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Suez University 
Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Engineering 
The Conversion of Organic Matter to Petroleum 
Student 
Belal Farouk El-saied Ibrahim 
Class / III 
Section / Engineering Geology and Geophysics 
The Reference / Pet. Geology 
(F.K.North) 
Presented to 
Prof. Dr. / Shouhdi E. Shalaby
Organic Matter 
When an organism (plant or animal) 
dies, it is normally oxidized Under 
exceptional conditions: organic 
matter is buried and preserved in 
sediments The composition of the 
organic matter strongly influences 
whether the organic matter can 
produce coal, oil or gas.
Basic components of organic 
matter in sediments 
• PROTEINS 
• CARBOHYDRATES 
• LIPIDS (Fats) 
• LIGNIN 
All of these + Time + 
Temperature + Pressure = 
KEROGEN
Biomolecules in Living Organisms 
Lipids, mostly fats, oils and waxes, have the greatest 
potential to be hydrocarbon sources. They are combinations 
of the fatty acids of the general formula CnH2nO2 with 
glycerol, C3H5(OH)3. An important example is glyceride 
C17H35COOCH3 formed from the stearic acid. 
Proteins are giant molecules that make up the solid 
constituents of animal tissues and plant cells. They are rich 
in carbon but contain substantial amounts of N, S and O. 
Carbohydrates are based on sugars Cn(H2O)n and their 
polymers (cellulose, starch, chitin). They are common in 
plant tissue. 
Lignin is a polymer consisting of numerous aromatic rings. It 
is a major constituent in land plants and converts to coal 
through desoxygenation.
Environment of the Transformation 
We have examined the type of raw material needed and 
how it must accumulate in the natural environment. The 
next link in the process is to examine what happens to this 
organic matter (OM) when buried and subjected to 
increased temperature and pressure. One thing to 
remember is that not all of the organic carbon (OC) in 
sedimentary rocks is converted into petroleum 
hydrocarbons. A portion of the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 
consists of Kerogen. We will look at the transformation of 
OM first to kerogen, then to petroleum hydrocarbons.
The only elements essential to the transformation of organic matter (OM) into petroleum 
are hydrogen and carbon. Thus the nitrogen and oxygen contained in the OM must 
somehow be removed while at the same time preserving the hydrogen-rich organic 
residue. The formation of petroleum at this point must occur in an oxygen-deficient 
environment, not be subjected to prolonged exposure to the atmosphere or to aerated 
surface or subsurface waters containing acids or bases, come into contact with elemental 
sulfur, vulcanicity, or other igneous activity, and have a short transportation time from the 
time of death to that of burial. All of these conditions must be met in order to avoid 
decomposition of the OM. All of this implies that as dead organic matter falls to the sea 
floor (organic rain), the hydrocarbon constituents needed for creating the end product will 
be preserved only if the water column through which they are falling is anoxic - lacking 
living organisms, fall is rapid - the particle size must not entirely be microscopic, bottom 
dwelling predators are lacking, and there is a rapid sedimentation rate - rapid deposition 
buries the OM below the reach of mud-feeding scavengers.
Once the organic material is buried within the sea floor, 
transformation begins. It is a slow process that occurs to the OM. The 
general process can be illustrated by the following formulas: 
OM + Transformation = Kerogen + Bitumen (by product) 
Kerogen + Bitumen + more Transformation = Petroleum 
There are three phases in the transformation of OM into 
hydrocarbons: Diagenesis, Catagenesis, and Metagenesis (Tissot, 
1997). Diagenesis occurs in the shallow subsurface and begins during 
initial deposition and burial. It takes place at depths from shallow to 
perhaps as deep as 1,000 meters and at temperatures ranging from 
near normal to less than 60oC. Biogenic decay aided by bacteria (such 
asThiobacillus) and non-biogenic reactions are the principal processes 
at work producing primarily CH4(Methane), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), 
H2O (Water), kerogen, a precursor to the creation of the petroleum, 
and bitumen.
Temperature plays an important role in 
the process. Ambient temperatures 
increase with depth of burial which 
decreases the role of bacteria in the 
biogenic reactions because they die out. 
However, much of the initial methane 
production begins to decline because it is 
the bacteria that produces the methane 
as a by-product during diagenesis. 
Simultaneous to the death of the bacteria 
however, the increased temperatures 
accelerate organic reactions.
The dependence of chemical reaction rates upon 
temperature is commonly expressed by: 
Arrhenius equation 
k=A*e[-E/RT] 
R =Gas constant (0.008314 KJ/mol0K) 
T=absolute temperature 
E=activation energy 
A=frequency factor
The Catagenesis (meaning thermodynamic, 
nonbiogenic process) phase becomes 
dominant in the deeper subsurface as burial 
(1,000 - 6,000 m), heating (60 - 175oC), and 
deposition continues. The transformation of 
kerogen into petroleum is brought about by a 
rate controlled, thermocatalytic process where 
the dominant agents are temperature and 
pressure
The temperatures are of non-biological origin; heat is 
derived from the burial process and the geothermal 
gradient that exists within the earth's crust. The 
catalysts are various surfactant materials in clays and 
sulfur. Above 200o C, the catagenesis process is 
destructive and all hydrocarbons are converted to 
methane and graphite. And at 300o C, hydrocarbon 
molecules become unstable. Thus thermal energy 
(temperature) is a critical factor, but it is not the only 
factor The time factor is also critical because it provides 
stable conditions over long periods of time that allows 
the kerogen sufficient cooking time - exposure time of 
kerogen to catagenesis. Thus the Catagenesis phase 
involves the maturation of the kerogen; petroleum is 
the first to be released from the kerogen followed by 
gas, CO2 and H2O.
The Third phase is referred to as Metagensis. It 
occurs at very high temperatures and pressures 
which border on low grade metamorphism. The 
last hydrocarbons released from the kerogen is 
generally only methane. The H:C ratio declines 
until the residue remaining is comprised mostly 
of C (carbon) in the form of graphite.
Preservation of Organic Matter 
The biomolecules described before are reduced forms 
of carbon and hydrogen. Their preservation potential 
depends crucially on anoxic conditions, i.e. the 
absence of oxygen that could oxidize them. 
Stratified basins that prevent vertical circulation and 
thus the transport of oxygen to greater depths 
provide excellent conditions for this. An example is the 
Black Sea, which is salinity-stratified, but many lakes 
are also anoxic in their deeper waters because of 
thermal stratification or abundance of nutrients and 
lack of circulation.
Preservation of Organic Matter 
Access to air (oxygen) rapidly - at geological scales - oxidizes 
organic matter and converts it into CO2 and H2O. 
The total carbon content in the Earth’s crust is 9·1019 kg (the 
hydroand biosphere contain less than 10-5 of this). Over 80% 
of this is in carbonates. Organic carbon amounts to 1.2·1019 
kg and is distributed approximately as follows: 
Dispersed in sedimentary rocks (~) 97.0 % 
Petroleum in non-reservoir rocks 2.0 % 
Coal and peat 0.13 % 
Petroleum in reservoirs 0.01 % 
This illustrates the low efficiency of the preservation process.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 
If a rock contains significant amounts of organic carbon, it is 
a possible source rock for petroleum or gas. The TOC content 
is a measure of the source rock potential and is measured 
with total pyrolysis. 
The table below shows how TOC (in weight percent) relates 
to the source rock quality. 
TOC Quality 
0.0-0.5 poor 
0.5-1.0 fair 
1.0-2.0 good 
2.0-4.0 very good 
>4.0 excellent
TOC Types 
TOC in sedimentary rocks can be divided into two types: 
• Bitumen, the fraction that is soluble in organic solvents such 
as chloroform 
• Kerogen, (κεροσ = wax) the insoluble, nonextractable 
residue that forms in the transformation from OM Kerogen is an 
intermediate product formed during diagenesis and is the 
principal source of hydrocarbon generation. It is a complex 
mixture of high-weight organic molecules with the general 
composition of (C12H12ON0.16)x
Conversion of OM to HC 
The principal condition is that this conversion take place in an 
essentially oxygen-free environment from the very beginning of 
the process. Anaerobic bacteria may help extract sulfur to form 
H2S and N, in addition to the earlier formation of CO2 and H2O. 
This explains the low sulfate content of many formation waters. 
On burial, kerogen is first formed. This is then gradually cracked 
to form smaller HC, with formation of CO2 and H2O. At higher 
temperatures, methane is formed and HCs from C13 to C30. 
Consequently, the carbon content of kerogen increases with 
increasing temperatures. Simultaneously, fluid products high in 
hydrogen are formed and oxygen is eliminated.
Dehydrogenization and Carbonization 
The dehydrogenation and carbonization of organic 
source n be illustrated with the H:C ratio during the 
formation of coals: 
Source material H:C ratio 
Wood 1.5 
Peat 1.3 
Lignite 1.0 
Bit. coal 0.8 
Anthracite 0.3-0.0 
Average, in weight %
Deoxygenization and Carbonization 
The deoxygenation and carbonization of the 
source material is illustrated with the 
formation of petroleum: 
Source material O:C ratio 
Organisms 0.35-0.6 
Pyrobitumen (kerogen) 0.1-0.2 
Petroleum (average) 0.004 
Average, in weight %
Source Rock Quality 
The primary factor determining source rock 
quality is the level of TOC. 
Additionally, the quality of the source rock is 
better for higher H:C ratios before thermal 
maturation. 
As thermal maturation proceeds and HCs are 
formed, the kerogen will continuously 
deteriorate as a source for HC formation.
Sapropelic 
kerogen (algae) 
Lipid-rich kerogen 
(phyto- and 
zooplankton) 
Humic kerogen 
(land plants) 
“Van Krevelen diagram” TAI, VR: Maturation indicators
Transformations with Depth 
Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin 
LOM = level of organic metamorphism; BTU = British 
Thermal Unit; VM = volatile matter
Rate of Maturation 
Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin 
Temperature is the single most important factor in thermal maturation.
Rate of Maturation ctd. 
Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin 
Time is the second most important factor in thermal maturation
Purposes of Maturation Indicators 
• To recognize and evaluate potential source rocks for oil and 
gas by measuring their contents in organic carbon and their 
thermal maturities 
• To correlate oil types with probable source beds through their 
geochemical characteristics and the optical properties of 
kerogen in the source beds 
• To determine the time of hydrocarbon generation, migration 
and accumulation 
• To estimate the volumes of hydrocarbons generated and thus 
to assess possible reserves and losses of hydrocarbons in the 
system.
Lopatin’s TTI Index 
V. Lopatin (1971) recognized the 
dependence of thermal maturation 
from temperature and time. He 
developed a method where in the 
temperatures are weighted with the 
residence time the rock spent at this 
temperature. Periods of erosion and 
uplift are also taken into account. This 
so-called time-temperature index TTI 
is still in use, although in variations. 
The plot on the right shows a simple 
depiction of it. Rock of age A enters the 
oil-generating window at time y, while 
the older rock B has been at that time 
already in the gas-generating window 
and will stay there until the present. 
Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin
Other Maturation Indicators 
Several approaches to quantify the degree of maturation have been 
proposed aside from the TTI. Most of them are sensitive to 
temperature and time. 
• Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) measures the reflectance of vitrinite (see 
Kerogen maturation diagram) in oil, expressed as a percentage. It 
correlates with fixed carbon and ranges between 0.5 and 1.3 for the 
oil window. Laborious but widely used. 
• Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) measures the color of finely 
dispersed organic matter on a scale from 1 (pale yellow) to 5 
(black). This index has a poor sensitivity within the oil window (TAI 
around 2.5 to 3.0) and is not generally used. 
• Level of Organic Maturation (LOM) is based on coal ranks and is 
adjusted to give a linear scale.
Correlation of TTI, Ro, and TAI
The Oil and Gas Windows 
The Oil and Gas Windows 
A similar slide as before. It 
shows clearly at what 
temperatures oil generation 
peaks. 
Gas generation diminishes 
above ~180°C 
Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, 
Allen & Unwin
Oil Source Rock Criteria 
The criteria for a sedimentary rock to be an effective oil source 
can be quantitatively described. They are as follows: 
• The TOC should be 0.4% or more 
• Elemental C should be between 75% and 90% (in weight) 
• The ratio of bitumen to TOC should exceed 0.05 
• The kerogen type should be I or II (from lipids) 
• Vitrinite reflectance should be between 0.6 and 1.3%
Summary: Origin and Maturation 
This diagram shows the 
development of biomolecules 
into petroleum and, with 
further maturation, into gas 
(left branch at bottom) which 
causes the residues to 
become increasingly more 
carbon-rich (right branch at 
bottom) 
Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and 
Geology, 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman & Co

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The conversion of organic matter to petroleum

  • 1. Suez University Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Engineering The Conversion of Organic Matter to Petroleum Student Belal Farouk El-saied Ibrahim Class / III Section / Engineering Geology and Geophysics The Reference / Pet. Geology (F.K.North) Presented to Prof. Dr. / Shouhdi E. Shalaby
  • 2. Organic Matter When an organism (plant or animal) dies, it is normally oxidized Under exceptional conditions: organic matter is buried and preserved in sediments The composition of the organic matter strongly influences whether the organic matter can produce coal, oil or gas.
  • 3. Basic components of organic matter in sediments • PROTEINS • CARBOHYDRATES • LIPIDS (Fats) • LIGNIN All of these + Time + Temperature + Pressure = KEROGEN
  • 4. Biomolecules in Living Organisms Lipids, mostly fats, oils and waxes, have the greatest potential to be hydrocarbon sources. They are combinations of the fatty acids of the general formula CnH2nO2 with glycerol, C3H5(OH)3. An important example is glyceride C17H35COOCH3 formed from the stearic acid. Proteins are giant molecules that make up the solid constituents of animal tissues and plant cells. They are rich in carbon but contain substantial amounts of N, S and O. Carbohydrates are based on sugars Cn(H2O)n and their polymers (cellulose, starch, chitin). They are common in plant tissue. Lignin is a polymer consisting of numerous aromatic rings. It is a major constituent in land plants and converts to coal through desoxygenation.
  • 5. Environment of the Transformation We have examined the type of raw material needed and how it must accumulate in the natural environment. The next link in the process is to examine what happens to this organic matter (OM) when buried and subjected to increased temperature and pressure. One thing to remember is that not all of the organic carbon (OC) in sedimentary rocks is converted into petroleum hydrocarbons. A portion of the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) consists of Kerogen. We will look at the transformation of OM first to kerogen, then to petroleum hydrocarbons.
  • 6. The only elements essential to the transformation of organic matter (OM) into petroleum are hydrogen and carbon. Thus the nitrogen and oxygen contained in the OM must somehow be removed while at the same time preserving the hydrogen-rich organic residue. The formation of petroleum at this point must occur in an oxygen-deficient environment, not be subjected to prolonged exposure to the atmosphere or to aerated surface or subsurface waters containing acids or bases, come into contact with elemental sulfur, vulcanicity, or other igneous activity, and have a short transportation time from the time of death to that of burial. All of these conditions must be met in order to avoid decomposition of the OM. All of this implies that as dead organic matter falls to the sea floor (organic rain), the hydrocarbon constituents needed for creating the end product will be preserved only if the water column through which they are falling is anoxic - lacking living organisms, fall is rapid - the particle size must not entirely be microscopic, bottom dwelling predators are lacking, and there is a rapid sedimentation rate - rapid deposition buries the OM below the reach of mud-feeding scavengers.
  • 7. Once the organic material is buried within the sea floor, transformation begins. It is a slow process that occurs to the OM. The general process can be illustrated by the following formulas: OM + Transformation = Kerogen + Bitumen (by product) Kerogen + Bitumen + more Transformation = Petroleum There are three phases in the transformation of OM into hydrocarbons: Diagenesis, Catagenesis, and Metagenesis (Tissot, 1997). Diagenesis occurs in the shallow subsurface and begins during initial deposition and burial. It takes place at depths from shallow to perhaps as deep as 1,000 meters and at temperatures ranging from near normal to less than 60oC. Biogenic decay aided by bacteria (such asThiobacillus) and non-biogenic reactions are the principal processes at work producing primarily CH4(Methane), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), H2O (Water), kerogen, a precursor to the creation of the petroleum, and bitumen.
  • 8. Temperature plays an important role in the process. Ambient temperatures increase with depth of burial which decreases the role of bacteria in the biogenic reactions because they die out. However, much of the initial methane production begins to decline because it is the bacteria that produces the methane as a by-product during diagenesis. Simultaneous to the death of the bacteria however, the increased temperatures accelerate organic reactions.
  • 9. The dependence of chemical reaction rates upon temperature is commonly expressed by: Arrhenius equation k=A*e[-E/RT] R =Gas constant (0.008314 KJ/mol0K) T=absolute temperature E=activation energy A=frequency factor
  • 10. The Catagenesis (meaning thermodynamic, nonbiogenic process) phase becomes dominant in the deeper subsurface as burial (1,000 - 6,000 m), heating (60 - 175oC), and deposition continues. The transformation of kerogen into petroleum is brought about by a rate controlled, thermocatalytic process where the dominant agents are temperature and pressure
  • 11. The temperatures are of non-biological origin; heat is derived from the burial process and the geothermal gradient that exists within the earth's crust. The catalysts are various surfactant materials in clays and sulfur. Above 200o C, the catagenesis process is destructive and all hydrocarbons are converted to methane and graphite. And at 300o C, hydrocarbon molecules become unstable. Thus thermal energy (temperature) is a critical factor, but it is not the only factor The time factor is also critical because it provides stable conditions over long periods of time that allows the kerogen sufficient cooking time - exposure time of kerogen to catagenesis. Thus the Catagenesis phase involves the maturation of the kerogen; petroleum is the first to be released from the kerogen followed by gas, CO2 and H2O.
  • 12.
  • 13. The Third phase is referred to as Metagensis. It occurs at very high temperatures and pressures which border on low grade metamorphism. The last hydrocarbons released from the kerogen is generally only methane. The H:C ratio declines until the residue remaining is comprised mostly of C (carbon) in the form of graphite.
  • 14. Preservation of Organic Matter The biomolecules described before are reduced forms of carbon and hydrogen. Their preservation potential depends crucially on anoxic conditions, i.e. the absence of oxygen that could oxidize them. Stratified basins that prevent vertical circulation and thus the transport of oxygen to greater depths provide excellent conditions for this. An example is the Black Sea, which is salinity-stratified, but many lakes are also anoxic in their deeper waters because of thermal stratification or abundance of nutrients and lack of circulation.
  • 15. Preservation of Organic Matter Access to air (oxygen) rapidly - at geological scales - oxidizes organic matter and converts it into CO2 and H2O. The total carbon content in the Earth’s crust is 9·1019 kg (the hydroand biosphere contain less than 10-5 of this). Over 80% of this is in carbonates. Organic carbon amounts to 1.2·1019 kg and is distributed approximately as follows: Dispersed in sedimentary rocks (~) 97.0 % Petroleum in non-reservoir rocks 2.0 % Coal and peat 0.13 % Petroleum in reservoirs 0.01 % This illustrates the low efficiency of the preservation process.
  • 16. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) If a rock contains significant amounts of organic carbon, it is a possible source rock for petroleum or gas. The TOC content is a measure of the source rock potential and is measured with total pyrolysis. The table below shows how TOC (in weight percent) relates to the source rock quality. TOC Quality 0.0-0.5 poor 0.5-1.0 fair 1.0-2.0 good 2.0-4.0 very good >4.0 excellent
  • 17. TOC Types TOC in sedimentary rocks can be divided into two types: • Bitumen, the fraction that is soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform • Kerogen, (κεροσ = wax) the insoluble, nonextractable residue that forms in the transformation from OM Kerogen is an intermediate product formed during diagenesis and is the principal source of hydrocarbon generation. It is a complex mixture of high-weight organic molecules with the general composition of (C12H12ON0.16)x
  • 18. Conversion of OM to HC The principal condition is that this conversion take place in an essentially oxygen-free environment from the very beginning of the process. Anaerobic bacteria may help extract sulfur to form H2S and N, in addition to the earlier formation of CO2 and H2O. This explains the low sulfate content of many formation waters. On burial, kerogen is first formed. This is then gradually cracked to form smaller HC, with formation of CO2 and H2O. At higher temperatures, methane is formed and HCs from C13 to C30. Consequently, the carbon content of kerogen increases with increasing temperatures. Simultaneously, fluid products high in hydrogen are formed and oxygen is eliminated.
  • 19. Dehydrogenization and Carbonization The dehydrogenation and carbonization of organic source n be illustrated with the H:C ratio during the formation of coals: Source material H:C ratio Wood 1.5 Peat 1.3 Lignite 1.0 Bit. coal 0.8 Anthracite 0.3-0.0 Average, in weight %
  • 20. Deoxygenization and Carbonization The deoxygenation and carbonization of the source material is illustrated with the formation of petroleum: Source material O:C ratio Organisms 0.35-0.6 Pyrobitumen (kerogen) 0.1-0.2 Petroleum (average) 0.004 Average, in weight %
  • 21. Source Rock Quality The primary factor determining source rock quality is the level of TOC. Additionally, the quality of the source rock is better for higher H:C ratios before thermal maturation. As thermal maturation proceeds and HCs are formed, the kerogen will continuously deteriorate as a source for HC formation.
  • 22. Sapropelic kerogen (algae) Lipid-rich kerogen (phyto- and zooplankton) Humic kerogen (land plants) “Van Krevelen diagram” TAI, VR: Maturation indicators
  • 23. Transformations with Depth Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin LOM = level of organic metamorphism; BTU = British Thermal Unit; VM = volatile matter
  • 24. Rate of Maturation Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin Temperature is the single most important factor in thermal maturation.
  • 25. Rate of Maturation ctd. Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin Time is the second most important factor in thermal maturation
  • 26. Purposes of Maturation Indicators • To recognize and evaluate potential source rocks for oil and gas by measuring their contents in organic carbon and their thermal maturities • To correlate oil types with probable source beds through their geochemical characteristics and the optical properties of kerogen in the source beds • To determine the time of hydrocarbon generation, migration and accumulation • To estimate the volumes of hydrocarbons generated and thus to assess possible reserves and losses of hydrocarbons in the system.
  • 27. Lopatin’s TTI Index V. Lopatin (1971) recognized the dependence of thermal maturation from temperature and time. He developed a method where in the temperatures are weighted with the residence time the rock spent at this temperature. Periods of erosion and uplift are also taken into account. This so-called time-temperature index TTI is still in use, although in variations. The plot on the right shows a simple depiction of it. Rock of age A enters the oil-generating window at time y, while the older rock B has been at that time already in the gas-generating window and will stay there until the present. Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin
  • 28. Other Maturation Indicators Several approaches to quantify the degree of maturation have been proposed aside from the TTI. Most of them are sensitive to temperature and time. • Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) measures the reflectance of vitrinite (see Kerogen maturation diagram) in oil, expressed as a percentage. It correlates with fixed carbon and ranges between 0.5 and 1.3 for the oil window. Laborious but widely used. • Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) measures the color of finely dispersed organic matter on a scale from 1 (pale yellow) to 5 (black). This index has a poor sensitivity within the oil window (TAI around 2.5 to 3.0) and is not generally used. • Level of Organic Maturation (LOM) is based on coal ranks and is adjusted to give a linear scale.
  • 29. Correlation of TTI, Ro, and TAI
  • 30. The Oil and Gas Windows The Oil and Gas Windows A similar slide as before. It shows clearly at what temperatures oil generation peaks. Gas generation diminishes above ~180°C Source: North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin
  • 31. Oil Source Rock Criteria The criteria for a sedimentary rock to be an effective oil source can be quantitatively described. They are as follows: • The TOC should be 0.4% or more • Elemental C should be between 75% and 90% (in weight) • The ratio of bitumen to TOC should exceed 0.05 • The kerogen type should be I or II (from lipids) • Vitrinite reflectance should be between 0.6 and 1.3%
  • 32. Summary: Origin and Maturation This diagram shows the development of biomolecules into petroleum and, with further maturation, into gas (left branch at bottom) which causes the residues to become increasingly more carbon-rich (right branch at bottom) Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman & Co