Horizontal analysis is also known as Trend Analysis refers to studying the behavior of individual financial statement items over several accounting periods. The Vertical Analysis concentrates on the relationships between various financial items on a financial statement. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Horizontal and Vertical Analysis:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/accounting/horizontal-and-vertical-analysis.aspx
Financial Reporting And Analysis Explained.as to why is it important, Who is it important for and the different ways of analyzing a financial statement.
Greenwich University
A presentation about the Cash Flow Statement ,whole chapter is covered in the slides .one can easily understand the concept of cash flow statement
and a video is also there but link went missing so please search it on youtube by the name of "cash flow statement in 3-min" a beautiful video to understand the basic concept of cash flow statement.In the end a numerical has solved for the better understanding ,which let u fetch marks in your examinations.
This presentation talks about Meaning, of accounting, distinction between book keeping and accounting, Branches of accounting, Objectives of accounting, Uses and users of accounting information, Advantages of Accounting, Is accounting a science or an art, double entry system of financial accounting, limitations of financial accounting, important terms, journal entry, accounting concepts and conventions
For full text article go to : https://www.educorporatebridge.com/financial-modeling/financial-modeling-technique/ This Financial Modeling Technique will help you to understand some important techniques like color coding, circular reference, compilation of historical data, things needs to be considered before making an assumption etc in order to make a financial model easy to understand.
Horizontal analysis is also known as Trend Analysis refers to studying the behavior of individual financial statement items over several accounting periods. The Vertical Analysis concentrates on the relationships between various financial items on a financial statement. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Horizontal and Vertical Analysis:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/accounting/horizontal-and-vertical-analysis.aspx
Financial Reporting And Analysis Explained.as to why is it important, Who is it important for and the different ways of analyzing a financial statement.
Greenwich University
A presentation about the Cash Flow Statement ,whole chapter is covered in the slides .one can easily understand the concept of cash flow statement
and a video is also there but link went missing so please search it on youtube by the name of "cash flow statement in 3-min" a beautiful video to understand the basic concept of cash flow statement.In the end a numerical has solved for the better understanding ,which let u fetch marks in your examinations.
This presentation talks about Meaning, of accounting, distinction between book keeping and accounting, Branches of accounting, Objectives of accounting, Uses and users of accounting information, Advantages of Accounting, Is accounting a science or an art, double entry system of financial accounting, limitations of financial accounting, important terms, journal entry, accounting concepts and conventions
For full text article go to : https://www.educorporatebridge.com/financial-modeling/financial-modeling-technique/ This Financial Modeling Technique will help you to understand some important techniques like color coding, circular reference, compilation of historical data, things needs to be considered before making an assumption etc in order to make a financial model easy to understand.
The main Financial Statements and Tables are following as simply forms;
Balance Sheet,
Income Statement,
Cash Flows Statement,
Retained Earning Statement
are here for you.
Best regards,
Sümeyye Karaca
This is to certify that the main project report entitled A Study on “FINANCIAL
ANALYSIS” with reference to NAGA HANUMAN SOLVENT OIL, PVT.LYD, BHIMADOL.”
submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of Master of Business Administration (MBA), is a original work carried out by me
and that it has not been submitted to any other university/institute for the award of any degree or
diploma.
Financial statements (or financial reports) are formal records of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity. Relevant financial information is presented in a structured manner and in a form which is easy to understand.
Budgeting is a process of expressing quantified resource requirements (amount of capital, amount of material, number of people) into time-phased goals and milestones.
Check out more @ www.eleaderstochange.com
Follow: #eleaders2change
What are the four 4 major financial statements.pdfsarikabangimatam
Financial statements summarize a company's business activities, financial performance, financial position, and cash flows through a series of written reports. All reports should be structured to convey relevant data in an easily digestible manner. Specifically, a cliff note on the financial performance of the Business Accountants. These reports typically provide a snapshot of a specific period of time and typically represent activity over a specific month, year, or specific time period. These financial statements are critical to understanding your business and performance.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2. Financial Statement Analysis
Financial statement analysis is a process of selecting,
evaluating, and interpreting financial data, along with other
pertinent information, in order to formulate an assessment
of a company’s present and future financial condition and
performance.
3. Financial Statement Analysis (Cont..)
Financial statements provide the most
widely available data on public
corporations’ economic activities
So, investors and other stakeholders rely on
financial reports to assess the plans and
performance of firms and corporate
managers.
4. Financial Statement Analysis (Cont..)
Financial statement analysis is a valuable tool
since it enables the outside analysts create ‘inside
information’ there by gaining valuable insights
about current performance and future prospects.
The assumption is managers have complete
information on a firm’s strategies and current state
of the art.
5. Financial Statement Analysis (Cont..)
Financial statement analysis is also important in:
– Assessing management performance of a company
and whether projections of improvement or
sustainability are reasonable.
– Assessing the value of a company from historic
performance.
– Assessing the reasonableness of financial projections
provided by a company or the validity of earnings
projections
– Assessing whether the financial structure of a
company is of investment grade quality
6. Objectives of Financial Statement Analysis
Financial statement analysis is like detective work – How can we use
information in financial statements to make assessments of various
issues. The financials should paint a picture of what has happened to
the company:
– How can we quickly review the income statement, balance sheet
and cash flow statement to determine how the stock market value
of a company compares to inherent value.
– How can we look the financial statements and assess risks
associated with a company and whether the company has
sufficient cash flow to pay off debt.
– Finance and valuation are about projecting the future -- how can
financial statement analysis be used in making projections.
– The problem in any financial analysis and valuation is that
measuring risk is very difficult
8. Financial Statement Analysis (Cont..)
What do internal users use it for?
Planning, evaluating and controlling company
operations
What do external users use it for?
Assessing past performance and current financial
position and making predictions about the future
profitability and solvency of the company as well
as evaluating the effectiveness of management
9. Financial Statement Analysis (Cont..)
Information is available from
– Published annual reports
(1) Financial statements
(2) Notes to financial statements
(3) Letters to stockholders
(4) Auditor’s report (Independent accountants)
(5) Management’s discussion and analysis
– Reports filed with the government
11. Horizontal Analysis
Using comparative financial
statements to calculate amount
or percentage changes in a
financial statement item from
one period to the next
Using comparative financial
statements to calculate amount
or percentage changes in a
financial statement item from
one period to the next
12. Vertical Analysis
For a single financial statement,
each item is expressed as a
percentage of a significant total,
e.g., all income statement items
are expressed as a percentage
of sales
For a single financial statement,
each item is expressed as a
percentage of a significant total,
e.g., all income statement items
are expressed as a percentage
of sales
14. Trend Percentages
Show changes over time in
given financial statement items
(can help evaluate financial
information of several years)
Show changes over time in
given financial statement items
(can help evaluate financial
information of several years)
15. Ratio Analysis
Expression of logical relationships between
items in a financial statement of a single
period (e.g., percentage relationship
between revenue and net income)
16. Basic Financial Statements
Three types of financial statements are mandated by the
accounting and financial regulatory authorities:
1. Income statement – how much money you made last year?
Revenue, expense, profits over a year or quarter.
1. Balance sheet – What’s your current financial situation?
a snap shot on a specific date of
Assets (value of what the firm owns),
Liabilities (value of firm’s debts), and
Shareholder’s equity (the money invested by the
company owners)
1. Cash flow statement – How did the cash come and go?
cash received and cash spent by the firm over a period of
time
17. Income Statement
Income Statement (Statement of Operations)
– Shows profitability for a period of time
– A summary statement of revenues, expenses, gains, and
losses.
– Must follow GAAP (financial accounting standards)
– Subject to much judgment by management.
– Traditionally, bottom-line earnings from income
statements represented primary stock price drivers.
– Currently, the move is on in the accounting profession
to distinguish appropriately between earnings and
“quality” earnings.
18. Sample Income Statement
SalesSales
Minus Cost of Goods SoldMinus Cost of Goods Sold
= Gross Profit= Gross Profit
Minus Operating ExpensesMinus Operating Expenses
Selling expensesSelling expenses
General and Administrative expensesGeneral and Administrative expenses
Depreciation and Amortization ExpenseDepreciation and Amortization Expense
= Operating income (EBIT)= Operating income (EBIT)
Minus Interest ExpenseMinus Interest Expense
= Earnings before taxes (EBT)= Earnings before taxes (EBT)
Minus Income taxesMinus Income taxes
= Net income (EAT)/Income available for appreciation= Net income (EAT)/Income available for appreciation
20. The Balance Sheet
Determines Solvency Position of an organization on
a given date
– Assets (Resources): Future economic value owned or
controlled by the organization
Current:--Cash and near cash assets
Non-current—Relatively permanent assets used to
generate revenue
– Liabilities (Debts): Future claims by outsiders on
assets of the organization
Current—Due in the near future
Long-term—Due at least one year from the B/S date
– Stockholders’ Equity—Owners’ claim to organization
resources
21. The Balance Sheet
The balance sheet provides a snapshot of the firm’s
financial position on a specific date. It is defined by:
Total Assets = Total Liabilities + Total Shareholder’s Equity
(Utilization of Fund) = (sources of funding)
Total assets represents the resources owned by
the firm.
Total liabilities represent the total amount of
money the firm owes its creditors.
Total shareholders’ equity refers to the difference
in the value of the firm’s total assets and the
firm’s total liabilities.
23. Statement of Cash Flows
Summarizes cash inflows and (outflows) for
a period of time
– Includes all cash inflows (outflows) regardless of
source or use
– Categories of cash flows
Operating Activities: Shows cash flows from operating
income (from income statement)
Investing Activities: Shows cash flows to investments
and from sales of investments
Financing Activities: Shows cash flows from borrowing
and sales of original equity issues and subsequent pay
back of loans, equity re-acquisitions, and dividends
24. Statement of Cash Flows
The format for a traditional cash flow statement is as
follows:
Beginning Cash Balance
Plus: Cash Flow from Operating Activities
Plus: Cash Flow from Investing Activities
Plus: Cash Flow from Financing Activities
Equals: Ending Cash Balance
Operating activities represent the company’s core business
including sales and expenses. Basically any activity that affects
net income for the period.
Investing activities include the cash flows that arise out of the
purchase and sale of long-term assets such as plant and
equipment.
Financing activities represent changes in the firm’s use of debt
and equity such as issue of new shares, payment of dividends.
25. Statement of Cash Flows
A. Operating Cash Flows
1) Net Income including int expense, int income and taxes
2) Depreciation
3) Deferred Taxes
4) Working Capital Changes
5) Minority Interest on Income Statement and Other Items
B. Investing Cash Flows
1) Capital Expenditure and Asset Purchases
2) Sale of Property, Plant, & Equipment
3) Inter-Corporate Investment
C. Financing Cash Flows
1) Dividend Payments
2) Proceeds from Equity or Debt Issuance
3) Equity Repurchased
4) Debt Principal Payments
26. STANDARDIZING STATEMENTS
One obvious thing we might want to do with a
company’s financial statements is to compare them to
those of other, similar companies. We would immediately
have a problem, however. It’s almost impossible to
directly compare the financial statements for two
companies because of differences in size.
To start making comparisons, one obvious thing we
might try to do is to somehow standardize the financial
statements. One common and useful way of doing this is
to work with percentages instead of amount. The
resulting financial statements are called common-size
statements.
27. Financial Ratio Analysis
Another way of avoiding the problems involved in
comparing companies of different sizes is to calculate
and compare financial ratios. Such ratios are ways of
comparing and investigating the relationships
between different pieces of financial information.
Financial ratio analysis is the use of relationships
among financial statement accounts to gauge the
financial condition and performance of a company.
28. Purpose of Ratio Analysis
Evaluate management performance in three areas:
– Profitability
– Efficiency
– Risk
Ratios are more informative than raw numbers
Ratios provide meaningful relationships between
individual values in the financial statements
29. Purpose of Ratio Analysis
Compare to other entities
Examine a firm’s performance relative to:
– The aggregate economy
– Its industry or industries
– Its major competitors within the industry
– Its past performance (time-series analysis)
Analysis helps you estimate the future performance of
the firm during subsequent business cycles
30. Categories of Financial Ratios
1. Internal liquidity (solvency)
2. Operating performance
– a. Operating efficiency
– b. Operating profitability
3. Risk analysis
– a. Business risk
– b. Financial risk
4. Growth analysis
5. External liquidity (marketability)
31. Internal Liquidity
Internal liquidity (solvency) ratios indicate the ability to meet
future short-term financial obligations
Current Ratio examines current assets and current liabilities
Quick Ratio adjusts current assets by removing less liquid assets
Cash Ratio is the most conservative liquidity ratio
sLiabilitieCurrent
AssetsCurrent
RatioCurrent =
sLiabilitieCurrent
sReceivableSecuritiesMarketableCash
RatioQuick
++
=
sLiabilitieCurrent
SecuritiesMarketableCash
RatioCash
+
=
32. Internal Liquidity (Cont…)
Receivables turnover examines the quality of accounts
receivable
Receivables turnover can be converted into an average
collection period
Inventory turnover relates inventory to sales or cost of
goods sold (CGS)
sReceivableAverage
SalesAnnualNet
TurnoversReceivable =
TurnoverAnnual
365
PeriodCollectionsReceivableAverage =
InventoryAverage
SoldGoodsofCost
TurnoverInventory =
33. Internal Liquidity (Cont…)
Given the turnover values, you can compute the
average inventory processing time
Average Inventory Processing Period = 365/Annual Turnover
Cash conversion cycle combines information from the
receivables turnover, inventory turnover, and accounts
payable turnover
Receivable Days
+Inventory Processing Days
-Payables Payment Period
Cash Conversion Cycle
34. Operating performance Ratio
Ratios that measure how well management is
operating a business
– (1) Operating efficiency ratios
Examine how the management uses its assets and capital,
measured in terms of sales dollars generated by asset or
capital categories
– (2) Operating profitability ratios
Analyze profits as a percentage of sales and as a
percentage of the assets and capital employed
35. Operating Efficiency Ratios
Total asset turnover ratio indicates the effectiveness of
a firm’s use of its total asset base (net assets equals
gross assets minus depreciation on fixed assets)
Net fixed asset turnover reflects utilization of fixed
assets
AssetsNetTotalAverage
SalesNet
TurnoverAssetTotal =
AssetsFixedNetAverage
SalesNet
TurnoverAssetFixed =
36. Operating Profitability Ratios
Operating profitability ratios measure
– 1. The rate of profit on sales (profit margin)
– 2. The percentage return on capital
Gross profit margin measures the rate of profit on sales
(gross profit equals net sales minus the cost of goods sold)
Operating profit margin measures the rate of profit on sales
after operating expenses (operating profit is gross profit
minus sales, general and administrative (SG + A) expenses)
SalesNet
ProfitGross
MarginProfitGross =
SalesNet
ProfitOperating
MarginProfitOperating =
37. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
Net profit margin relates net income to sales
Return on total capital relates the firm’s earnings to all
capital in the enterprise
Return on owner’s equity (ROE) indicates the rate of return
earned on the capital provided by the stockholders after
paying for all other capital used
SalesNet
IncomeNet
MarginProfitNet =
CapitalTotalAverage
ExpenseInterestIncomeNet
CapitalTotalonReturn
+
=
EquityTotalAverage
IncomeNet
EquityTotalonReturn =
38. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
Return on owner’s equity (ROE) can be computed for the
common- shareholder’s equity
DuPont analysis is a method of performance measurement
that was started by the DuPont Corporation in the 1920s.
With this method, assets are measured at their gross book
value rather than at net book value to produce a higher
return on equity (ROE). It is also known as DuPont identity.
EquityCommonAverage
DividendPreferred-IncomeNet
EquitysOwner'onReturn =
39. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
The DuPont System divides the ratio into several components that
provide insights into the causes of a firm’s ROE and any changes
in it
= Profit Margin X Total Asset Turnover X Financial Leverage
An extended DuPont System provides additional insights
into the effect of financial leverage on the firm and
pinpoints the effect of income taxes on ROE
EquityCommon
AssetsTotal
AssetsTotal
Sales
Sales
IncomeNet
××=
EquityCommon
IncomeNet
Equity
AssetsTotal
AssetsTotal
Sales
Equity
Sales
×=
EquityCommon
SalesNet
SalesNet
IncomeNet
EquityCommon
IncomeNet
ROE ×==
40. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
We begin with the operating profit margin (EBIT
divided by sales) and introduce additional ratios to
derive an ROE value
This is the operating profit return on total assets. To
consider the negative effects of financial leverage, we
examine the effect of interest expense as a percentage
of total assets
AssetsTotal
EBIT
AssetsTotal
Sales
Sales
EBIT
=×
AssetsTotal
TaxBeforeNet
AssetsTotal
ExpenseInterest
AssetsTotal
EBIT
=−
41. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
We consider the positive effect of financial leverage
with the financial leverage multiplier
This indicates the pretax return on equity. To arrive at
ROE we must consider the tax rate effect.
EquityCommon
(NBT)TaxBeforeNet
EquityCommon
AssetsTotal
AssetsTotal
(NBT)TaxBeforeNet
=×
EquityCommon
IncomeNet
TaxBeforeNet
TaxesIncome
%100
EquityCommon
TaxBeforeNet
=
−×
42. Operating Profitability Ratios (Cont…)
In summary, we have the following five components of
return on equity (ROE)
MarginProfitOperating
Sales
EBIT
.1 =
TurnoverAssetTotal
AssetsTotal
Sales
.2 =
RateExpenseInterest
AssetsTotal
ExpenseInterest
.3 =
MultiplierLeverageFinancial
EquityCommon
AssetsTotal
.4 =
RateRetentionTax
TaxBeforeNet
TaxesIncome
%100.5 =
−
43. Risk Analysis
Risk analysis examines the uncertainty of income flows for the
total firm and for the individual sources of capital
– Debt, Preferred stock, Common stock
Total risk of a firm has two components:
– Business risk
The uncertainty of income caused by the firm’s industry
Generally measured by the variability of the firm’s
operating income over time
– Financial risk
Additional uncertainty of returns to equity holders due to
a firm’s use of fixed obligation debt securities
The acceptable level of financial risk for a firm depends on
its business risk
44. Business Risk
Variability of the firm’s operating income over time
Standard deviation of the historical operating earnings series
Two factors contribute to the variability of operating earnings
– Sales variability
Earnings must be as volatile as sales
Some industries are cyclical
– Operating leverage
Production has fixed and variable costs
Fixed production costs cause profit volatility with changes
in sales
Fixed production costs are operating leverage
45. Financial Risk
Bonds interest payments come before earnings are available
to stockholders
These are fixed obligations
Similar to fixed production costs, these lead to larger
earnings during good times, and lower earnings during a
business decline
This debt financing increases the financial risk and
possibility of default
Two sets of financial ratios help measure financial risk
– Balance sheet ratios
– Earnings or cash flow available to pay fixed financial charges
Acceptable levels of financial risk depend on business risk
46. Financial Risk (Cont…)
Proportion of debt (balance sheet) ratios
This may be computed with and without deferred taxes
Long-term debt/total capital ratio indicates the proportion
of long-term capital derived from long-term debt capital
EquityTotal
DebtTerm-LongTotal
RatioEquity-Debt =
RatioCapitalL.T.Total-DebtL.T.
CapitalTerm-LongTotal
DebtTerm-LongTotal
=
47. Financial Risk (Cont…)
Earnings or Cash Flow Ratios
– Relate the flow of earnings
– Cash available to meet the payments
– Higher ratio means lower risk
Interest Coverage
ChargesInterestDebt
(EBIT)TaxesandInterestBeforeIncome
=
ExpenseInterest
ExpenseInterestTaxesIncomeIncomeNet ++
=
48. Financial Risk (Cont…)
Firms may also have non-interest fixed payments due
for lease obligations
The risk effect is similar to bond risk
Bond-rating agencies typically add 1/3 lease payments
as the interest component of the lease obligations
Total fixed charge coverage includes any non-
cancellable lease payments and any preferred
dividends paid out of earnings after taxes
=CoverageChargeFixed
Rate)Tax-1Dividend/(PreferredPaymentsLeaseInterestDebt
PaymentsLeaseandTaxes,Interest,BeforeIncome
++
49. Financial Risk (Cont…)
Cash flow ratios relate the flow of cash available from
operations to either interest expense, total fixed
charges, or the face value of outstanding debt
=CoverageFlowCash
PaymentsLease3/1Interest
PaymentsLease1/3InterestFlowCashlTraditiona
+
++
=DebtTerm-Long/FlowCash
DebtTerm-LongofValueBook
TaxDeferredinChangeExpenseonDepreciatiIncomeNet ++
=DebtTotal/FlowCash
DebtTotal
TaxDeferredinChangeExpenseonDepreciatiIncomeNet ++
50. External Market Liquidity
Market Liquidity is the ability to buy or sell an asset
quickly with little price change from a prior transaction
assuming no new information
External market liquidity is a source of risk to investors
Determinants of Market Liquidity
The value of shares traded
– This can be estimated from the total market value of
outstanding securities
– It will be affected by the number of security owners
– Numerous buyers and sellers provide liquidity
51. External Market Liquidity (Cont…)
Trading turnover (percentage of outstanding shares
traded during a period of time)
A measure of market liquidity is the bid-ask spread
52. Analysis of Growth Potential
Creditors are interested in the firm’s ability to pay
future obligations
Value of a firm depends on its future growth in
earnings and dividends
53. Determinants of Growth
Resources retained and reinvested in the entity
Rate of return earned on the resources retained
= RR x ROE
where:
g = potential growth rate
RR = the retention rate of earnings
ROE = the firm’s return on equity
ROE is a function of
– Net profit margin
– Total asset turnover
– Financial leverage (total assets/equity)
EquityonReturnRetainedEarningsofPercentageg ×=
54. Comparative Analysis of Ratios
Internal liquidity
– Current ratio, quick ratio, and cash ratio
Operating performance
– Efficiency ratios and profitability ratios
Financial risk
Growth analysis
57. Limitations of Financial Ratios
Accounting treatments may vary among firms,
especially among MNCs
Firms may have divisions operating in different
industries making it difficult to derive industry ratios
Results may not be consistent
Ratios outside an industry range may be cause for
concern