Running Head OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THROUGH PEER MODELS1OBSE.docx

Running Head: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THROUGH
PEER MODELS 1
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THROUGH PEER MODELS
11
Observational Learning through Peer Models
Observational Learning through Peer ModelsIntroduction
Children with and without special needs have been seen to have
the abilities to learn new skills in different ways. For instance,
children can learn through explicit instruction, prompting as
well as reinforcement (Charlop et al., 2018). Learning can be
divided into two categories. These are instructive feedback and
observational learning. In instructive feedback, children gain
knowledge of new information that is not directly taught tor
reinforced into them (Henderson et al., 2018). On the other
hand, observational learning involves learning skills by
observing other people, usually their peers (Grenner et al.,
2019). This proposal aims to evaluate ways in which pre-school
children with special needs can learn in an inclusive classroom
and achieve their potentials. This can be achieved through

observational learning (Spriggs, 2016).
Children with such developmental disabilities as autism have
more trouble learning in classrooms compared to their peers. As
such, it is necessary to encourage and support them with proper
learning environments. More specifically, tailoring a classroom
to be inclusive of them goes a long way in supporting their
education endeavor. This support can be offered in three
different ways (Lanter& Singer-Dudek, 2020). One, the children
should be able to interact with their peers, friends as well as
adults in their community. Two, their environments should be
constructed in a manner that the impact of their impairment or
disability is effectively reduced. This means that buildings and
other facilities in the learning environment must be able to be
accommodative of these children with special needs (Foti et al.,
2018). Third, these children need to be taught by teachers and
parents who help them gain new skills. Fourth, they should be
able to meet other people with similar special needs to learn
from and act as role models. All these are aspects of
observational learning (Byers, 2016, Stone et al., 2018).
Werts et al. (2010) assert that observational learning is a major
prerequisite for inclusive learning. Students with peer models,
or classmates that have no disabilities, can observe what these
peer models do and try to replicate these skills. Most of the
studies carried regarding observational learning have been done
in highly controlled environments. The students have been seen
to acquire the expressive language used by their peers albeit not
comprehensively. Egel et al. established that students with
autism can learn from models and were seen o imitate discrete
responses. The discrete responses that were studied included
naming pictures, giving answers to questions, and reading
words. Students were made to observe a different stimulus for
each of them, and then prompted to respond correctly as per the
required stimulus. The studies found one interesting aspect.
Most of the skills that were gained by the students involved
response chains. Response chains refer to patterns of behavior
that occur in a sequence to make up a complex skill.

This study, therefore, aims at establishing whether students with
disabilities can learn response chains in a normal environment
(that is, away from a controlled environment; in a normal
classroom setup) by observing students who complete the
prerequisite steps in a realistic situation. Another aim of this
research is to evaluate the how students with disabilities would
react based in terms of social interaction after they have
successfully gone through a peer modeling session. This is due
to the fact previous studies have failed to assess how students
interact with others in subsequent activities that involving peer
modeling. This study, therefore, underscores the focus of
inclusive classrooms, which is essentially the social benefits
that students with disabilities acquire in a learning environment
together with students without these disabilities. Given the
above information, we have the following research questions:
i. Can students with disabilities learn response chains in a
typical classroom environment by observing a peer model?
ii. How do students with disabilities socially interact with other
students after peer modelling sessions? How do they participate
in these interactions?MethodsSetting
The study will be carried out in pre-school classroom. As such,
it will follow the typical structure of a preschool classroom
structure. The selected students will be enrolled in different
classrooms that follow a similar schedule. They will participate
in group activities, both small and large, snack and free play
sessions. During the free-play sessions, the students will
participate in such activities as art, drama as well as such motor
activities as motor activities as swings.
An assistant teacher, with specialized expertise was accorded to
each of the students’ class and will be responsible in ensuring
proper carrying out of the interventions carried out in the study.
As such, each of the two teachers that are required to participate
in the study were required to have at least a bachelor’s degree
in early-childhood special education. Participants
Four students have been chosen to participate in the study.
There are three boys and girl. The participant ages are 4-6 years

old and they are diagnosed with developmental delays as well as
communication delays, or intellectual disabilities.
All the four participants will be assigned into two classrooms
and allocated four peer models each. The sessions for the four
children will take place on the floor or on the desks, round table
or at the corner of the class depending on what the sessions
involved. Type of Single Subject Design
The study will use a multiple probe design based on response
chains that is similar for all the students to evaluate the impact
of peer modeling on the students. At first, the students with
disabilities will be assessed to determine the response chains
that they could not perform. Then, they will be assigned three
different response chains. At least one of the response chains
assigned to a given student will be assigned to another student.
In the first probe condition, the students with disabilities will
be evaluated in all their three selected response chains. The first
two response chains will be evaluated on three different
occasions while the last response on two different occasions.
The peer model will then be taught on how to carry out response
chain stepwise. After this the instructional condition will then
be introduced. The instruction was carried out in three distinct
phases. Phase one will involve probing the student with
disabilities on the response chain in question. Phase two will
involve calling the peer model to the area of instruction and to
model the response chain through the required steps, all the
time explaining what he/ she was doing in each step. Phase
three will involve probing the student with disabilities on the
response chain. After all these activities were carried out, an
investigator will record the social interactions between the
students with disabilities as well as how they participated in the
social interactions. When a student with disabilities has
successfully managed to correctly respond to the first two of the
three response chains, a probe condition will be reinstated and
as the student is assessed on the three response
chains.Experimental Control
Experimental control will be achieved by ensuring that each

student was prompted to carry out a response chain that was
carried out by at least one of the other three students. In
addition, the students will be assessed beforehand to ascertain if
they can perform the response chains before to ensure that they
were probed for those reaction chains that they had no prior
ability to perform. The children will also be taken through a
three tier baseline design.Baseline PhaseWhen carrying out the
study, a multiple baseline design will be used for the
participants in the classes that were used. All the interventions
were started for the four students at the same time. The
interventions do not necessarily need to start at the same time.
However, making sure that they start together enhances
evaluation of the utility of the intervention.
The students will be assessed in small groups, consisting of the
four provided peer models. Second were free play sessions
where the students with disabilities will be involved in
activities with every other classmate and in the same setting/
classroom as they had in the small group.
Intervention Phase
The intervention phase will involve probing the student with
disabilities on the response chain in question. Phase two
involved calling the peer model to the area of instruction and to
model the response chain through the required steps, all the
time explaining what he/ she was doing in each
step.Maintenance Phase The maintenance phase will involve
probing the student on the response chain as has been presented
by the peer model. As such, the student with disabilities is
expected to carry out the steps as he/she has observed the peer
model perform. Dependent Variable
The dependent variables are the response chains chosen by the
instructor for a student. The response chains that will be chosen
are those that the student in question was initially unable to
perform. As such, they depend on prior ability of the student to
carry them out. Independent Variables
The independent variables are the students’ disabilities. Each
student has their own disability, not necessarily unique to

him/her. However, the participants in the study ought to have
been diagnosed with a developmental delay to be involved in
the study. The disabilities that a given participant has informed
his/her performance on the response chains.
General Instructional Procedures
The instructional procedures involve probing. More
specifically, the instructor will first probe the student on the
response chain that is about to be provided as an intervention.
Next, the instructor will teach the peer model on how to carry
out a given response chain on-step-by-step basis. Next, the peer
model will move to the instructional area, and perform all the
response chain as taught by the teacher as the student with
disabilities watches. After this, the student with disabilities will
be probed by the instructor to perform the response chain as
he/she has seen the peer model do.
Fidelity of Implementation
All sessions will be audio-recorded individually. An
independent person, a graduate student, will compare the
marked copies of the researcher against the audio to affirm any
discrepancies. The inter-observer agreement is then calculated
using the formula, Agreements/ (agreements + disagreements).
Inter-observer is conducted on at least 98% of all
administrations with the median agreement of 100%.
Social Validity
The social validity of the research is the fact that the instructors
involved appreciated the fact that students with disabilities are
in a better position to learn when they are in a classroom setting
with students without disabilities. As such, they view this study
as a chance to give the four selected students a chance to
interact and learn from other students who do not have
disabilities. In addition, it is seen as an opportunity to evaluate
the impact that of peer modeling in enhancing learning
outcomes for students with disabilities and a chance to provide
an inclusive classroom. Results
It is expected that the students with disabilities will be able to
perform some of the response chains that were presented to

them. It should be noted that these response chains that they
were expected to perform after peer modeling are ones that they
could not perform before. Since there is no prior numerical data
on similar studies, the students are expected to be able to
correctly respond to the response chains in an average of 40
minutes spread through the study period of 30 days.
It was expected that some modifications are needed in order to
enable the students to carry out the prompted response chains.
For instance, a student could experience difficulties when say,
correctly punching the buttons of a computer. In addition, when
using a calculator, the students may have difficulties inputting
the proper sequence of numbers as required. In addition, the
students could also have trouble complying with the instructions
provided.
It was not easy to estimate the performance of the four students
based since there was no previous numerical data to use.
However, we estimate the students would fare as follows:
The social interaction and participation among the students was
expected to range from 0%- 15% and participation was expected
to be around 0%-7%. Percentage of Overlapping Data
The percentage of overlapping data is expected to be 5%. Data
Variability
The variability of the data collected within a given phase is
expected to be close in range. This is mainly because the
students exhibit similar disabilities and are expected to have
similar learning difficulties. As such, it is expected that the
amount of time that they took to successfully complete a given
phase was similar. Functional Relationship
There is expected to be a correlation between the peer modeling
and the students’ abilities to imitate their peer
models.Discussion
The results are expected to show that students show some level
of learning when they are exposed to peer models. This is
because prior studies have shown that students with disabilities
can acquire knowledge through observing other people. In

addition, the level of interaction is expected to increase albeit
dismally since students with disabilities are likely to interact
less with their peers. Limitations of the Study
There are high chances of absenteeism expected for the
participants which could negatively impact the study. There are
also limitations on the generalizability of the study as it was
based on students with autism and chromosomal disorder.Future
Research
Based on this research, studies could be done on other forms of
disabilities to establish whether observational learning would
still be effective as a tool for specific disabilities.
References
Byers, E. M. (2016). An analysis of the relation between
preschool children’s attention to peers and the presence of the
behavioral developmental cusp for learning by
observation (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College). Retrieved
from
https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8ZP464D
Charlop, M. H., Lang, R., &Rispoli, M. (2018). Lights, camera,
action! Teaching play and social skills to children with autism
spectrum disorder through video modeling. In Play and social
skills for children with autism spectrum disorder (pp. 71-94).
Springer, Cham. Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-72500-0_5
Foti, F., Menghini, D., Alfieri, P., Costanzo, F., Mandolesi, L.,
Petrosini, L., &Vicari, S. (2018). Learning by observation and
learning by doing in Down and Williams
syndromes. Developmental science, 21(5), e12642. Retrieved
from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/desc.12642
Grenner, E., Åkerlund, V., Asker-Árnason, L., van de Weijer,
J., Johansson, V., &Sahlén, B. (2018). Improving narrative
writing skills through observational learning: a study of
Swedish 5th-grade students. Educational Review, 1-20.
Retrieved from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00131911.2018.1
536035
Lanter, A., & Singer-Dudek, J. (2020). The effects of an
observational conditioning-by-denial intervention on the
establishment of three observational learning cusps. European
Journal of Behavior Analysis, 1-24. Retrieved
724001
Odluyurt, S., Aldemir, Ö.,& Kapan, A. (2016). An investigation
on the effects of PECS and observational learning in initiating
and maintenance of communication among children with
autism. International Journal of Early Childhood Special
Education, 8(2), 151-164. Retrieved from
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/intjecse/issue/27040/284658
Rydzewska, E., Hughes-McCormack, L. A., Gillberg, C.,
Henderson, A., MacIntyre, C., Rintoul, J., & Cooper, S. A.
(2019). Prevalence of sensory impairments, physical and
intellectual disabilities, and mental health in children and young
people with self/proxy-reported autism: Observational study of
a whole country population. Autism, 23(5), 1201-1209.
Retrieved from
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/136236131879127
9
Spriggs, A. D., Gast, D. L., & Knight, V. F. (2016). Video
modeling and observational learning to teach gaming access to
students with ASD. Journal of autism and developmental
disorders, 46(9), 2845-2858. Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-016-2824-3
Stone, A. L., Bruehl, S., Smith, C. A., Garber, J., & Walker, L.
S. (2018). Social learning pathways in the relation between
parental chronic pain and daily pain severity and functional
impairment in adolescents with functional abdominal
pain. Pain, 159(2), 298. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889361/
Werts, M. G., Caldwell, N. K., &Wolery, M. (2010). Peer
modeling of response chains: Observational learning by students

with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(1),
53-66. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-53
Predcted Chart
14 13 19 14 15 17 13 16 18 17 17 20
3
Hibah Alharbi
Formatted: Font: Bold

4
Introduction
Children with and without special needs have been seen to have
the abilities to learn new
skills in different ways. For instance, children can learn through
explicit instruction, prompting, as
well as reinforcement (Charlop et al., 2018). Learning can be
divided into two categories. These
are instructive feedback and observational learning. In
instructive feedback, children gain
knowledge of new information that is not directly taught tor
reinforced into them (Henderson et
al., 2018). On the other hand, observational learning involves
learning skills by observing other
people, usually their peers (Grenner et al., 2019). This proposal
aims to evaluate ways in which
pre-school children with special needs can learn in an inclusive
classroom and achieve their
potential. This can be achieved through observational learning
(Spriggs, 2016).

Children with such developmental disabilities as autism have
more trouble learning in
classrooms compared to their peers. As such, it is necessary to
encourage and support them with
proper learning environments. More specifically, tailoring a
classroom to be inclusive of them
goes a long way in supporting their educational endeavors. This
support can be offered in three
different ways (Lanter & Singer-Dudek, 2020). One, the
children should be able to interact with
their peers, friends, as well as adults in their community. Two,
their environments should be
constructed in a manner that the impact of their impairment or
disability is effectively reduced.
This means that buildings and other facilities in the learning
environment include accommodations
for these children with special needs (Foti et al., 2018). Third,
these children need to be taught by
teachers and parents who help them gain new skills. Fourth,
they should be able to meet other
people with similar special needs to learn from and act as role
models. All these are aspects of
observational learning (Byers, 2016; Stone et al., 2018).

Formatted: Font: Bold
Deleted: s
Deleted: must be able to be
Deleted: ive of
Commented [MD1]: Who have higher-level skills
Deleted: ,
5
Werts et al. (2010) assert that observational learning is a major
prerequisite for inclusive
learning. Students with peer models, or classmates that have no
disabilities, can observe what these
peer models do so as to replicate these skills. Most of the
studies regarding observational learning
have been done in highly controlled environments. The students
have been seen to acquire the
expressive language used by their peers albeit not
comprehensively. Egel et al. (year) established
that students with autism can learn from models and were seen
to imitate discrete responses. The

discrete responses that were studied included naming pictures,
giving answers to questions, and
reading words. Students were made to observe a different
stimulus for each of them and then
prompted to respond correctly as per the required stimulus. The
studies found one interesting
aspect. Most of the skills that were gained by the students
involved response chains. Response
chains refer to patterns of behavior that occur in a sequence to
make up a complex skill.
This study, therefore, aims to establish whether students with
disabilities can learn response
chains in a normal environment (that is, away from a controlled
environment; in a normal
classroom setup) by observing students who complete the
prerequisite steps in a realistic situation.
Another aim of this research is to evaluate how students with
disabilities would react to social
interaction after they have successfully gone through a peer
modeling session. Previous studies
have failed to assess how students interact with others in
subsequent activities that involving peer
modeling. This study, therefore, underscores the focus of
inclusive classrooms, which is essentially

the social benefits that students with disabilities acquire in a
learning environment together with
students without these disabilities. Given the above information,
we have the following research
questions:
i. Can students with disabilities learn response chains in a
typical classroom
environment by observing a peer model?
Deleted: and try
Deleted: carried
Deleted: ,
Deleted: at
Deleted: ing
Deleted: the
Deleted: based in terms of
Deleted: This is due to the fact p
6
ii. How do students with disabilities socially interact with other
students after peer

modelling sessions? How do they participate in these
interactions?
Methods
Setting
The study will be carried out in a pre-school classroom. The
selected students will be
enrolled in different classrooms that follow a similar schedule.
They will participate in group
activities, both small and large, snack and free play sessions.
During the free-play sessions, the
students will participate in such activities as art, drama as well
as such motor activities as motor
activities as swings.
An assistant teacher, with specialized expertise, was accorded
to each of the students’ class
and will be responsible in ensuring proper carrying out of the
interventions carried out in the study.
As such, each of the two teachers that are required to participate
in the study were required to have
at least a bachelor’s degree in early-childhood special
education.
Participants

Four students will be chosen to participate in the study. There
will be three boys and girl.
The participant ages are 4-6 years old and they are diagnosed
with developmental delays as well
as communication delays, or intellectual disabilities.
All the four participants will be assigned into two classrooms
and allocated four peer
models each. The sessions for the four children will take place
on the floor or on the desks, round
table or at the corner of the class depending on what the
sessions involved.
Type of Single Subject Design
The study will use a multiple probe design based on response
chains that is similar for all
the students to evaluate the impact of peer modeling on the
students. At first, the students with
Commented [MD2]: Research questions should be in single
subject format (see notes from class 2):
Research questions should have three elements: participants,
independent variable, and dependent measures. All research
questions should have these three elements, but the order in
which
they are included can vary.
–For example, the same research question could take the
following
forms:

–(a), Does “X” independent variable influence “Y” dependent
variable for “Z” participants?
–(b) For “Z” participants, does “X” independent variable
influence
“Y” dependent variable? Or
–(c) Is “Y” dependent variable of Z participants influenced by
using
“X” independent variable
Example single subject research question:
Is there a functional relation between Peer Assisted Learning
Strategies used in mathematics curriculum for 45 minutes per
day
and increases in numerical mathematical problem solving for
fifth
graders with mathematical learning disabilities?
Formatted: Indent: First line: 0"
Deleted: As such, it will follow the typical structure of a
preschool
classroom structure.
Commented [MD3]: Keep your verb tenses consistent...will be
Deleted: have been
Deleted: are
7

disabilities will be assessed to determine the response chains
that they could not perform. Then,
they will be assigned three different response chains. At least
one of the response chains assigned
to a given student will be assigned to another student.
In the first probe condition, the students with disabilities will
be evaluated in all their three
selected response chains. The first two response chains will be
evaluated on three different
occasions while the last response on two different occasions.
The peer model will then be taught
how to carry out the response chain in a stepwise fashion. After
this, the instructional intervention
condition will then be introduced. The instruction will carried
out in three distinct phases. Phase
one will involve probing the student with disabilities on the
response chain in question. Phase two
will involve calling the peer model to the area of instruction and
to model the response chain
through the required steps, all the time explaining what he/ she
was doing in each step. Phase three
will involve probing the student with disabilities on the
response chain. After all these activities

are carried out, an investigator will record the social
interactions between the students with
disabilities as well as how they participated in the social
interactions. When a student with
disabilities has successfully managed to correctly respond to the
first two of the three response
chains, a probe condition will be reinstated and as the student is
assessed on the three response
chains.
Experimental Control
Experimental control will be achieved by ensuring that each
student is prompted to carry
out a response chain that was carried out by at least one of the
other three students. In addition, the
students will be assessed beforehand to ascertain if they can
perform the response chains before to
ensure that they were probed for those reaction chains that they
had no prior ability to perform.
The children will also be taken through a three tier baseline
design.
Commented [MD4]: Baseline?
Deleted: on

Deleted: was
Deleted: were
Deleted: was
Commented [MD5]: How does your design for data collection
offer the opportunity for at least three demonstrations of the
effect at
three different points in time?
8
Baseline Phase
When carrying out the study, a multiple baseline design will be
used for the participants
in the classes. All the interventions were started for the four
students at the same time. The
interventions do not necessarily need to start at the same time.
However, making sure that they
start together enhances evaluation of the utility of the
intervention.
The students will be assessed in small groups, consisting of the
four provided peer models.

Second were free play sessions where the students with
disabilities will be involved in activities
with every other classmate and in the same setting/ classroom as
they had in the small group.
Intervention Phase
The intervention phase will involve probing the student with
disabilities on the response
chain in question. Phase two involved calling the peer model to
the area of instruction and to model
the response chain through the required steps, all the time
explaining what he/ she was doing in
each step.
Maintenance Phase
The maintenance phase will involve probing the student on the
response chain as has
been presented by the peer model. As such, the student with
disabilities is expected to carry out
the steps as he/she has observed the peer model perform.
Dependent Variable
The dependent variables are the response chains chosen by the
instructor for a student.
The response chains that will be chosen are those that the
student in question was initially unable

to perform. As such, they depend on prior ability of the student
to complete them.
Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5"
Deleted: that were used
Commented [MD6]: With. Multiple probe design, you stagger
the start of intervention for each participant.
Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0"
Deleted: carry them out
9
Independent Variable
The independent variables are the intervention Each student has
their own disability, not
necessarily unique to him/her. However, the participants in the
study ought to have been diagnosed
with a developmental delay to be involved in the study. The
disabilities that a given participant

has informed his/her performance on the response chains.
General Instructional Procedures
The instructional procedures involve probing. More
specifically, the instructor will first
probe the student on the response chain that is about to be
provided as an intervention. Next, the
instructor will teach the peer model on how to carry out a given
response chain on a step-by-step
basis. Next, the peer model will move to the instructional area
and perform all response chain as
taught by the teacher as the student with disabilities watches.
After this, the student with disabilities
will be probed by the instructor to perform the response chain
as he/she has seen the peer model
do.
Fidelity of Implementation
All sessions will be individually audio-recorded. An
independent person, a graduate
student, will compare the marked copies of the researcher
against the audio to define any
discrepancies. The inter-observer agreement is then calculated
using the formula, Agreements/
(agreements + disagreements). Inter-observer is conducted on at

least 98% of all assessments
with a total agreement of 100%.
Social Validity
The social validity of the research is the fact that the instructors
involved appreciated the
fact that students with disabilities are in a better position to
learn when they are in a classroom
setting with students without disabilities. As such, they view
this study as a chance to give the four
Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0"
Deleted: s
Deleted: students’ disabilities.
Deleted: -
Deleted: ,
Deleted: the
Deleted: individually
Deleted: affirm
Deleted: administrations
Deleted: the median

10
selected students a chance to interact and learn from other
students who do not have disabilities.
In addition, it is seen as an opportunity to evaluate the impact
that of peer modeling in enhancing
learning outcomes for students with disabilities and a chance to
provide an inclusive classroom.
Results
It is expected that the students with disabilities will be able to
perform some of the response
chains that were presented to them. It should be noted that these
response chains that they were
expected to perform after peer modeling are ones that they
could not perform before. Since there
is no prior numerical data on similar studies, the students are
expected to be able to correctly
respond to the response chains in an average of 40 minutes
spread through the study period of 30
days.
It was expected that some modifications are needed in order to
enable the students to carry

out the prompted response chains. For instance, a student could
experience difficulties when say,
correctly punching the buttons of a computer. In addition, when
using a calculator, the students
may have difficulties inputting the proper sequence of numbers
as required. In addition, the
students could also have trouble complying with the instructions
provided.
11
It was not easy to estimate the performance of the four students
based since there was no
previous numerical data to use. However, we estimate the
students would fare as follows:
The social interaction and participation among the students was
expected to range from
0%- 15% and participation was expected to be around 0%-7%.
Percentage of Overlapping Data
The percentage of overlapping data is expected to be 5%.
Data Variability

The variability of the data collected within a given phase is
expected to be close in range.
This is mainly because the students exhibit similar disabilities
and are expected to have similar
learning difficulties. As such, it is expected that the amount of
time that they took to successfully
complete a given phase was similar.
Functional Relationship
There is expected to be a correlation between the peer modeling
and the students’
abilities to imitate their peer models.
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ax
is
T

itl
e
Predcted Chart
student1 student2 student3
student4
Commented [MD7]: A lot of overlapping data.
Formatted: Left, Indent: First line: 0"
Commented [MD8]: Your APA level headers are not in their
typical spot.
Commented [MD9]: This is not part of the functional
relationship definition.
12
Discussion
The results are expected to show that students show some level
of learning when they are
exposed to peer models. This is because prior studies have
shown that students with disabilities
can acquire knowledge through observing other people. In
addition, the level of interaction is

expected to increase albeit dismally since students with
disabilities are likely to interact less with
their peers.
Limitations of the Study
There are high chances of absenteeism expected for the
participants which could
negatively impact the study. There are also limitations on the
generalizability of the study as it
was based on students with autism and chromosomal disorder.
Future Research
Based on this research, studies could be done on other forms of
disabilities to establish
whether observational learning would still be effective as a tool
for specific disabilities.
Commented [MD10]: The small sample size could be a
limitation. Autism, alone, for example, would not be a
limitation; in
my opinion. These students are part of the general student
population too.

13
References
Byers, E. M. (2016). An analysis of the relation between
preschool children’s attention to peers
and the presence of the behavioral developmental cusp for
learning by
observation (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College). Retrieved
from
https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8ZP464D
Charlop, M. H., Lang, R., &Rispoli, M. (2018). Lights, camera,
action! Teaching play and social
skills to children with autism spectrum disorder through video
modeling. In Play and
social skills for children with autism spectrum disorder (pp. 71-
94). Springer, Cham.
Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-
319-72500-0_5
Foti, F., Menghini, D., Alfieri, P., Costanzo, F., Mandolesi, L.,
Petrosini, L., &Vicari, S. (2018).
Learning by observation and learning by doing in Down and
Williams

syndromes. Developmental science, 21(5), e12642. Retrieved
from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/desc.12642
Grenner, E., Åkerlund, V., Asker-Árnason, L., van de Weijer,
J., Johansson, V., &Sahlén, B.
(2018). Improving narrative writing skills through observational
learning: a study of
Swedish 5th-grade students. Educational Review <volume
number>, 1-20. Retrieved
from
536035
Lanter, A., & Singer-Dudek, J. (2020). The effects of an
observational conditioning-by-denial
intervention on the establishment of three observational
learning cusps. European
Journal of Behavior Analysis <volume number>, 1-24.
Retrieved
724001
Odluyurt, S., Aldemir, Ö.,& Kapan, A. (2016). An investigation
on the effects of PECS and
observational learning in initiating and maintenance of
communication among children

Commented [MD11]: What is this?
14
with autism. International Journal of Early Childhood Special
Education, 8(2), 151-164.
Retrieved from
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/intjecse/issue/27040/284658
Rydzewska, E., Hughes-McCormack, L. A., Gillberg, C.,
Henderson, A., MacIntyre, C., Rintoul,
J., & Cooper, S. A. (2019). Prevalence of sensory impairments,
physical and intellectual
disabilities, and mental health in children and young people
with self/proxy-reported
autism: Observational study of a whole country population.
Autism, 23(5), 1201-1209.
Retrieved from
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/136236131879127
9
Spriggs, A. D., Gast, D. L., & Knight, V. F. (2016). Video
modeling and observational learning
to teach gaming access to students with ASD. Journal of autism
and developmental

disorders, 46(9), 2845-2858. Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-016-2824-3
Stone, A. L., Bruehl, S., Smith, C. A., Garber, J., & Walker, L.
S. (2018). Social learning
pathways in the relation between parental chronic pain and daily
pain severity and
functional impairment in adolescents with functional abdominal
pain. Pain, 159(2), 298.
Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889361/
Werts, M. G., Caldwell, N. K., &Wolery, M. (2010). Peer
modeling of response chains:
Observational learning by students with disabilities. Journal of
Applied Behavior
Analysis, 29(1), 53-66. Retrieved from
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-53
1
Running head: ASSIGNMENT OR PAPER TITLE
5
ASSIGNMENT OR PAPER TITLE

Example: Title for Your Assignment of Paper
Your Name
Example: Title for Your Assignment of Paper
In this document I will describe and model some of the
essential features of APA formatting that I would like for you to
adopt in your own assignments. Please note that it is key that
you have a basic understanding of these principals, as your
compliance with these standards will be incorporated into your
grade. You may use this pre-formatted document as a template
your own assignments. You will also likely need to refer to the
additional APA guides that are included in the syllabus.
Before getting started you will notice some things about this
paper. First, everything is double-spaced. Second, margins are
1-inch wide on all sides. Third, there are several headings that
are used throughout the document to separate different parts of
the paper. Fourth, page numbers are included at the bottom of
each page (the title page and references page to do not count
towards your total page length). No extra spaces are made or
typed between any sections of the paper.
This first section of your paper is the introduction. The
introduction does not have its own header. Instead, the title of
the paper is listed above. The purpose of your paper should be
clear from the introduction. The meat of your paper, however,
will follow the introduction and will probably require multiple
levels of headers, from level 1-3 (or maybe 4). Headers provide

a 2-3 word summary of the content that will be included in the
paragraphs following.
Headers in APA
The Level 1 headers are used to break out different sections of a
paper. They look like this:
Level 1 Header
For example, in a research paper, you will have multiple parts
(i.e., a part on the history of special education, a part on the
role of a general education teacher in supporting students with
disabilities, a conclusion, etc.). It would be wise to use level 1
headers to break your paper into these sections. After you use a
level 1 header, it re-starts your header levels so that the next
header would be a level 2, then a level 3, etc.
Level 2 Header
Level 2 headers indicate sub-sections that fall under the
previous level 1 header. You may have many or a few level 2
headers. So for example, if one of your level 1 headers is
The History of Special Education
You might have several level 2 headers like these:
Early 1900s
Advocacy and Civil Rights Era: 1950-1960
The Right to Appropriate Education: 1975 and Beyond
Level 3 header. The level three header is a little different than
the first level header because it is indented a half-inch, has a
period after it, and only the first word is capitalized (unless it’s
a proper noun). It also differs in that text follows immediately
after the period. When writing a paper and using level 3
headers, you would want the level three header to be a sub-
heading for the level 2 header. An example of this might be that
a level 2 header is the “Early 1900s” where you provide a short
description of the state of special education in the 1900s and
indicate that in the following paragraphs you are going to talk
more specifically about the types of special services that were
being provided in the 1900s (e.g., services for those who were
blind or deaf, institutions, etc.). You would then include a level
three header for each of those services identified.

Level 4 header. In the event that you need an additional header
(i.e., you wanted to specifically discuss the types of institutions
in the 1900s), you would then use a level 4 header. You’ll
notice it differs from a level 2 header only in that it is
italicized.
Level 5 header. This is what it would like if you feel you need
even one more header. I tend to not use these unless I’m going
into extreme detail about a topic.
Citations
One of the most important parts of writing an assignment
in this course is giving credit to those who give you the ideas
that you will be writing about. The way that you do this is by
citing others work. The APA has a very specific way of citing
sources in text. Articles and books are cited the same way in
text. For example, an article written by Bronfenbrenner (1994)
and a book by Solomon (2012) are cited the same way. Both of
these citations only include the authors’ last names. Sometimes,
citations are better set inside parenthesis. For example, I might
purport that the ecological model suggests an individual is
nested within a system (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Or, that there
are a variety of risk and protective factors that have been shown
to influence the long-term outcomes of individuals (Werner,
2005). Sometimes, you’ll use a website or a source without an
author. When this happens, you will give credit to the
organization that is sponsoring that material. For example,
recent statistics suggest that individuals with disabilities are
employed at a rate nearly half of that as individuals without
disabilities (U.S. Department of Labor, 2013). If a source is
cited in your text, you must also include a reference for that
citation in the final references section of your paper
References
After the last page of the document you will include a reference
page. See the example in this document to see what this will
look like. You will need to refer to the resources suggested on
the syllabus for more information on properly referencing a
source.

Conclusion
In conclusion, using the APA format is going to be
essential for this class and there are many more intricacies that
I discussed in this brief write-up. Using this standardized
grading scheme will reduce my own bias that I project on
assignments that look prettier than others. It will also be a basis
on by which your assignment is graded.
References
These are examples of APA formatted references:
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2004). Ecological model of human
development. International Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), pp-
pp.
U.S. Department of Labor (2013). Persons with disabilities
Labor force characteristics summary. Retrieved from:
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/disabl.pdf
Werner. E. (2005). Resilience and recovery: Findings from the
Kauai longitudinal study. Research, Policy and Practices in
Children’s Mental Health, 19(1), pp-pp.
Sheet121211345561221144456
Example Mini-Study Chart
2 1 2 1 1 3 4 5 5 6 1 2 2
1 1 4 4 4 5 6
A B A
B
1. Research Proposal : Students will complete a proposal for a
single subject design research study. About preschoolers with
special needs students and literacy skills or peers interaction
Rubric: Components:

· Introduction/literature review. Include at least 10 in-text
references (also in Reference list at the end).
· State your research question(s) at the end of this
introduction/literature review section.
· Methods section. Describe the following (use subtitles):
· Setting
· Participants
· Type of single subject design
· How will experimental control be managed?
· Baseline phase
· Intervention phase
· Maintenance phase
· Dependent variable(s)
· Independent variable(s)
· General instructional procedures (how was the independent
variable taught to/employed by students?)
· Fidelity of implementation (what percentage [e.g., 33%] of
sessions were observed to document that the sessions included
what was planned?)
· If social validity was included, what did that entail?
· Results section
· Narrative discussion of the expected results
· Chart of expected results
· Percentage of non-overlapping data (PND)
· Immediacy of the effect…was there one or not in each phase
change?
· Variability of the data within a phase. Is it close in range, or
high and low across the phase?
· Did the data demonstrate a functional relation?...level, slope,
trend
· Discussion section
· Discuss your expected-results chart and how this ties back to
the literature mentioned in your opening pages
· Limitations of your planned study
· Ideas for future research

· Reference list
· APA style, size-12 font Times New Roman
· Double spaced
· 8-10 pages, including cover page
· No more than two quotes across the paper (each 2 sentences
maximum)
· Finessed text/spelling/coherence

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