How to Create APA Headers and a Title Page in Microsoft Word 2.docx

How to Create APA Headers and a Title Page in Microsoft Word
2010
(PC-Version)
Step-by-Step Directions
How to Create the Title Page Header
Within a Microsoft (MS) Word document:
1. Double-click the header area (the upper portion) of your first
page. You did this step correctly if a
green tab titled “Header & Footer Tools” opens on the top of
your MS Word Menu Bar as
illustrated below.
2. Under the Header and Footer Tools, in the “Options” section,
place a checkmark next to the
“Different First Page” box.
3. Next, move over to the “Header & Footer” section, click
“Header,” and then choose the second
option, which is “Blank (Three Columns).”
4. Double-click the middle “[Type text],” make sure it is
highlighted blue, and delete it by clicking

the “Delete” key on your keyboard.
5. Then click the left “[Type text],” make sure it is highlighted
blue, and type Running head:
(make sure it has a capital R, a lowercase h, and that you use a
colon). Then type in your title.
The title should be in all CAPS. To do this function, hold down
the “Shift” key on your keyboard
as you type your title. Your header title needs to be 50
characters or less. If you have a long title,
use only a shortened version for your header. Your header
should look like: Running head:
SHORTENED TITLE OF YOUR PAPER.
6. Then click the right most “[Type text]” area and click the
“Page Number” button in the
“Header & Footer” section, click “Current Position,” and then
select “Simple Plain Number.”
7. Highlight the header and page number (to do this step,
double-click until a blue highlight goes
from the title to the page number), and change the font to Times
New Roman and the font size to
12.
• Note: To change the font size and style, click the “Home” tab,
and in the “Font” section
change Calibri to Times New Roman. Then change the size 11
font to size 12 by

clicking on the small downward arrow next to the font name and
size.
How to Create the Title Page Content
1. Double-click out of the header to the main area of your
document.
2. Hit the “Enter” key on your keyboard approximately 5 times.
• Note: this number is not really set, but you do want it
positioned so all of your
information is in the middle of your title page.
3. Under the “Home” tab, in the “Paragraph” section, click on
the “Center” alignment button (a
shortcut to do this is by clicking Ctrl + e on your keyboard) and
add:
• Your paper’s title
• Your first name and your last name
• Your course Name and Number and Title
• Your instructor’s name
• The date you will turn in the paper.
--all spelled

out. For example:
January 1, 2014.
Proprietary Information of Ashford University, Created by
Academics, CR 215590.
4. Once your information is typed in, you need to double-space
your text. To do this step, highlight
your title, name, course information, instructor information, and
the date, and right-click on your
mouse.
5. Click the “Paragraph” button, go to the “Spacing” section,
and change the Line Spacing: from
“multiple” to “Double” and change the “Before” and “After”
spacing to 0 pt. Click “OK” when
you are done.
When you have completed these steps, your page should look
something like this:
How to Create the Header on Your Other Pages
1. Scroll to the second page of your document, and double-click
in the header area of the page.
2. Then click on “Header” button in the “Header & Footer”

section, and choose “Blank (Three
Columns).”
3. Double-click the middle “[Type text]” and delete it by
pressing the “Delete” key on your
keyboard.
4. Click on the left “[Type text],” and type in your shortened
Title in all CAPS.
a. Note: On your second page, you DO NOT want the words
“Running head:”—that is only
for the title page.
5. Then double-click the right “[Type text]” area, making sure it
is highlighted blue, and in the
“Header & Footer” section, click on the “Page Number” button,
click on “Current Position,”
and then select “Simple Plain Number.”
6. Double-click your whole header, making sure there is a blue
highlight over your title and page
number, and change the font style and size to Times New
Roman, 12 point.

How to Adjust Your Margins
1. To set your margins of your paper, double-click the “Ruler”
on the top of your document. If you
don’t have a ruler, go to the “View” tab at the top of your
paper, and in the “Show” section, put a
checkmark next to the “Ruler” box.
2. Once you have a Ruler, double-click the gray section of it. A
“Page Setup” box should pop open.
3. In the “Margins” tab, make sure that your Top, Bottom, Left,
and Right margins all read “1.” If
they don’t, click on the small arrows until it reads “1” and click
“OK.”
How to Change Your Font Style and Size
1. At Ashford University, the acceptable font size and style is
12 point, Times New Roman. So,
you must make sure that the font on the page is Times New
Roman.
2. To ensure this font, click the “Select” button in the top right
in the “Editing” section.
3. Click “Select All.”

4. Click the “Home” tab, and then change your font to Times
New Roman, size 12 if necessary.
How to Double Space Your Font
1. For college papers, double spacing is a requirement. To do
this step, click the “Select” button in
the top right of the “Editing” section.
2. Click “Select All.”
3. Right-click your mouse.
4. Click the “Paragraph” button.
5. Under the Spacing section, change the Line Spacing to
“Double,” and change the “Before” and
“After” spacing to 0 pt.
6. Click “OK” when you are done.

This step-by-step guide demonstrates how to set up your title
page and headers under correct APA
guidelines. If you need more help setting up your paper, please
email us at [email protected]
Thank you!
Ashford Writing Center
mailto:[email protected]
1
ESSAY TITLE
Magazine, online edition
Online journal article, with DOI
Entry from edited anthology, print
YouTube video
Photograph, no date, no photographer
Photograph, with photographer
References
Apsolon, M. [markapsolon]. (2011, September 9). Real ghost

girl caught on Video Tape 14
[Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nyGCbxD848
Batchelder, A. (2010, July 6). Students brains are being
digitally rewired [Web
log post]. Retrieved from
http://literacyispriceless.wordpress.com/
Cayman Islands. (2008). The world factbook. Retrieved from
http://www.bartleby.com/br/151.html
Cendrowicz, L. (2010, July). Will Europe's bank stress tests
bring calm or spread more fear?
Time. Retrieved from
http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,2005557,00.h
tml
Diaz-Rico, L. T. (2008). A course for teaching English learners.
Boston, MA: Pearson.
Florian, R. V. (2010). Challenges for interactivist-constructivist
robotics. New Ideas in
Psychology, 28(3), 350–353.
doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2009.09.009
Guthrie, W. (2007). This land is your land. In R. DiYanni (Ed.),
Literature: Reading fiction,
poetry, and drama (6th ed.) (pp. 897–898). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.

Kulbis, M. (Photographer). (2006). Men pray [Photograph].
Retrieved April 12, 2006, from:
http://accuweather.ap.org/cgi-bin/aplaunch.pl
Lessard v. Schmidt, 349 F. Supp. 1078 (E.D. Wis. 1972).
Mawson, C. O. S. (Ed.). (n.d.). Roget's international thesaurus
of English words and phrases.
Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/br/110.html
McLaren, M., Thomas, J. (Producers), & Linklater, R.
(Director). (2006). Fast food nation
[Motion picture]. United States: Fox Searchlight.
Nelson Mandela [Photograph]. (n.d.). Retrieved January 10,
2014, from:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1993/m
andela-bio.html
Web log / Blog
Online encyclopedia
Book, print
Online dictionary
Film
Court decision

2
ESSAY TITLE
Online journal article, without DOI
Magazine, print
Newspaper, online edition
Website entry, corporate/government author
Santovec, M. (2008). Easing the transition improves grad
retention at Trinity U. Women in
Higher Education, 17(10), 32. Retrieved from
http://www.wihe.com/
Sloan, C., Booth, S., & Tate, A. (2010, July). Why I became an
American. Real Simple, 186–
192.
Tobin Ramos, R. (2010, July 22). UPS profit nearly doubles in
second quarter. The Atlanta
Journal-Constitution. Retrieved from http://www.ajc.com
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008).
Police and detectives. Retrieved
from http://www.bls.gov/oco/pdf/ocos160.pdf
Witt, G. A., & Mossler, R. A. (2010). Adult development.

Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/books/4
Ashford textbook, online
1
Created in 2015
IN-TEXT CITATION GUIDE
What are in-text citations?
An in-text citation is a citation within your writing to show
where you found your information, facts, quotes,
and research. APA in-text citation style uses the author's last
name and the year of publication, for
example: (Field, 2005). For direct quotations, include the page
number as well, for example: (Field, 2005,
p. 14). For sources such as websites and e-books that have no
page numbers, use a paragraph number
instead, for example: (Fields, 2015, para.3).
In-text citations follow any sentence in your writing that
contains a direct quote, or paraphrased or

summarized information from an outside source.
Each in-text citation in your writing must also have a
corresponding entry in your References list. There
are two exceptions to this rule: personal communications, like
interviews, emails, or classroom discussion
posts, and classic religious texts, like the Bible or the Koran.
These types of sources should be cited by
in-text citations only.
Always include in-text citations for:
All in-text citations require the same basic information:
ate of publication (or “n.d.” if there is “no date”)
Basic Examples of In-Text Citations
For a quote: “The systematic development of literacy and
schooling meant a new division in
society, between the educated and the uneducated” (Cook-

Gumperz, 1986, p. 27).
For paraphrased material: Some educational theorists suggest
that schooling and a focus on
teaching literacy divided society into educated and uneducated
classes (Cook-Gumperz, 1986).
For summarized material: Schooling and literacy contributed to
educational divisions in society
(Cook-Gumperz, 1986).
NOTE: If you mention the author and the year in your writing to
introduce the quote or paraphrased
material, then you need only include the page or paragraph
number in the in-text citation.
2
Created in 2015
For example:
According to Jenny Cook-Gumperz (1986), “The systematic
development of literacy and
schooling meant a new division in society, between the educated
and the uneducated” (p. 27).

Additional In-Text Citation Models
For online sources:
For a web page: The USDA is “taking steps to help farmers,
ranchers, and small businesses
wrestling with persistent drought” (United States Department of
Agriculture, 2015, “USDA Drought
Programs and Assistance,” para. 1).
Format: (Website Author, Year, “Web Page Title,” paragraph
number).
For an online article: The F.B.I. “warned the families not to talk
publicly” about the hostages
(Wright, 2015, para. 2).
Format: (Author’s Last Name, Year, paragraph number).
For an email communication: According to Dr. Edwards, “The
coming El Niño won’t do much to
alleviate California’s current drought” (personal
communication, April 26, 2015).
NOTE: Because most online sources do not contain page
numbers, use the paragraph number. While
many online sources may include numbers beside the
paragraphs, others may not, and you might have to
count them yourself. In the case of an extremely long article or

an online book, you may include the
section/chapter number and title and then the paragraph number,
like this:
(Smith, 2012, Chapter #, “Section Title,” para. 12).
Citing from a Secondary Source
Sometimes the quote you want to use is quoted by someone else
in another source, like your textbook.
You can still use that quote inside the textbook – this is called
citing from a secondary source. In this
case, the secondary source is your textbook and its author; the
primary source is the quote and its author.
So, in your writing, introduce the original author and the year
of publication, and then in the in-text citation
you’ll include the secondary source information. For instance,
you might want to include a quote by Sarah
Vowell that is cited in your textbook by Ryan Smith. You would
write this:
According to Sarah Vowell (2008), “The only thing more
dangerous than an idea is a belief” (as quoted in
Smith, 2012, Section #, “Section Title,” para. #).
NOTE: When citing from a secondary source, only the
secondary source information appears in the

references list. The primary source author and original date of
publication only appears in your writing.
3
Created in 2015
Moving the Citation Information Around
In-text citations contain three pieces of information: author,
publication date, and page/paragraph
location. However, if in your writing you place this information
elsewhere, like in the introductory phrase
before the quote, you do not need to repeat it in the citation.
Use the citation to “catch” anything you
haven’t already included.
Here are three examples where the citation information is
placed in different locations around the quote:
“The systematic development of literacy and schooling meant a
new division in society, between
the educated and the uneducated” (Cook-Gumperz, 1986, p. 27).
According to Jenny Cook-Gumperz (1986), “The systematic

development of literacy and
schooling meant a new division in society, between the educated
and the uneducated” (p. 27).
According to Cook-Gumperz, “The systematic development of
literacy and schooling meant a
new division in society, between the educated and the
uneducated” (1986, p. 27).
NOTE: Parentheses that contain citation information come after
the closing quote mark but before the
punctuation ending the entire sentence. Block quotes are the
exception, where the parenthetical citation
comes after the period at the end of the quote.
For a comprehensive overview of crediting sources, consult
Chapter 6 of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association.
http://www.apastyle.org/
Running head: SHORTENED TITLE 1

Week 1 Assignment
Importance of Developing Global Citizenship
Student’s Name
GEN499 General Education Capstone
Professor’s Name
Date
SHORTENED TITLE
2
Note: This assignment should be written in the correct format.
Please click on the Writing Center
tab at the left-hand toolbar of the course. You will then click on
the Writing Resources tab, which
goes over the basics of writing an essay. For information on
how to write in-text citations in APA
format, click on “In-Text Citation Guide” under Integrating
Sources within the Writing
Resources tab. This paper needs to consist of 750 – 1,000 words
(excluding the title and
reference page).

Start your paper with the title of this assignment:
Importance of Developing Global Citizenship
The introduction paragraph of this paper should inform the
reader of the topic you are
writing about while providing background information and the
purpose or importance of
addressing this topic of global citizenship. You should prepare
the reader by stating the concepts
you are about to address further in your paper. Typically a good
introduction paragraph is made
up of 5 – 7 sentences.
Short Title of First Prompt (i.e. Benefits of Being a Global
Citizen)
After viewing the required video Globalization: What Is
Happening to Us? (2010), you
need write a paragraph of 5 – 7 sentences addressing how being
a global citizen in the world of
advanced technology can be beneficial to your success in
meeting your personal, academic, and
professional goals. For instance, in thinking about how you
interact with others in your courses,
you could provide an example of how online courses contribute
to your development as a global

citizen. It’s important to cite the video per APA guidelines
within this paragraph.
Short Title of Second Prompt
https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?Token=50420
&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&loid=0&w=640&h=480&ref
SHORTENED TITLE
3
After reading the article by Reysen and Katzarska-Miller, you
need to write a paragraph
of 5 – 7 sentences explaining why there has been a disagreement
between theorists about the
definition of global citizenship. Within the article, the authors
address how specific schools of
thought define global citizenship. It would be a good idea to
paraphrase this information in your
own words and cite the article per APA guidelines. Also, within
this paragraph, you should
provide your own definition of global citizenship after reading
what other ideas are from the
article.
Short Title of Third Prompt

Note: Based on the article, you need to write two paragraphs: a
paragraph on each of the two
outcomes of global citizenship you chose (intergroup empathy,
valuing diversity, social justice,
environmental sustainability, intergroup helping, and the level
of responsibility to act for the
betterment of this world).
Name of First Outcome Addressed (i.e. Valuing Diversity)
Within this paragraph you need to explain why this outcome is
important in becoming a global
citizen. It’s a good idea to first define the outcome in your own
words and then provide a
thorough explanation on why it’s important for your own
development as a global citizen.
Name of Second Outcome Addressed (i.e. Social Justice)
Same instructions as the first paragraph above.
Short Title for Fourth Prompt
First Personal Example on (Name First Outcome)
SHORTENED TITLE
4

You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph describing a
personal experience that has
corresponds to the first outcome you addressed in the third
prompt and has assisted or resulted in
your development as a global citizen.
Second Personal Example on (Name of Second Outcome)
You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph describing a
personal experience that has
corresponds to the second outcome you addressed in the third
prompt and has assisted or resulted
in your development as a global citizen.
Short Title of Fifth Prompt
You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph that identifies two
specific education
courses and explains how each of those courses assisted or
influenced your development in
becoming a global citizen.
Conclusion
In this paragraph, you need to summarize the main points of this
assignment and include
a description of why this topic is important to address when it
comes to the development of

global citizenship. Typically a good conclusion paragraph
consists of 5 – 7 sentences. Keep in
mind that you should not share new information in the
conclusion paragraph. This means that
there should not be any in-text citations. You are basically
summarizing what you have written.
SHORTENED TITLE
5
References
Note: References are written below in the correct format per
APA guidelines. In addition to these
two required resources, you must locate another scholarly
source from the Ashford University
Library that applies to this topic and can be used to support

your perspective.
Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). A model of global
citizenship: Antecedents and
outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 858-870.
doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.701749
Jakobs, W. (Director), & Monfils, M. (Producer). (2010).
Globalization: What is happening to
us?- LUX great thinkers series [Video file]. Retrieved
&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&
loid=0&w=640&h=480&ref
A model of global citizenship: Antecedents
and outcomes
Stephen Reysen1 and Iva Katzarska-Miller2
1
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University–Commerce,
Commerce, TX, USA

2
Department of Psychology, Transylvania University, Lexington,
KY, USA
A s the world becomes increasingly interconnected, exposure to
global cultures affords individualsopportunities to develop
global identities. In two studies, we examine the antecedents
and outcomes of
identifying with a superordinate identity—global citizen. Global
citizenship is defined as awareness, caring, and
embracing cultural diversity while promoting social justice and
sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act. Prior theory and research suggest that
being aware of one’s connection with others in the
world (global awareness) and embedded in settings that value
global citizenship (normative environment) lead to
greater identification with global citizens. Furthermore, theory
and research suggest that when global citizen
identity is salient, greater identification is related to adherence
to the group’s content (i.e., prosocial values and
behaviors). Results of the present set of studies showed that
global awareness (knowledge and interconnectedness
with others) and one’s normative environment (friends and
family support global citizenship) predicted
identification with global citizens, and global citizenship
predicted prosocial values of intergroup empathy,
valuing diversity, social justice, environmental sustainability,
intergroup helping, and a felt responsibility to act
for the betterment of the world. The relationship between
antecedents (normative environment and global
awareness) and outcomes (prosocial values) was mediated by
identification with global citizens. We discuss the
relationship between the present results and other research

findings in psychology, the implications of global
citizenship for other academic domains, and future avenues of
research. Global citizenship highlights the unique
effect of taking a global perspective on a multitude of topics
relevant to the psychology of everyday actions,
environments, and identity.
Keywords: Global citizenship; Social identity; Normative
environment; Global awareness; Prosocial values.
A lors que le monde devient de plus en plus interconnecté,
l’exposition à des cultures globales offre auxindividus
l’opportunité de développer des identités globales. Dans deux
études, nous avons examiné les
antécédents et les conséquences de s’identifier à une identité
dominante – le citoyen global. La citoyenneté globale
est définie comme la conscience, la bienveillance et l’adhérence
à la diversité culturelle, tout en promouvant la
justice sociale et la durabilité, joint à un sens des
responsabilités à agir. La théorie et la recherche antérieures
suggèrent que le fait d’être conscient d’être connecté aux autres
personnes dans le monde (conscience globale) et
d’être enchâssé dans des milieux qui valorisent la citoyenneté
globale (environnement normatif) amène une plus
grande identification aux citoyens globaux. De plus, la théorie
et la recherche suggèrent que lorsque l’identité de
citoyen global est saillante, une plus grande identification est
reliée à une adhérence au contenu du groupe (c.-à-d.
les valeurs et les comportements prosociaux). Les résultats des
présentes études ont montré que la conscience
globale (connaissance et interconnexion avec les autres) et
l’environnement normatif d’une personne (les amis et

les membres de la famille qui soutiennent la citoyenneté
globale) prédisaient l’identification aux citoyens globaux.
De plus, la citoyenneté globale prédisait les valeurs prosociales
de l’empathie intergroupe, de la mise en valeur de
la diversité, de la justice sociale, de la durabilité
environnementale, de l’entraide intergroupe et du sens des
responsabilités à agir pour l’amélioration du monde.
L’identification aux citoyens globaux jouait un rôle
médiateur sur la relation entre les antécédents (environnement
normatif et conscience globale) et les conséquences
(valeurs prosociales). Nous discutons de la relation entre les
présents résultats et les résultats des autres recherches
en psychologie, des implications de la citoyenneté globale pour
les autres domaines académiques et des avenues
de recherche futures. La citoyenneté globale met en lumière
l’effet unique de la prise de perspective globale sur
Correspondence should be addressed to Stephen Reysen,
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University–Commerce,
Commerce, TX 75429, USA. (E-mail: [email protected]).
International Journal of Psychology, 2013
Vol. 48, No. 5, 858–870,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.701749
© 2013 International Union of Psychological Science
une multitude de sujets liés à la psychologie, sur les plans des
actions quotidiennes, de l’environnement et de
l’identité.

A medida que el mundo se vuelve cada vez más interconectado,
la exposición a las culturas globales les ofrecea los individuos
oportunidades para desarrollar identidades globales. En dos
estudios examinamos los
antecedentes y consecuencias de la identificación con una
identidad supraordinal —el ciudadano global. La
ciudadanı́a global se define como la conciencia, el cuidado y la
aceptación de la diversidad cultural a la vez que se
promueve la justicia social y la sustentabilidad, emparejada con
un sentido de responsabilidad de acción. La
teorı́a e investigaciones previas sugieren que el ser consciente
de la conexión que uno tiene con otras personas del
mundo (conciencia global) y estar inserto en entornos en que se
valora la ciudadanı́a global (entorno normativo)
conduce a una mayor identificación con los ciudadanos
globales. Además, la teorı́a e investigación sugieren que
cuando la identidad del ciudadano global es destacada, la mayor
identificación se relaciona con la adhesión al
contenido del grupo (por ej., los valores y comportamientos
prosociales). Los resultados de la presente serie de
estudios mostraron que la conciencia global (el conocimiento y
la interconexión con los demás) y el propio
entorno normativo (los amigos y familia que apoyan la
ciudadanı́a global) predijeron la identificación con los
ciudadanos globales, y la ciudadanı́a global predijo los valores
prosociales de empatı́a intergrupal, valoración de
la diversidad, justicia social, sustentabilidad ambiental, ayuda
intergrupal y una sentida responsabilidad de
actuar para la mejora del mundo. La relación entre los
antecedentes (entorno normativo y conciencia global) y
los resultados (valores prosociales) estuvo mediada por la
identificación con los ciudadanos globales. Se discuten

la relación entre estos resultados y otros resultados de
investigaciones psicológicas, las implicaciones de la
ciudadanı́a global para otros ámbitos académicos y los futuros
lineamientos de investigación. La ciudadanı́a
global destaca el efecto único de adoptar una perspectiva global
frente a una multitud de temas pertinentes a la
psicologı́a de las acciones cotidianas, los entornos y la
identidad.
Spurred by globalization, the concept of global
citizenship identity has become a focus of theoriz-
ing across various disciplines (Davies, 2006;
Dower, 2002a). In psychology, with a few excep-
tions (e.g., immigration, self-construal), little
research has empirically explored the vast effects
of globalization on identity and psychological
functioning. Calls for greater attention to the
effects of cultural (Adams & Markus, 2004) and
global (Arnett, 2002) influences on everyday life
have been relatively ignored. In the present paper
we cross disciplinary boundaries to draw on
theoretical discussions of global citizenship, and
utilize a social identity perspective (Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, &
Wetherell, 1987) to add conceptual and structural
clarity to the antecedents and outcomes of taking a
globalized perspective of the world.
Clarifying the concept of global citizenship is
difficult due to the use of seemingly synonymous
terms to describe a superordinate global identity,
and the influence of theorists’ disciplinary per-
spectives in defining the construct. A multitude of
labels are used to describe inclusive forms of
citizenship, such as universal, world, postnational,

and transnational citizenship. While some theorists
use the terms interchangeably, others make clear
distinctions. For example, Golmohamad (2008)
equates global citizenship with international and
world citizenship, while Haugestad (2004) suggests
that a global citizen is concerned about social
justice, a ‘‘world citizen’’ is concerned about trade
and mobility, and an ‘‘earth citizen’’ is concerned
about the environment.
The confusion regarding global citizenship is
exacerbated as theorists draw from diverse dis-
ciplines and perspectives (e.g., political, theologi-
cal, developmental, educational) to define the
construct. For example, theorists in philosophy
may highlight morality and ethics, education
theorists may highlight global awareness, while
others may eschew the concept altogether as
idealist and untenable because there is no concrete
legal recognition of global group membership (for
a review of competing conceptions of global
identity see Delanty, 2000; Dower, 2002a). In an
effort to integrate the various disciplinary framings
and highlight the commonalities in prior discus-
sions of global citizenship, Reysen, Pierce,
Spencer, and Katzarska-Miller (2012b) reviewed
global education literature and interviews with
self-described global citizens, and indeed found
consistent themes regarding the antecedents
(global awareness, normative environment) and
values posited to be outcomes of global citizenship
(intergroup empathy, valuing diversity, social
justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup
helping, and a felt responsibility to act for the
betterment of the world).

For the purpose of the present research, we
define global citizenship, as well as the related
constructs identified by Reysen and colleagues
(2012b), by drawing from prior interdisciplinary
theoretical discussions. Global awareness is defined
MODEL OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP 859
as knowledge of the world and one’s interconnect-
edness with others (Dower, 2002a; Oxfam, 1997).
Normative environment is defined as people and
settings (e.g., friends, family, school) that are
infused with global citizen related cultural patterns
and values (Pike, 2008). Intergroup empathy is
defined as a felt connection and concern for people
outside one’s ingroup (Golmohamad, 2008;
Oxfam, 1997). Valuing diversity is defined as an
interest in and appreciation for the diverse cultures
of the world (Dower 2002b; Golmohamad, 2008).
Social justice is defined as attitudes concerning
human rights and equitable and fair treatment of
all humans (Dower, 2002a, 2002b; Heater, 2000).
Environmental sustainability is defined as the belief
that humans and nature are connected, combined
with a felt obligation to protect of the natural
environment (Heater, 2000). Intergroup helping is
defined as aid to others outside one’s group, and is
enacted through behaviors such as donating to
charity, volunteering locally, and working with
transnational organizations to help others globally
(Dower, 2002a). Responsibility to act is defined as
an acceptance of a moral duty or obligation to act
for the betterment of the world (Dower, 2002a,

2002b). In line with themes found in prior
theorizing, we adopt the definition of global
citizenship as awareness, caring, and embracing
cultural diversity while promoting social justice
and sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act (Snider, Reysen, &
Katzarska-Miller, in press).
SOCIAL IDENTITY PERSPECTIVE
To empirically examine the antecedents and out-
comes of global citizenship, we utilize a social
identity perspective (Hogg & Smith, 2007; Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Turner et al., 1987). Individuals feel
different levels of identification (i.e., felt connec-
tion) with social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Each group has a prototype or set of interrelated
attributes (i.e., group content), that are specific to
that group (Hogg & Smith, 2007). When a
particular group membership is salient, the more
strongly one identifies with the group the more
depersonalization and self-stereotyping occur in
line with the group’s content such as norms,
beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviors (Turner et al.,
1987), and personality (Jenkins, Reysen, &
Katzarska-Miller, 2012). In effect, when an iden-
tity is salient, one’s degree of identification with
the group predicts adherence to the group’s
normative content (Hogg & Smith, 2007; Turner
et al., 1987).
EVIDENCE OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
CONTENT
Following a social identity perspective, we argue
that membership in the group ‘‘global citizen’’ is

psychological in nature. As suggested by
Golmohamad (2008), global citizenship is a mind-
set or attitude one takes. In effect, individuals
perceive themselves to be global citizens and can
feel a psychological connection with global citizens
as a group. Consequently, greater identification
with global citizens should predict endorsement of
the group content (i.e., norms, values, behaviors)
that differs from the content of other groups (e.g.,
American). To test this notion, Reysen and
colleagues (2012b) asked participants to rate
endorsement of prosocial values (e.g., intergroup
helping), and identification with global citizens,
cosmopolitans, world citizens, international citi-
zens, and humans. Global citizenship identifica-
tion predicted endorsement of intergroup
empathy, valuing diversity, environmental sustain-
ability, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility
to act, beyond identification with the other super-
ordinate categories.
Additional studies showed that global citizen-
ship identification predicted participants’ degree of
endorsement of prosocial values and related
behaviors (e.g., community service, recycling,
attending cultural events) beyond identification
with subgroup identities (e.g., nation, state,
occupation). Across the studies, global citizenship
content (i.e., prosocial values) was shown to differ
from the content of other social identities. In
effect, there is converging evidence that the content
of global citizenship is related to the prosocial
values (e.g., social justice, environmentalism)
posited in the literature, and global citizenship
identification predicts these prosocial values
beyond identification with other superordinate

and subgroup identities.
EVIDENCE OF ANTECEDENTS TO
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
As the world has become increasingly connected,
exposure to global cultures affords individuals
opportunities to develop global identities (Norris,
2000). To examine the influence of cultural context
on global citizenship identity, Katzarska-Miller,
Reysen, Kamble, and Vithoji (in press) assessed
participants’ perception of their normative envir-
onment (i.e., friends and family express an
injunctive norm that one ought to be a global
citizen), global citizenship identification, and
860 REYSEN AND KATZARSKA-MILLER
endorsement of prosocial values in samples from
Bulgaria, India, and the United States.
Participants sampled in the US rated their
normative environment and global citizenship
identification lower than participants sampled in
the other two countries. Mediation analyses
showed that the relationship between cultural
comparisons (US vs. Bulgaria, US vs. India) and
global citizenship identification was mediated by
participants’ perception that others in their nor-
mative environment valued global citizenship (i.e.,
participants’ environment contained an injunctive
norm that prescribes being a global citizen).
Further analyses showed that global citizenship
identification mediated the relationship between
cultural comparison and social justice, intergroup

empathy and helping, and concern for the envir-
onment. In other words, one’s normative environ-
ment is a strong predictor of global citizenship
identification, and global citizenship identification
mediates the relationship between cultural setting
and prosocial values.
Global awareness represents knowledge of
global issues and one’s interconnectedness with
others. Gibson, Reysen, and Katzarska-Miller
(2011) randomly assigned participants to write
about meaningful relationships (interdependent
self-construal prime) or not (control) prior to
rating their degree of global citizenship identifica-
tion and prosocial values. Participants primed with
interdependence to others showed greater global
citizenship identification and prosocial values
compared to participants in the control condition.
The relationship between priming interdependence
(vs. no prime) and global citizenship identification
was mediated by students’ perception of their
normative environment. Furthermore, global citi-
zenship identification mediated the relationship
between the interdependence prime (vs. no prime)
and endorsement of prosocial values. In effect,
raising participants’ awareness of interconnected-
ness with others led to greater endorsement of
prosocial values through a greater connection with
global citizens.
Conversely, raising the saliency of global com-
petition (related to an independent self-construal)
can reduce identification with global citizens.
Snider and colleagues (in press) randomly assigned
college students to read and respond about
globalization leading to the job market becoming

more culturally diverse, more competitive, or did
not read a vignette. Participants in the competition
condition rated global citizenship identification,
academic motivation, valuing diversity, intergroup
helping, and willingness to protest unethical
corporations lower than participants in the
culturally diverse framing condition.
Furthermore, participants exposed to the competi-
tion vignette were more willing to reject outgroups
than those in the diversity framed condition.
Students’ degree of global citizenship identification
mediated the relationship between globalization
message framing and academic motivation, valu-
ing diversity, intergroup helping, and willingness
to protest unethical corporations.
To summarize, past research has shown that
one’s normative environment (friends, family) and
global awareness (knowledge and interconnected-
ness with others) predict global citizenship identi-
fication. Global citizenship identification is
consistently found to mediate the relationship
between normative environment and global aware-
ness, and degree of endorsement of the group’s
content (i.e., prosocial values). Therefore, there is
considerable evidence to suggest a model of global
citizenship in which normative environment and
global awareness predict global citizenship, and
global citizenship predicts endorsement of proso-
cial values.
OVERVIEW OF CURRENT RESEARCH
In the present paper we test a model of the
antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship

identity. Following past theorizing (Davies, 2006;
Dower, 2002a, 2002b; Oxfam, 1997; Pike, 2008;
Schattle, 2008) and research (Gibson et al., 2011;
Katzarska-Miller et al., in press; Reysen et al.,
2012b; Snider et al., in press) we hypothesize a
structural model of global citizenship with one’s
normative environment (i.e., close others endorse
being a global citizen) and global awareness
(knowledge and interconnectedness with others)
predicting identification with global citizens, and
global citizenship identification predicting endor-
sement of prosocial values that represent the
group’s content (i.e., intergroup empathy, valuing
diversity, social justice, environmental sustainabil-
ity, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility to
act). In Study 1 we test the proposed structural
model, and in Study 2 we replicate the model with
a second sample of participants.
STUDY 1
The purpose of Study 1 is to test the predicted
model of global citizenship. Past theory and
research suggest that one’s normative environment
and global awareness predict greater global
citizenship identification, and identification with
global citizens predicts prosocial value outcomes.
In effect, global citizenship is expected to mediate
the relationship between antecedents (normative
environment and global awareness) and outcomes
(prosocial values).

Method
Participants and procedure
Undergraduate college participants (N ¼ 726,
57.6% women) completed the survey for either
course credit toward a psychology class or extra
credit in a nonpsychology class. Their mean age
was 28.90 years (SD ¼ 9.98). Participants rated
items assessing normative environment, global
awareness, global citizenship identification, inter-
group empathy, valuing diversity, social justice,
environmental sustainability, intergroup helping,
felt responsibility to act, and demographic infor-
mation. All items used a seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly
agree.
Materials
Normative environment. Two items (‘‘Most
people who are important to me think that being
a global citizen is desirable,’’ ‘‘If I called myself a
global citizen most people who are important to
me would approve’’) were combined to assess the
perception that others in one’s environment believe
that people ought to identify as global citizens
(injunctive norm) (a ¼ .82).
Global awareness. Four items (‘‘I understand
how the various cultures of this world interact
socially,’’ ‘‘I am aware that my actions in my local
environment may affect people in other countries,’’
‘‘I try to stay informed of current issues that
impact international relations,’’ ‘‘I believe that I

am connected to people in other countries, and my
actions can affect them’’) were combined to form a
global awareness index (a ¼ .80).
Global citizenship identification. Two items
(‘‘I would describe myself as a global citizen,’’
‘‘I strongly identify with global citizens’’) were
adapted from prior research (see Reysen, Pierce,
Katzarska-Miller, & Nesbit, 2012a) to assess
global citizenship identification (a ¼ .89).
Intergroup empathy. Two items (‘‘I am able to
empathize with people from other countries,’’ ‘‘It
is easy for me to put myself in someone else’s shoes
regardless of what country they are from’’) were
used to assess intergroup empathy (a ¼ .76).
Valuing diversity. Two items (‘‘I would like to
join groups that emphasize getting to know people
from different countries,’’ ‘‘I am interested in
learning about the many cultures that have existed
in this world’’) were combined to assess valuing
diversity (a ¼ .91).
Social justice. Two items (‘‘Those countries that
are well off should help people in countries who
are less fortunate,’’ ‘‘Basic services such as health
care, clean water, food, and legal assistance should
be available to everyone, regardless of what
country they live in’’) were combined to assess
belief in social justice (a ¼ .74).
Environmental sustainability. Two items
(‘‘People have a responsibility to conserve natural
resources to foster a sustainable environment,’’
‘‘Natural resources should be used primarily to

provide for basic needs rather than material
wealth’’) were combined to assess belief in
environmental sustainability (a ¼ .76).
Intergroup helping. Two items (‘‘If I had the
opportunity, I would help others who are in need
regardless of their nationality,’’ ‘‘If I could, I
would dedicate my life to helping others no matter
what country they are from’’) were adapted from
past research (Katzarska-Miller et al., in press) to
assess intergroup helping (a ¼ .76).
Responsibility to act. Two items (‘‘Being
actively involved in global issues is my responsi-
bility,’’ ‘‘It is my responsibility to understand and
respect cultural differences across the globe to the
best of my abilities’’) were combined to assess felt
responsibility to act (a ¼ .78).
Results
All of the assessed variables were moderately to
strongly positively correlated with one another (see
Table 1 for means, standard deviations, and zero-
order correlations between the assessed variables).
We conducted a series of structural equation
models using AMOS 19 to examine the predicted
model’s fit, subsequent modification, and the
mediating role of global citizenship identification.
Due to the related nature of the prosocial values,
we allowed the disturbance terms for the variables
to covary. We evaluated model fit using the
normed fit index (NFI) and the comparative fit
index (CFI), for which values greater than .90 are
acceptable. Following Browne and Cudeck (1993),

we set the root mean square error of approxima-
tion (RMSEA) value of .08 as an acceptable level.
Items loaded well on each of the factors,
including normative environment (.83, .84), global
awareness (.49 to .91), global citizen identification
(.86, .91), intergroup empathy (.85, .74), valuing
diversity (.96, .86), social justice (.78, .76), environ-
mental sustainability (.80, .76), intergroup helping
(.78, .80), and responsibility to act (.78, .82). The
predicted model adequately fit the data, w2(146) ¼
820.24, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .080, CI(075; .085),
NFI ¼ .907, CFI ¼ .922. However, examination of
the modification indices suggested allowing two
of the global awareness item errors to covary.
Following this allowance, the model difference was
significant (Dw2(1) ¼ 211.70, p 5 .001), and the fit
indices showed the model appropriately fit the data,
w2(145) ¼ 608.54, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .066,
CI(.061; .072), NFI ¼ .931, CFI ¼ .946.1
As shown in Figure 1, normative environment
and global awareness were positively related (r ¼ .51,
p 5 .001). Normative environment (b ¼ .78,
p 5 .001, CI¼ .701 to .858) and global awareness
(b ¼ .20, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .104 to .287) predicted
global citizenship identification (significance
computed with bias-corrected bootstrapping with
5000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals). Global
citizenship identification predicted intergroup
empathy (b ¼ .53, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .445 to .606),

valuing diversity (b ¼ .61, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .542 to
.667), social justice (b ¼ .53, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .439 to
.608), environmental sustainability (b ¼ .50,
p 5 .001, CI ¼ .418 to .581), intergroup helping
(b ¼ .51, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .419 to .594), and felt
responsibility to act (b ¼ .70, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .633
to 769). Using bias-corrected bootstrapping (5000
iterations), the indirect effect of normative environ-
ment and global awareness on the prosocial values
(e.g., social justice) was reliably carried by global
citizenship identification (see Table 2 for standar-
dized betas of indirect effects and 95% bias-
corrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects
were significant at p 5 .001, two-tailed).
Discussion
The purpose of Study 1 was to examine our
predicted model of global citizenship identifica-
tion. Following a small modification, the model
TABLE 1
Study 1: Correlations and means (standard deviations)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean (SD)
1. Normative environment 1.0 4.58
(1.44)
2. Global awareness .44 1.0 4.76
(1.24)
3. Global citizenship

identification
.75 .53 1.0 4.57
(1.54)
4. Intergroup empathy .34 .54 .42 1.0 4.98
(1.40)
5. Valuing diversity .47 .59 .51 .49 1.0 4.84
(1.57)
6. Social justice .39 .33 .41 .40 .44 1.0 5.62
(1.36)
7. Environmental
sustainability
.38 .36 .38 .40 .42 .63 1.0 5.63
(1.29)
8. Intergroup helping .37 .50 .39 .55 .54 .53 .47 1.0 5.54
(1.34)
9. Responsibility to act .49 .59 .56 .58 .65 .51 .54 .63 1.0 5.09
(1.44)
All correlations significant at p 5 .01. Seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree.

1
Contact the first author for detailed model information,
including item loadings and disturbance term intercorrelations.
In
Studies 1 and 2 we also examined the reversed causal model,
with the outcomes (prosocial values) predicting antecedents
(global awareness, normative environment) through global
citizenship identification. The reversed model showed relatively
appropriate fit to the data in Study 1, w2(147) ¼ 821.16, p 5
.001; RMSEA ¼ .080, CI(.074; .085), NFI ¼ .907, CFI ¼ .922,
and
Study 2, w2(147) ¼ 1299.96, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .081, CI(.077;
.085), NFI ¼ .903, CFI ¼ .913. However, in Study 1, the final
predicted model showed lower AIC (738.54) and ECVI (1.02, CI
¼ .919; 1.13) values than the reversed model (AIC ¼ 947.16,
ECVI ¼ 1.31, CI ¼ 1.19; 1.44). In Study 2, the predicted model
showed lower AIC (1252.35) and ECVI (1.04, CI ¼ .958; 1.14)
values than the reversed model (AIC ¼ 1425.96, ECVI ¼ 1.19,
CI ¼ 1.10; 1.29). Thus, in both studies the predicted model
showed a better fit than the reversed causality model.
showed appropriate fit to the data. As hypothe-
sized, normative environment and global aware-
ness predicted global citizenship identification,
which then predicted greater endorsement of
prosocial values (e.g., environmental sustainabil-
ity). We designed Study 2 to replicate the
final adjusted model with a second sample of
participants.

STUDY 2
The purpose of Study 2 is to replicate the final
adjusted model from Study 1 in a separate sample
of participants. We predict the model will show an
appropriate fit to the data similar to Study 1.
Method
Participants and procedure
Undergraduate college participants (N ¼ 1201,
62.8% women) completed the survey for either
course credit toward a psychology class or extra
credit in a nonpsychology class. Their mean age
was 25.86 years (SD ¼ 9.24). The procedure and
materials were identical to Study 1. The scales of
normative environment (a ¼ .81), global awareness
(a ¼ .80), global citizenship identification (a ¼ .89),
intergroup empathy (a ¼ .80), valuing diversity
(a ¼ .82), social justice (a ¼ .73), environmental
sustainability (a ¼ .78), intergroup helping
(a ¼ .77), and responsibility to act (a ¼ .79)
showed appropriate reliability.
TABLE 2
Study 1: Indirect effects through global citizenship
identification
Normative environment Global awareness
Variable Indirect CILower CIUpper Indirect CILower CIUpper
Empathy .41 .348 .486 .10 .053 .163

Diversity .48 .418 .537 .12 .061 .183
Social justice .41 .340 .492 .10 .054 .160
Sustainability .39 .323 .467 .10 .052 .153
Helping .40 .328 .476 .10 .051 .159
Responsibility .55 .484 .622 .14 .072 .211
Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals; bias-corrected
bootstrapping with 5000 iterations; all indirect effects
are significant at p 5 .001.
.51*
Responsible
To Act
Intergroup
Helping
Sustain
Environment
Intergroup
Empathy
Value
Diversity
Social Justice
Normative
Environment

Global
Awareness
Global
Citizenship
.78*
.20*
.53*
.61*
.53*
.50*
.51*
.70*
Figure 1. Study 1 final model standardized betas, *p 5 .001.
Results
All of the assessed variables were moderately to
strongly positively correlated with one another (see
Table 3 for means, standard deviations, and zero-
order correlations between the assessed variables).

Items loaded well on each of the factors, including:
normative environment (.79, .86), global awareness
(.50 to .89), global citizen identification (.89, .89),
intergroup empathy (.88, .77), valuing diversity
(.83, .85), social justice (.73, .79), environmental
sustainability (.83, .77), intergroup helping
(.82, .78), and responsibility to act (.79, .83). The
model fit the data, w2(145) ¼ 1122.35, p 5 .001;
RMSEA ¼ .075, CI(.071; .079), NFI ¼ .916,
CFI ¼ .926. Similarly to Study 1, normative envir-
onment and global awareness were positively
related (r ¼ .47, p 5 .001). Normative environment
(b ¼ .74, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .670 to .801) and global
awareness (b ¼ .21, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .126 to .280)
predicted global citizenship identification (signifi-
cance computed with bias-corrected bootstrapping
with 5000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals).
Global citizenship identification predicted inter-
group empathy (b ¼ .49, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .425 to
.553), valuing diversity (b ¼ .49, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .424
to .556), social justice (b ¼ .40, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .322
to .474), environmental sustainability (b ¼ .42,
p 5 .001, CI ¼ .340 to .486), intergroup helping
(b ¼ .41, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .339 to .483), and felt
responsibility to act (b ¼ .59, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .517
to .652). Using bias-corrected bootstrapping (5000
iterations), the indirect effect of normative envir-
onment and global awareness on the prosocial
values (e.g., intergroup helping) was again reliably

carried by global citizenship identification (see
Table 4 for standardized betas of indirect effects
and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals; all
TABLE 3
Study 2: Correlations and means (standard deviations)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean (SD)
1. Normative environment 1.0 4.37
(1.33)
2. Global awareness .43 1.0 4.75
(1.18)
3. Global citizenship
identification
.70 .49 1.0 4.26
(1.44)
4. Intergroup empathy .33 .51 .39 1.0 4.85
(1.42)
5. Valuing diversity .35 .56 .39 .46 1.0 4.96
(1.41)
6. Social justice .28 .34 .30 .36 .40 1.0 5.57
(1.29)

7. Environmental sustainability .33 .43 .31 .42 .40 .57 1.0 5.64
(1.19)
8. Intergroup helping .28 .46 .32 .53 .56 .52 .49 1.0 5.54
(1.31)
9. Responsibility to act .41 .62 .47 .53 .61 .41 .51 .61 1.0 4.96
(1.37)
All correlations significant at p 5 .01. Seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree.
TABLE 4
Study 2: Indirect effects through global citizenship
identification
Normative environment Global awareness
Variable Indirect CILower CIUpper Indirect CILower CIUpper
Empathy .36 .313 .415 .10 .058 .147
Diversity .36 .310 .416 .10 .058 .148
Social justice .29 .235 .353 .08 .048 .124
Sustainability .31 .249 .360 .09 .049 .129
Helping .30 .251 .359 .09 .049 .129
Responsibility .43 .379 .487 .12 .070 .175

Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals; bias-corrected
bootstrapping with 5000 iterations; all indirect effects
are significant at p 5 .001.
indirect effects were significant at p 5 .001, two-
tailed).
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present studies was to test a
model of the antecedents and outcomes of global
citizenship identity. As hypothesized, one’s nor-
mative environment and global awareness pre-
dicted global citizenship identification, and one’s
connection to global citizens predicted endorse-
ment of prosocial values that represent the content
of the group: intergroup empathy, valuing diver-
sity, social justice, environmental sustainability,
intergroup helping, and a felt responsibility to act.
Global citizenship identification mediated the
relationship between normative environment and
global awareness and prosocial values. Overall, the
proposed structural model of the antecedents and
outcomes of global citizenship was supported.
Clarifying global citizenship
Arguments about the meaning of global citizen-
ship across various disciplines have resulted in a
state of confusion and a lack of definition.
Converging on a definition is difficult given the

variety of synonymous category labels (e.g.,
cosmopolitan, planetary citizen), and theorists’
tendency to highlight certain components (e.g.,
social justice) over others (e.g., environmental
sustainability). We adopt the definition of global
citizenship as awareness, caring, and embracing
cultural diversity, while promoting social justice
and sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act (Snider et al., in press). The
model of global citizenship tested in the present
paper supports each aspect of this definition.
Individuals who are highly identified global
citizens are globally aware, express caring and
empathy for others, embrace cultural diversity,
promote social justice and environmentally sus-
tainable living, and feel a responsibility to act to
help others.
The model of global citizenship also supports a
wealth of theorizing (Davies, 2006; Dower, 2002a,
2002b; Oxfam, 1997; Pike, 2008; Schattle, 2008)
and research examining global citizenship (Gibson
et al., 2011; Katzarska-Miller et al., in press;
Reysen et al., 2012b; Snider et al., in press). The
consistent pattern across the literature and
research shows global awareness and normative
environment as antecedents to global citizenship,
and the prosocial values as components of the
content of global citizen identity. Utilizing a social
identity perspective, the present research is the first
to show that the antecedents to global citizenship
predict one’s degree of identification with the
category, and global citizenship identification
predicts endorsement of prosocial values hypothe-
sized to represent the content of the group identity.

Thus, while past theorizing has highlighted com-
ponents of the model, the present results show the
pathways to identification with global citizens, and
the prosocial outcomes to feeling connected to the
superordinate global category.
Global awareness and superordinate
identities
The present model shows global awareness as an
antecedent to identification with global citizens.
As noted by Dower (2002a), all humans are global
citizens; however, some individuals lack the
awareness to recognize their connection with
humanity as a whole. Thus, global citizenship
represents an inclusive group membership with all
humans. A wealth of social psychological research
supports the notion that categorizing with an
inclusive superordinate category results in proso-
cial values and behaviors (for a review see Crisp &
Hewstone, 2007). For example, salience of one’s
human identity leads to greater forgiveness to an
outgroup for past harm. However, human identity
salience can also reduce the motivation of victim
groups to act collectively, and salience of bene-
volent (vs. hostile) human group content can lead
perpetrators to legitimize harmful actions against
outgroups and retain negative attitudes (see
Greenway, Quinn, & Louis, 2011).
We suggest that inherent in the content of global
citizen identity is the notion of valuing diversity
and multiculturalism (i.e., recognition of multiple
identities) that is absent in human identity content.
Indeed, Reysen et al. (2012b) found global citizen-
ship identification to uniquely predict prosocial

values beyond identification with the category
label human, as well as other superordinate groups
(e.g., international citizen). In other words, global
citizen content differs from other superordinate
group labels, and raising the saliency of global
citizen will affect participants differently than
saliency of human due to the differing group
content. The present results support past research
by showing that the extent to which individuals are
aware of the larger world and their place in that
world predict prosocial values (including valuing
diversity and intergroup helping) through greater
identification with the superordinate category
‘‘global citizen.’’
Normative environment
A second antecedent to global citizenship identi-
fication is the extent that one’s normative environ-
ment supports aspects of global citizenship.
Results from the present set of studies show that
perceiving valued others embedded in one’s every-
day settings (e.g., friends, family) as endorsing
global citizenship (injunctive norm) predicts iden-
tifying with the group. The results support past
research (Katzarska-Miller et al., in press) that
shows the relationship between cultural context
and identification with global citizens is mediated
by the degree others in one’s normative environ-
ment prescribe the identity. Global citizen theor-
ists, rightly, argue for greater integration and
support for global citizenship education between

school and community (Dower, 2002a, 2002b).
Embedding injunctive norms in the everyday lives
of students may lead to greater identification with
others around the world and subsequent endorse-
ment of prosocial values and behaviors.
The strong influence of social norms on
attitudes and behavior has a long history in
psychology. Individuals shape and are shaped by
the cultural patterns that are produced, repro-
duced, and modified by individuals in settings in
which they are embedded. In other words, every-
day environments (e.g., home, school, work, cities)
are intentionally constructed places that hold the
cultural patterns from prior generations, and
engaging in the settings can influence individuals
through implicit conditioning and priming of
everyday actions (Adams & Markus, 2004).
Cultural patterns and norms afford various
identities to individuals, and to the extent that
these identities are valued, can influence one’s
degree of identification (Reysen & Levine, 2012).
Thus, to the extent that patterns related to global
citizenship are embedded in one’s environment
(Adams & Markus, 2004), and others within that
environment endorse those beliefs, greater identi-
fication with global citizens can be expected.
Global citizenship and prosocial identity
content
Global citizenship identity content contains values
and behaviors (i.e., intergroup empathy, valuing
diversity, social justice, environmental sustainabil-
ity, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility to
act) that are typically examined in isolation with

one another in psychology. The present model
highlights the interconnected nature of these
prosocial values and their relation to social
identity processes. For example, work on inter-
group empathy finds that empathetic feelings for a
person in need are reserved for ingroup members
(Stürmer, Snyder, Kropp, & Siem, 2006). Global
citizen identity relates to empathetic concern for
ingroup and outgroup members. Priming shared
human experiences reduces prejudice toward out-
groups and increases support for peace (Motyl
et al., 2011). Similarly, global citizenship relates to
valuing diversity, reduced prejudice toward out-
groups, and greater endorsement of world peace
(Katzarska-Miller, Barnsley, & Reysen, 2012;
Reysen et al., 2012b).
Groups, and social and moral norms, influence
one’s personal values and subsequent intention to
engage in environmental behaviors (Bamberg &
Möser, 2007). Global citizenship identity content
includes a desire to act for environmentally
sustainable societies (Reysen et al., 2012b). The
relationship between salience of relationships and
helping others is mediated by one’s felt intercon-
nectedness with others (Pavey, Greitemeyer, &
Sparks, 2011). Similarly, global citizenship is
related to a variety (i.e., charity, volunteering) of
helping behaviors (Reysen et al., 2012b), and the
relationship between global awareness (knowledge
and interconnectedness with others) and inter-
group helping is mediated by global citizenship
identification (Gibson et al., 2011). Research
shows the importance of social identities in
predicting collective action (van Zomeren,

Postmes, & Spears, 2008). As shown in the present
model, and in past research (Gibson et al., 2011;
Reysen et al., 2012b), global citizens report a
responsibility to act for the betterment of human-
ity. Overall, the research described above exam-
ined prosocial values separately, while the present
research integrates these disparate areas of
research as outcomes of a psychological connec-
tion with others in the world.
Implications and future directions of
global citizenship
Beyond the prosocial values that represent the
content of global citizen identity, the present
research has implications for a variety of areas
within psychology and other disciplines (e.g.,
education, political science, business). For exam-
ple, psychological concepts of moral identity and
critical moral consciousness are related to empa-
thy, social justice, and a moral responsibility to act
(Mustakova-Possardt, 2004). The motivation
behind a moral identity is posited to be a spiritual
search for truth, similar to the concept of a
religious quest motivation. In a recent series of
studies, Katzarska-Miller et al. (2012) found that
global citizenship identification is closely related to
a religious quest motivation. Global citizenship is

also similar to past findings examining ‘‘world-
mindedness,’’ which is positively related to endor-
sement for collective action and suggested to lead
to greater felt connection with the global commu-
nity (Der-Karabetian, 1992). Within education,
cooperative learning highlights students’ intercon-
nectedness with others and results in greater
empathy and perspective taking, justice beliefs,
and wellbeing (Johnson & Johnson, 2010). The
underlying mechanism behind cooperative learn-
ing may reside in the salience of interconnected-
ness with others, similar to the interconnectedness
component predicting global citizenship.
Based on social identity perspective, global
citizenship has implications for intergroup rela-
tions. As previously noted, superordinate group
salience can have beneficial but also negative
effects on intergroup bias (see Crisp & Hewstone,
2007). The present model shows global citizenship

identification predicting greater intergroup empa-
thy, helping, and valuing diversity. In a recent
study, Jenkins and Reysen (2011) presented
participants with either morally positive or nega-
tive information about an outgroup prior to rating
the perception of the outgroup and endorsed
actions. Participants’ prior rating of global citizen-
ship identification moderated the relationship of
valence of information on outgroup attitudes such
that when the outgroup was portrayed negatively
(vs. positively), highly identified global citizens
were less likely to view the outgroup as an enemy,
which resulted in a lower desire to avoid the
outgroup.
Global citizenship has implications for research
examining immigrants and global travelers. For
example, Berry’s model of acculturation strategies
(e.g., Berry, 2001) has recently been adapted to
account for a larger global identity (Banerjee &

German, 2007). Work on bicultural identities (e.g.,
Chen, Benet-Martı́nez, & Bond, 2008) shows that
bicultural individuals who integrate disparate
cultural identities show better psychological
adjustment in their new environments. Perhaps
an umbrella identity can aid immigrants by
providing an inclusive identity that allows for
identification with both new and prior subgroup
identities. In effect, global citizenship may provide
global sojourners with a way to reduce the
perceived distance between cultures by simulta-
neously identifying with the larger superordinate
global citizen category.
Unethical companies can elicit moral outrage
and protest behaviors on the part of consumers
(Cronin, Reysen, & Branscombe, in press). In
response, corporations endorse and advertise
corporate social responsibility, regardless of
whether they actually perform responsible business
practices, which affects how consumers view those
corporations. Consumer reactions to corporate
practices may depend on consumers’ global
citizenship identification and interact with whether
the corporations’ actions reflect global citizen

values. Corporations are also pushing to hire
employees with a greater global focus and open-
ness to new ideas and experiences. Global citizen-
ship identity is related to greater intellectualism
and openness (Jenkins et al., 2012) beyond
identification with other identities (e.g., nation,
human). Perhaps the characteristics companies
desire in new employees are those associated with
global citizen identity. The present model of global
citizenship holds implications for how companies
present their public image, how consumers react,
and employee hiring and training.
Limitations
Although the present set of studies is novel in
showing antecedents and outcomes of identifying
with global citizens, there are limitations that
should be considered when interpreting the results.
First, participants in the present study consisted of
American undergraduate college students attend-
ing a university in northeastern Texas. As shown
by Pippa Norris’ (2000) examination of World
Values Survey results, younger individuals are
more likely than older adults to feel an attachment
with the world as a whole. While similar patterns
of association between global citizenship identifi-
cation and endorsement of prosocial values have
been found in a community sample including older
adults (Reysen et al., 2010) and participants
sampled in other countries (Katzarska-Miller
et al., in press), caution should be taken in
generalizing the results. Future research can
examine the model tested in the present paper in
other cultural contexts and demographically vari-
able populations. Second, the measures used in the

present studies are subjective self-reports rather
than objective behavioral measures. Future
research should examine whether global citizen-
ship identification is related to prosocial behaviors
when the identity is salient.
Third, the present studies are correlational. The
purpose of modeling the antecedents and out-
comes of global citizenship is to direct future
research endeavors that can experimentally manip-
ulate aspects of the model. Fourth, we implied a
causal direction of antecedents leading to global
citizenship, and global citizenship leading to out-
comes. However, practicing global citizen oriented
activities (e.g., community service) may also lead
to greater global citizenship (e.g., Schattle, 2008).
While we examined, and found, the reverse
causality model to show poorer fit to the data
than the predicted model, future research examin-
ing aspects of the model (e.g., manipulating
responsibility and examining the effect on global
citizenship identification) is needed.
CONCLUSION
Globalization has encouraged many disciplines to
examine the nature of citizenship, identity, and
more generally, the effects of increasing intercon-
nectedness with others. One outcome is the
affordance of identifying the self with a global,
rather than national, identity—global citizen. In

two studies, we tested a model of the antecedents
and outcomes of identification with global citizens.
Global awareness and one’s normative environ-
ment predict identification with global citizens,
and global citizenship predicts prosocial values of
intergroup empathy, valuing diversity, social
justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup
helping, and a felt responsibility to act for the
betterment of the world. The relationship between
normative environment and global awareness and
prosocial values is mediated by global citizenship
identification. Global citizenship highlights the
unique effect of taking a global perspective on a
multitude of topics relevant to the psychology of
everyday actions and environments (e.g., helping
behaviors). The field of psychology has relatively
ignored the exponential cultural and social change
and impact of globalization. Global citizenship
exemplifies the recognition of the impact of
globalization on identity and subsequent prosocial
effects on attitudes and behaviors.
Manuscript received March 2012
Revised manuscript accepted May 2012
First published online July 2012
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