Addressing agricultural gender inequalities in Ethiopia
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Presented by Annet A. Mulema at the 7th Annual Research Conference of Jimma University, 31 March–1 April 2016
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Addressing agricultural gender inequalities in Ethiopia
- 1. Addressing gender inequalities in Ethiopia’s agricultural sector to reduce poverty Annet A. Mulema 7th Annual Research Conference of Jimma University, March 31 –April 1, 2016
- 2. Presentation outline • Introduction • Conceptual framework • Gender equalities and inequalities • Addressing the gaps
- 3. Introduction • Potential of agriculture to spur growth, reduce poverty and transform livelihoods. • The sector is underperforming in many rural areas in part due to the constraints which affect the productivity of women. • Equal access to productive resources as men could increase yields on women’s farms by 20–30% (FAO 2011)
- 4. Introduction… • Agriculture one of the major sectors in GTPII • Women and youth empowerment, participation and equity one of the GTP II pillar strategies
- 5. Productivity Source: World Bank 2014
- 6. Productivity • Effort to reduce the gender gap can be enhanced by a better understanding of which factors matter and how they matter in different contexts.
- 7. Community Capitals Framework • ‘Capital’ is any type of resource which can be invested in to create new resources • The stock and flow of capitals influence access to resources and benefits • Interaction between the capitals spurs the momentum to adopt new technologies and improve livelihoods • A holistic rather than reductionist perspective to identify actions to reduce gender inequalities
- 8. Community Capitals Framework… Sustainable agricultural intensification Natural capital (land, livestock, plants, soil water) Social capital (networks, norms, trust, collaboration) Financial capital (Credit, saving, income) Physical/built capital (equipment, machinery roads, water, communication) Political capital (connections, power, voice, influence) Human capital (skills, knowledge abilities, health, leadership, labor) Cultural capital (culture, values, beliefs, religion)
- 9. Approach • Systematic literature review (1999-2014) • Validation of literature – ‘Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation project’ sites – Basona worena (Amhara region), Lemo (SNNP region), Endamehonei (Tigray) and Baale Sinana (Oromia region); 2 kebeles per woreda – 16 separate FGDs with men and women
- 10. Where does gender equality and inequality exist in the Ethiopian Agricultural sector?
- 11. Natural Capital
- 12. Natural capital • The stock of assets available in a particular location - farmland, biodiversity of plants and animals, water, soil and climate. • Ethiopia’s diverse agro-ecological environment • The state owns all land, with user rights allocated by local peasant associations
- 13. Gendered Land ownership in Ethiopia Authors (year published) Year data collected Sample size Type of land surveyed Indicator women Men Joint Other Data source Rafasa et al. (2012) 2011 7,530 households, 31,450 plots Agricultur al % of plots owned/managed by women/men 23 54 23 NR CSA Holden and Tefera (2008) 2007 608 households Any land % of men and women land owners or managers 37.5 before land reform 38.1 after land reform NR NR NA NA NA NA Norwegian University of Life Sciences Deininger et al. (2007) 2006 2,300 households Any land % of plots owned (certificates held) 11.12 35.68 51.68 1.52 (I don’t know) Ethiopian Economic Association/ World Bank Teklu (2005) Amhara (2004) 1,978 landholdings Any land % of plots owned (privately registered land held 28.9 32.5 38.6 NR Amhara Region Natural Resource and Land Administration Bureau Source: Doss et al. 2013
- 14. Land ownership across different countries Country (year) Househol d Women men Sample size HHs % of HH owning any agric. land Sample size women Own any land (sole or joint) Own any land (sole only) Sample size men Own any land (sole or joint) Own any land (sole only) Burundi (2010) 8,589 86 9,372 54 11 4,280 64 50 Ethiopia (2011) 16,693 73 16,503 50 12 14,107 54 28 Lesotho (2009) 9,385 53 7,624 38 7 3,317 34 9 Malawi (2010) 24,818 80 15,399 48 23 NA NA NA Rwanda (2010) 12,540 81 13,666 54 13 6,328 55 25 Senegal (2010–2011) 7,902 47 15,688 11 5 4,929 28 22 Tanzania (2010) 9,592 77 10,137 30 8 NA NA NA Uganda (2011) 9,029 72 8,667 39 14 2,292 60 46
- 15. Land… • Ethiopia has comparatively gender-equitable levels of land ownership • Gap is much smaller for jointly managed land • % of women owning any land (sole and joint) is more than double the % of women owning land alone • The land tenure reform – Increased land access and modest decision making power over land by women (Tefera 2013)
- 16. Livestock • Men possess more livestock species than women and the average number of livestock held is greater • Chickens mostly raised by women • Female divorcees have more livestock than widowed and married women
- 17. Human capital
- 18. Human capital • Includes formal and informal education, health status, and leadership skills, amount and quality of labor available and the ability to command labor. • It enables individuals to strengthen their understanding, identify promising technologies and practices, and obtain information to mobilize other resources.
- 19. Technical information and knowledge • Ragassa 2012: – About 20% of female heads and 30% of male heads had been visited by an extension agent in the past 12 months – 46% of male heads and 34% of female heads were visited by DAs in the last five years • Women have less access to information and knowledge attuned to their needs • Low women involvement in all stages of research or innovation
- 20. Division of labor • Gender division of roles and responsibilities (small vs heavy tasks) • Nationwide it is estimated that rural women work between 13-17 hours a day, in many cases more than twice that of men. • Women farmers have a smaller pool of household labor • Women have to depend - to a large extent- on male labor and/or rented traction power • Effect on decisions to adopt labor intensive practices
- 21. Health and Nutrition • Labor burden on women affects their health • Risk of zoonotic disease transmission • Undernutrition accounts for 28% of all child mortality (CSA, 2014). • Micronutrient deficiencies (vitamin A, zinc and iron) are prevalent mostly amongst pregnant women and children under five.
- 23. Financial capital • Monetary resources available for investment e.g. credit, savings and income • For monetary resources to become capital, they must be invested to create new resources
- 24. Credit • Importance of credit to investment in agric. • Agriculture credit requires some form of guarantee of repayment • Low women’s access to credit • Validation of literature: – there is equal opportunity to access credit by men and women – Men take more credit compared to women – Restriction in terms of the conditions for credit acquisition and objectives
- 25. Cultural capital
- 26. Cultural capital • The way people perceive the world around them, how they live their lives, their traditions, values and language. • Cultural capital helps to determine who is allowed to utilize specific resources within a given community • Cultural capital helps to determine how creativity, innovation, and influence emerge and are nurtured
- 27. Gender stereotypes, norms and values • A farmer is a ‘man’ • Preconditions for ox ownership or ‘cultivation capacity’ are observed • Women considered weak farmers • Women forbidden from using the plow • Identification of a woman as a head of household
- 29. Social capital • The networks, norms of reciprocity, and mutual trust that exist among and within groups and communities • Social capital assists individuals and groups to secure access to the resources that they need for developing their livelihoods
- 30. Membership to cooperatives and groups • Membership in cooperatives – 20% women membership in cooperatives – 18% in management positions – Membership of women HH higher than married women • Membership in informal groups – more women participation in Wobera and Idri groups
- 31. Social capital… • Effect on bonding, bridging and linking social capital
- 32. Physical capital
- 33. Physical capital • Includes infrastructure that supports other capitals such as processing equipment, roads, health centers, water systems, and electronic communication • Reduces the cost of production
- 34. Rural Infrastructure • women serve as ‘living infrastructure’ carrying out reproductive and productive roles without labor saving technologies. • Availability of good roads enhances access to markets by both men and women.
- 35. Rural infrastructure… • Mechanization increases labor efficiency and effectiveness • Irrigation systems • Limited literature on Infrastructural factors
- 37. Political capital • Political capital is based on organizations, connections, voice, power and ability to influence the way resources are distributed.
- 38. Decision making/power relations • In Ethiopia, the household head, regardless of their gender, enjoys almost all decision-making power • Despite overwhelmingly joint ownership, the right to sell livestock and keep the proceeds is the sole prerogative of the household head.
- 39. Political capital… • Women control income generated from dairy products such as milk, butter and cheese. • Improvement in land related decision making and asset control amongst women not accompanied with control of self-earned income and political participation.
- 40. Enabling environment • Agricultural development a top priority issue of the Ethiopian government (GTP II). • Gender equity one of the main pillars • Substantial investment made in road infrastructure and agric. extension services • Improvement in farmers’ access to technologies with potential to narrow the yield gap
- 41. Gender capacity Limited gender capacity of development and research staff 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 Gender analysis and strategic planning Gender responsive programming, budgeting, and implementation Knowledge management and gender responsive M&E Effective partnerships and advocacy on promoting gender equality Gender and leadership Innovation in gender responsive approaches Core Gender Capacities-Organizational Core Gender Capacities-Individual
- 42. Way forward to address gender gaps • Enhance gender capacity of staff doing research and development • Develop and mobilize women and men’s social capital • Disaggregate data beyond household headship - men and women • Conduct gender analysis to inform policy, research and extension • Invest in research and education systems capable of integrating information from multiple sectors
- 43. References • Central Statistical Agency (CSA). 2014. Ethiopia Mini Demographic and Health Survey. Central Statistical Agency: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. • Doss, C., Kovarik, C., Peterman, A., A. R., and van den Bold, M. 2013. Gender Inequalities in Ownership and Control of Land in Africa: Myths versus Reality. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01308. • FAO. 2001. Mixed Crop-Livestock Farming: A Review of Traditional Technologies based on Literature and Field Experience. Animal Production and Health Papers 152. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). • Ragasa, C., G. Berhane, F. Tadesse, and A. S. Taffesse. 2012. Gender Differences in Access to Extension Services and Agricultural Productivity. Ethiopia Strategy Support Program II, IFPRI Working Paper 49. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. • World Bank (2014) levelling the Field. Improving opportunities for women farmers in Africa. The World Bank
- 44. This work is financed by Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) It is implemented in a partnership with CGIAR centers, NARS, EIAR, Universities, NGOs, Extension, private sector. It contributes to the CGIAR Research Program on Humidtropics Acknowledgements
- 45. Acknowledgements • Photo credits • Apollo Habtamu (ILR) • Kindu Mekonnen (ILRI) • Annet Abenakyo Mulema • Cheryl Doss (Yale University) for her reviews
- 47. The presentation has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. better lives through livestock ilri.org
Editor's Notes
- African has the potential of agriculture to spur growth, reduce poverty and transform livelihoods. GTP II emphasis on agricultural development
- Pervasive wide gender gap
- When resources or assets are invested to create new resources, they become capital (Flora and Flora 2008). The framework identifies the nature of assets within each capital (stock), how people invest in capitals (flow), explores the interaction among the capitals, and then assesses resulting impacts across capitals
- Systematic literature review (1999-2014) to help identify the partners in gender dynamics
- The term gender equality has been defined in a variety of ways in the context of development. This report defines gender equality in terms of rewards for work and equality in access to human capital and other productive resources that enable opportunity), and equality of voice
- In all countries, the percentage of women owning any land (sole and joint) is more than double the percentage of women owning land alone. Although the same general pattern holds for men, the difference between the two figures is proportionally smaller as compared with that for women. Although most of the research considers tenure security at the household level, other research suggests that individual tenure within the household may also affect the outcomes of some household decisions (Doss 2005; Allendorf 2007; Deere and Twyman 2012). Difference sources of data, different results
- Ethiopia has comparatively gender-equitable levels of land ownership statistics which may be attributed to recent government land policies, specifically land registration programs that provide for joint registration Although decision-making over land is still dominated by men, the land tenure reform has made modest changes in women’s decision making power over land (Tefera (2013) . Women less likely to rent land which would give them access to better quality land than they would own (accounts for 20% of overall gender gap) Decision making power over land influence use of land
- Preference for particular livestock species is partly generated by agro-ecologies and partly by gendered roles in the household. A study conducted in Kenya by Ndiritu et al. (2014) revealed that livestock ownership increased the likelihood of manure application. Female plot managers owned less livestock which limited the amount of manure available for soil fertility management and adoption of the practice. Similar studies have not been conducted in Ethiopia. Consequences: low returns than men on an extra hectare of land Validation of literature: WHH have fewer species and lower numbers than MHH. Men possess on average more livestock species than do women, and the average number of livestock held is greater. Poor access to livestock affects adoption of technologies to increase soil fertility
- Skills, knowledge and abilities of people which they can deploy to mobilize other resources.
- Agricultural extension and rural education have been emphasized by development experts as crucial in achieving agricultural development, poverty reduction, and food security Women farmers tend to receive second hand information from husbands and friends if they are not the head of their household. Women farmers may not attend trainings due to household responsibilities or mobility constraints and or cultural constraints Lack of access to knowledge and skills limits women’s capacity to activity engage with improved technologies that increase productivity Quality of extension services – is not tailored their needs Norms governing interaction between women farmers and male extension workers. Effort made by organizations to train couples
- Labor can affect the long term sustainability of intensification processes Effect of household size - explains nearly quarter (23%) of the overall gap With so much time spent on domestic activities women’s opportunities to engage in more productive activities is severely limited. The colossal labor burden carried by rural women also jeopardizes their health and generally inhibits human and family development. Ignoring the link between women’s labor burden and household production capacity perpetuates household food insecurity (Frank, 1999). Adoption of a package of sustainable agricultural practices increased women’s workload, which may have affected their decisions to adopt the practices (Teklewold et al. 2013) Inability to control HH labour and hire labor
- Given the importance of agriculture for the livelihoods of the rural poor, agricultural growth has the potential to greatly reduce poverty – a key contributor to poor health and undernutrition. Positive association between human tuberculosis and diseases animals in herd Nationally, 40% of children under five are stunted, 15% are underweight and 8% are wasted. Increasing women’s access to resources, services and control of benefits would enhance their income and at the same time improve household nutrition (through dietary diversity) and ability to support children’s education and access to medical services An important step in this direction is a new path for agricultural development, one where agricultural growth is used not only to increase food production but also to enhance nutrition and health.
- Credit availability, by increasing the ability to invest, and improving access to other productive inputs and assets, is very important for improving farm productivity and returns from intensification (Tiruneh et al., 2001).
- Cultural capital helps to determine how creativity, innovation, and influence emerge and are nurtured (Flora and Flora, 2013).
- women are considered weak farmers and information regarding inputs as well as the actual inputs themselves are rarely distributed to women Validation: Although women are increasing engaged in ploughing fields using the oxen
- The networks, norms of reciprocity, and mutual trust that exist among and within groups and communities which can help build a sense of collective identity, shared future and which, in so doing, facilitate cooperative livelihood strategies (Putnam 1993; Flora and Flora, 2013).
- Agricultural cooperatives have great potential to enable the economically weak farmers to increase their collective bargaining power and individual capacities hence enhance their incomes, provide input services, create market opportunities, and help sell their members’ products. Women and men often experience differential access to social resources and networks, and this in turns impacts upon their ability to successfully engage in markets and invest in technologies. Effect on bridging and linking social capital
- Lack of physical capital increases the cost of production hence producers operate at a comparative disadvantage in the market. The opportunity costs associated with poor infrastructure can impede access to training, health services, inputs and income generation (DFID, 1999).
- Rural infrastructure enables rural populations to increase their productivity, access markets, improve their welfare, and emerge from isolation Women walk up to two to six hours one-way to fetch an average of six litres of water per head-load, which is still not enough for an average family of six persons and in most cases on poor quality. Trekking long distances to fetch water consume a lot of women’s time, thereby incapacitating them to engage in other social or economic activities (World Bank 2001). Enhanced access to markets increases financial capital
- The nature of engagement in markets differs between men and women and also by household wealth. Men usually take the farm produce to the markets (both their own and that of the women) especially in cases where the produce needs transportation, and were women’s goods (such as home-made craft-work and pottery, handicrafts) cannot be sold locally. Men from wealthier households often sell major cash crops (e.g. teff, wheat, maize, sorghum and barley) in bulk and travel to more distant markets to secure higher prices. The transaction costs associated with access to markets can negatively influence adoption of sustainable agricultural practices by smallholder farmers through increase in travel time and transport costs Infrastructural factors have not been a focus of much of the literature on agricultural intensification.
- Includes the ability of a category of people, or group, to influence the standards of social institutions (markets, state and civil society), regulations, and the enforcement of those regulations that influence the distribution of and use of resources.
- Many studies neglect who exactly participates in decision making over adoption of a given technology. In Ethiopia, the household head, regardless of their gender, enjoys almost all decision-making capacity over the use, purchase and disposal of assets regardless of who within the household may actually own them.
- In one national study, the head was entirely responsible for administering all household finances and incurring all consumption expenditures( including food, clothes, school fees, and medical expenses) in more than half of all cases (Fafchamps and Quisumbing, 2002)
- Overall, development partners scored higher than research partners