2. DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
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MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful language units in lan-
guages. For instance, the word “um*brel*la” has three syllables. None of these
three syllables are significant units on their own; they have sense only when
they are articulated or heard together. So, these three syllables form a single
shortest meaningful unit together, and consequently, umbrella is both a
morpheme and a word. Such words are called free morphemes.
However, although the suffixes are also the smallest meaningful units, they do
not convey any sense unless they are attached to word roots or stems. Such
morphemes are called bound morphemes.
All the words have roots or stems like “open”, “soft-en”, “clean”, “beauty”,
“success”, “book”, etc. Some morphemes (suffixes or prefixes) are attached to
these roots or stems. For instance, “open-ed”, “clean-ed”, “success-ful”, “beauti-
ful”, "whiten-ed" “teach-er“, “ir-respons-ible”, “un-count-able”, “un-necessari-
ly”, “go-ing”, etc.
As one could see, there are two kinds of suffıxes and prefixes in the given exam-
ples above. Some of these morphemes change the meaning and the part of
speech they belong with when they are attached to different roots or stems.
Some others, however, add certain inflectional meanings (çekim ekleri) to
verb and noun roots or stems such as tense, voice, person, mood, number,
direction or state without changing their root or stem meanings.
A morpheme that changes the meaning of a root or stem is called a
derivational morpheme (yapım eki); the other one, which does not change the
meaning of a root or stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (çekim eki). Both
the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes.
Some bound morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation
variants that bear the same meanings as the morphemes. For instance, in
English, when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun “book”, it is
pronounced as /s/; in “boy-s” as /z/; and in “box-es” as /iz/. As they are the
different pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named as
the allomorphs of the morpheme [S].
There are a lot more allomorphs in Turkish than there are in English. This is be-
cause bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant changes ac-
cording to the vowel and consonant rules of the Turkish language when they are
attached to roots or stems and to one another, and this process causes different
allomorphs to arise. All the allomorphs of a certain morpheme carry the same
3. DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
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meaning vocalizing differently, and therefore they do not change the meaning of
the morphemes because The Turkish sound system functions independently of
the Turkish morphemic system.
DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
Anlamlı Yapım Ekleri Ve Onların Altbiçimbirimleri
Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the
lexical meaning or the part of speech of a word used in a sentence:
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE NOUNS
[Cİ] allomorphs: ♫ [ci, cı, cü, cu, çi, çı, çü, çu]
When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels or voiced consonants) are at-
tached to the morpheme [Cİ], the /i/ vowel in this morpheme changes into /i, ı, ü,
u/ in accordance with the vowel harmony rules. However, if a noun ends with an
unvoiced consonant, the /c/ voiced consonants also change into the /ç/
unvoiced consonants in agreement with the consonant harmony rules:
peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-cı (postman), üzüm-cü (grapes seller), turşu-
cu (pickles seller), sepet-çi (basket maker), balık-çı (fisherman), süt-çü
(milkman), ok-çu (archer), aş-çı (cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci (coffee
seller), saat-çi (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-cı (furniture seller), kaçak-çı
(smuggler), musluk-çu (plumber), yaban-cı (foreigner), çiçek-çi (florist), yol-cu
(traveler), sanat-çı (artist), göz-cü (watch, watchman), söz-cü (spokesman),
politika-cı (politician), milliyet-çi (nationalist), diş-çi (dentist), kira-cı (tenant),
şarkı-cı (singer), börek-çi (someone who sells pies), boya-cı (painter), demir-
ci (blacksmith), halter-ci (weight lifter).
[LİK] allomorphs: ♫ [lik, lık, lük, luk]
meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept), kitap-lık (bookcase), göz-lük (eye-
glasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), ağız-lık (cigarette holder),
kulak-lık (headphones), çaydan-lık (tea pot), mezar-lık (graveyard), şeker-lik
(a bowl in which candies are kept), çokevli-lik (polygamy), tuz-luk (saltshaker),
çocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lık (farce, foolery), soytarı-lık (clowning),
dost-luk (friendship), düşman-lık (enmity), gece-lik (pajamas, nightgown), ön-
lük (apron), güven-lik (safety), anne-lik (motherhood), evlat-lık (adopted child),
kahraman-lık (heroism).
[CİLİK] allomorphs: ♫ [cilik, cılık, cülük, culuk, çilik, çılık, çülük, çuluk]
av-cılık (hunting), meyve-cilik (selling fruit), ön-cülük (leadership), yol-culuk
(traveling), aş-çılık (cooking), fal-cılık (fortune telling), tefe-cilik (usury), çiçek-
4. DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
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çilik (selling flowers), çif-çilik (farming), hava-cılık (aviation), balık-çılık (fishing),
kaçak-çılık (smuggling), çöp-çü.lük (scavenge)
[CİK] allomorphs: ♫ [cik, cık, cük, cuk, çik, çık, çük, çuk] (diminutive)
ev-cik (small house), kapı-cık (small door), köprü-cük (small bridge), kutu-cuk
(small box), eşek-çik (small donkey), ağaç-çık (small tree), kadın-cık (little
woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby).
[CEĞIZ] allomorphs: ♫ [ceğiz, cağız, çeğiz, çağız] (innocence)
kedi-ceğiz (innocent cat), kız-cağız (innocent girl), hayvan-cağız (innocent
animal), köpek-çeğiz (innocent dog), kuş-çağız (innocent bird).
[CE] allomorphs: ♫ [ce, ca, çe, ça]
İngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Türk-çe (Turkish), Rus-ça (Rus-
sian), İspanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), Çin-ce (Chinese), Arap-
ça (Arabic), Fransız-ca (French), İtalyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES
[CİL] allomorphs: ♫ [cil, cıl, cül, cul, çil, çıl, çül, çul]
ev-cil (domestic), insan-cıl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-çul (herbivorous)
[Lİ] allomorphs: ♫ [li, lı, lü, lu]
ev-li (married), çocuk-lu (with children), şemsiye-li (with an umbrella), bahçe-li
ev (house with a garden), şiyah ceket-li adam (the man in a black coat),
kırmızı-lı kadın (the woman in red), görgü-lü (having good manners, polite),
çiçek-li ağaç (a tree in blossom), yağmur-lu (rainy), kar-lı (snowy), sis-li
(foggy, misty), güneş-li (sunny), bulut-lu (cloudy), tuz-lu (salty), at-lı (man on
horseback), istek-li (willing), becerik-li (skillful), çamur-lu (muddy), hesap-lı
(economical), saygı-lı (respectful), suç-lu (criminal), hata:-lı (faulty), tat-lı
(sweet), mayo-lu (in a bathing suit), süt-lü (with milk, milky), paha-lı
(expensive), taş kafa-lı (stone headed), Adana-lı (from Adana), sürek-li
(continuous), hiddet-li (outrageous), kıl-lı (hairy), bilinç-li (intentional,
conscious), zarar-lı (harmful), tehlike-li (dangerous), şüphe-li (suspicious,
suspect), yer-li (native), iki bacak-lı (two legged), kanat-lı (winged), kaygı-lı
(anxious), umut-lu (hopeful), gerek-li (necessary), yetenek-li (talented), bağım-
lı (addicted, dependent), silah-lı (armed), renk-li (colored), kâr-lı (profitable),
zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), neşe-li (joyful), kusur-lu (faulty),
gürültü-lü (noisy), değer-li (precious), gerek-li (necessary), düşünce-li
13. DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
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Note: The allomorphs of the morpheme [MIŞ] are stressed. This morpheme is
also used as an inflectional morpheme.
[SEL] allomorphs: ♫ [sel, sal]
gör-sel (visual), uy-sal (complaisant), düşün-sel (mental), işit-sel (audial)
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE VERBS
[LE] allomorphs: ♫ [le, la]
el-le (el*le) (touch), bağ-la (bağ*la) (tie), baş-la (baş*la) (beğin, start), teker-le
(te*ker*le) (roll), göz-le (göz*le) (observe), kutu-la (ku*tu*la) (put in boxes),
damga-la (dam*ga*la) (stamp), tuz-la (tuz*la) (salt), leke-le (le*ke*le) (stain),
tekme-le (tek*me*le) (kick), sürgü-le (sür*gü*le) (bolt), düzen-le (dü*zen*le)
(arrange), yağ-la (yağ*la) (lubricate, oil), taş-la (taş*la) (throw stones), yel-le
(yel*le) (fan), denge-le (den*ge*le) (balance), sergi-le (ser*gi*le) (exhibit),
bağış-la (forgive), su-la (water), kaşık-la (spoon into greedily), kazık-la (cheat),
yargı-la (judge), kalbur-la (sift), ilaç-la (apply pesticide), ak-la (acquit), köstek-
le (hamper), besle (feed), algı-la (detect), fırça-la (brush up), orta-la (centre),
ezber-le (memorize), uygula (apply), ağır-la (show hospitality), av-la (hunt),
bağ-la (tie, connect), suç-la (condemn), yol-la (send), ateş-le (fire), belge-le
(certify), kilit-le (lock), ter-le (perspire), çimdik-le (pinch), göz-le (observe), fiş-
le (blacklist someone), iş-le (work), çaba-la (strive). ek-le (add), yük-le (load),
iz-le (follow), giz-le (hide), ezber-le (memorize), mühür-le (seal), yargı-la
(judge), sıra-la (put in order), gür-le (thunder, roll), çın-la (ring), ot-la (graze),
kol-la (watch, protect), sol-la (overtake), oy-la (vote), omuz-la (shoulder), hiza-
la (hi*za:*la) (align), parça-la (tear up), gaga-la (peck), düz-le (flatten), giz-le
(hide)
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE VERBS
[İR] allomorphs: ♫ [ir, ır, er, ar]
deli-ir (de*lir) (get mad), sarı-ar (sa*rar) (turn yellow), kara-ar (ka*rar)
(blacken, darken, or get dark), mor-ar (mo*rar) (get, turn purple).
[LEŞ] allomorphs: ♫ [leş, laş]
güzel-leş (get beautiful), sık-laş (get oftener, get tighter), ağır-laş (get heavier),
sağır-laş (get deaf), derin-leş (deepen, get deeper), kaba-laş (get ruder), yeşil-
leş, yeşil-len (turn green). Some adjectives like “kırmızı” may be either “kırmı-
zı-laş” or “kızar” (get (turn) red). “Kısa” becomes “kısal” (get shorter). “Uzun”
becomes “uza” (get longer).
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Examples: Günler kısalıyor. Days are getting shorter. Günler uzuyor. (*not
uzayor”) Days are getting longer.
In Turkish, “make something + adjective” "Make it shorter" is expressed in an
adjective + morpheme mixture which is too long to analyze in detail. Some
examples may explain them easily:
Uzun uzat (u*zat) “Onu uzat” (Make it longer); kısa kısalt (kı*salt) “Onu
kısalt” (Make it shorter); büyük büyüt (bü*yüt) “Onu büyüt” (Make it larg-
er); Küçük küçült (kü*çült) “Onu küçült” (Make it smaller); kara karart
(ka*rart) “Onu karart” (Make it darker); derin derinleştir (de*rin*leş*tir)
“Onu derinleştir” (Make it deeper)
CHANGING TURKISH ADJECTIVES INTO VERBS AND CORRESPONDING
ENGLISH LINKING VERBS
In place of the “linking verb + adjective” formation of the English language, the
verb forms of the adjectives are used in Turkish instead.
A short list of the adjectives that can be turned into verbs in Turkish, and the
English adjectives that can be turned into verbs, and the English adjectives
that can be used as verbs and the English linking verbs are given in the
following list:
adjective verb adjective verb + adjective
aç → acık hungry → get (feel) hungry
ağır → ağırlaş heavy → get heavier
akıllı → akıllan wise → become wiser
aptal → aptallaş foolish → become confused
ayık → ayıl sober → get sober, come around
beyaz → beyazlan white → whiten
bol → bolar loose → loosen
boş → boşal empty → empty
bozuk → bozul spoilt → spoil, decay
bulutlu → bulutlan cloudy → cloud, get cloudy
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adjective verb adjective verb + adjective
çirkin → çirkinleş ugly → get ugly
çürük → çürü rotten → decay
dar → daral narrow → narrow
deli → delir crazy → go crazy
dertli → dertlen sorrowful → get worried
değerli → değerlen precious → increase in value
dengeli→ dengele balanced→ balance
derin → derinleş deep → get deep, deepen
dikkatli → dikkat et careful → be careful
düz → düzelt flat → flatten
düzgün→ düzelt straight → correct, fix, repair
eğri → eğril bent → bend
ekşi → ekşi sour → turn sour
fakir → fakirleş poor → become (get) poor
genç → gençleş young → get younger
geniş → genişle large → enlarge
gerçek → gerçekleş true → come true
güç → güçleş difficult → grow difficult
güçlü → güçlen strong → grow stronger, strengthen
güzel → güzelleş beautiful → become beautiful
hazır → hazırlan ready → get ready
hızlı → hızlan fast → accelerate
ıslak → ıslan wet → get wet
ilginç → ilginçleş interesting→become more interesting
iyi → iyileş good, well get better
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adjective verb adjective verb + adjective
kaba → kabalaş impolite → become impolite
kalın → kalınlaş thick → thicken
kalabalık → kalabalıklaş crowded → get crowded
karanlık → karar dark → get dark
karmaşık → karmaşıklaş complicated→ get more complicated
kaygan → kayganlaş slippery → become slippery
kaygılı → kaygılan worried → worry, feel anxious
kirli → kirlen dirty → become (get) dirty
kırmızı → kırmızılaş, kızar red → redden, blush
kısa → kısal short → get shorter, shorten
kıskanç → kıskan envious → envy, be jealous
kızgın → kız angry → be angry
kolay → kolaylaş easy → get easy
kuru → kuru dry → dry
küçük → küçül small → decrease, become smaller
kötü → kötüleş bad → grow worse
mor → morar purple → become (turn) purple
neşeli → neşelen cheerful → cheer up
olgun → olgunlaş ripe → ripen
öfkeli → öfkelen angry → get angry
pahalı → pahalan expensive→ become more expensive
parlak → parla shiny → shine
rahat → rahatla comfortable → relax
renkli → renklen colorful → become colorful
sabırsız → sabırsızlan impatient →grow impatient
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adjective verb adjective verb + adjective
sakin → sakinleş calm → calm down
serin → serinle cool → become cooler
sert → sertleş solid, hard → become hard, harden
sinirli → sinirlen nervous, angry → get angry
sıcak → ısın worm → get warmer
sıkı → sıkılaş tight → tighten
sıkılmış → sıkıl bored → be bored
soğuk → soğu cold → become (get) cold
solgun → sol pale → fade
son → sonlan last → be over, end
tatlı → tatlan sweet → sweeten
tembel → tembelleş lazy → grow lazier
terli → terle sweaty → sweat
umutlu → umutlan hopeful → become hopeful
uslu → uslan well-behaved → become well-behaved
uzun → uza long → get (grow) longer, lengthen
üzgün → üzül sorry → be (feel) sorry
yakın → yakınlaş close → get closer
yanlış → yanıl wrong → be mistaken
yaramaz → yaramazlaş naughty → get naughtier
yavaş → yavaşla slow → slow down
yaşlı → yaşlan old → grow older
yeşil → yeşillen green → turn green
yoksul → yoksullaş poor → get poor
yüksek → yüksel high → rise
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adjective verb adjective verb + adjective
zayıf → zayıfla weak → lose weight
zengin → zenginleş rich → get rich
zor → zorlaş difficult → get difficult
Note: The colors used in this article are as follows:
1. Subjects and subject allomorphs are blue.
2. Verbs are red.
2. Objects, nouns, noun closes and coordinating conjunctions
are black.
3.Adverbs, adverbial phrases, subordinating conjunctions,
prepositions, postpositions and the “mi, mı, mü, mu” guestion
allomorphs are green.
4.Adjectives, noun modifiers, possessive allomorphs and
articles are purple.
5. Subject complements are brown.