
Landed Aristocracy
Old money and new money merged.
American heiress Consuelo Vanderbilt
married Duke of Marlborough securing social
status for the Vanderbilt family in New York
high society of the Gilded Age while
Marlborough gained a fortune in railroad
stock.
100. Industrial Era Social Class
Relations—Bourgeoisie
• The middle class was less
than 1/5 of British
population, yet they
controlled more than 1/4 of
national wealth in 1900.
• Victorian values of Christian
morality, propriety, sobriety,
self-discipline, thrift,
cleanliness, sexual purity,
and fidelity epitomized
bourgeois culture.
101. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
• Industry needed white-collar engineers,
accountants, managers, and clerks.
Teaching, nursing, and dentistry became
respectable professions.
102. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
White-collar work offered single
women employment as
• clerks
• typists
• secretaries
• telephone operators
• teachers
• nurses
• postal service workers
103. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
• Married women labored only in poor
families. Victorian middle class women
lived according the cult of domesticity
which protected femininity and
avoided factory and office work.
• Women's place was managing the
home, budgeting, raising the children,
and providing moral guidance.
Shopping for food and goods was
conducted almost entirely by foot
requiring frequent trips out.
104. Industrial Era
Social Class
Relations—
Proletariat
• 80% of the
European
population
were skilled
and unskilled
workers,
shopkeepers,
artisans,
peasants, and
sharecroppers.
Capital and Labour: In coal mines 'labourers are obliged to go on all-
fours like dogs'. The labouring poor are locked away in misery, toiling
to produce the wealth that enabled 'upper classes' to live in luxury.
106. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Proletariat
• Work conditions improved after 1850.
Wages doubled by 1906. In 1870, French
workers spent 75% of their income on food
but only 60% by 1900.
• Shorter hours gave time for children and
recreation. Nonetheless, labor unions and
socialist parties grew, and rhetoric heated.
• By 1900 only 8% in Britain, 25% in
Germany, and less than 50% in France still
farmed.
Union certificate
This colorful certificate signifies membership
in the first professional union in Britain, the
Amalgamated Society of Engineers.
107. Spread of Industrialization
• The French
Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars (1792-
1815) delayed
continental
industrialization.
• Britain also safeguarded
its lead by making travel
abroad by skilled
artisans and mechanics
and export of textile
machinery illegal.
108. Spread of Industrialization
• 1799: Despite the ban, William
Cockerill and son took British
textile machines to Belgium.
Also a center of coal and iron
production, Belgium became
the world’s second industrial
country.
• Belgium created the limited
liability corporation to spur
capital investment by reducing
investors' financial risk.
109. Spread of
Industrialization
• 1809: Prussian Fritz
Harkort spread
industry to the
German Ruhr Valley.
• 1813: American
Francis Cabot Lowell
memorized and copied
designs of British
textile machinery for
factories in
Massachusetts, USA.
Lowell, Massachusetts factories, 1844
110. German Industrialization
• Early 1800s: Small German states
faced severe trade restrictions
caused by tolls and custom
barriers at political borders.
• Friedrich List urged the Zollverein
customs union (1834) and
railroad construction to prevent
British economic domination of
Germany. List's economic
nationalism laid the foundation
for German unification achieved
by Bismarck's Prussia in 1870.
111. German Industrialization
• The unified German Empire
industrialized rapidly
surpassing France by 1880
and becoming the
dominant European
industrial power by 1900.
• Industry was concentrated
in western Ruhr and Rhine
valleys, while the east
remained largely
agricultural.
112. German Industrialization
• Alfred Krupp showcased a high-quality steel
cannon at the 1851 Great Exhibition
triggering an international artillery arms race.
• Krupp Steel was the largest German
employer by 1887.
Essen, Germany, 1896
Krupp Steel cannon, 1893, capable
of firing a 2,000 pound projectile
over 5.5 miles, which would
explode 3400 steel balls weighing
about a quarter pound each.
113. Russian Industrialization
• Traditional autocratic,
feudal, and Orthodox
institutions delayed
development.
• Russia’s vastness was
challenge.
It took 75 days to
travel the length of
the canals linking St.
Petersburg to the
Volga River.
114. Russian Industrialization
• Defeat in Crimean War (1853–1856) led Tsar Alexander II to modernize.
• Less than 1% of 57 million population were industrial workers at time of serf
emancipation (1861).
Women
harvesting tea,
1907
Work at the
Bakalski Mine,
1910
115. Russian Industrialization
1890s: Rapid industrialization occurred
after Finance Minister Sergei Witte
moved Russia to the gold standard and
sought French and British investment.
Rail grew from 1250 miles in 1860 to
35,000 mile in 1900, including the
5700+ mile long Trans-Siberian
Railway.
By 1900, Russia was second in global
petroleum production and fourth in
steel production.
