Business PlanMembersAbrazian, AssadourBa.docx

Business Plan
Members:
Abrazian, Assadour
Baculima, Pablo
Fischer, Julia
Iacobellis, Graziana
Ricci, Giovanni
Sacco, Francesco
Tufan, Chiara
Varano, Chiara
Teachers:
Ferrari, Carolina
Forrester, Diego
Ramos, Silvina
Resumen Ejecutivo

https://www.sambazon.com/born-of-the-amazon/ <- empresa
https://www.gtai.de/GTAI/Content/EN/Invest/_SharedDocs/Dow
nloads/GTAI/Industry-overviews/industry-overview-food-
beverage-industry-en.pdf interesting for everyone! <- market
ÍNDICE
OFFICIAL GENERAL FORMAT GUIDELINES: ->Webcampus
Total length: Less than 60 pages, annexes included.
Language and Format: English, Arial 12. Line spacing: single.
Alignment: Justified.
Every key research date and piece of information must have

their corresponding footnote with their source reference.
_____________________________________________________
_____________
· Cover Page.
· Índex.
· Chapters I - IX.
· General References
· Annexes
· Chapter I. Executive Summary
(the final versión can only be written at the end, whatever you
write earlier will be regarded as a draft)
A1. Summary Description of the Business
A2. The Opportunity and Strategy.
A3 The Target Market and Projections
A4. The Competitive Advantage
A5 The Economics, Profitability, and Harvest Potential
A6. The team. The Board and Human Resources.
A7 The Offering. Business plan objective.
· Chapter II. The Industry, the Company, and Its Products or
Services (pablo and assa)
A. The Industry
B. The Company.
C. The Products or Services.
D. Entry and Growth Strategy Pablo
E. External Factors analysis. Pest Chiara/Julia
F. SWOT Assa
· Chapter III. Market Research and Analysis
A. Customers. Chiara
B. Competition.

C. Market size potential. Chiara Estimated Market Share and
Sales evolution Falta
D. Industry Analysis. Michael Porter´s 5 Forces Chiara/Julia
· Chapter IV . Marketing Plan →
A. Overall Marketing Strategy description.
B. Product portfolio evolution. Product / Service description
and warranty policies.
C. Pricing evolution. Pricing strategy.
D. Promotion strategies.
E. Sales tactics
F. Place. Distribution strategies.
· Chapter V. The team. Board and associates.
A. General overview of the Organization chart. Total
employees
B. The Board and managers.
· Chapter VI. Operations management
A. Geographic Location
B. Lay out of the Premises, machinery and equipment Facility
and capacity improvement.
C. Plant, Operating employees. General employees headcount
and key HR policies.
· Chapter VII. Financial projections
A. Profit and Loss Forecasts.
B. Proforma Cash Flow projections.
D. Main costs and expenses
E. Assumptions used in the statements, calculations and
supporting information.
· Chapter VII. The economics of the business
A. Profitability. Gross and Operating margins.
B. Financial metrics, IRR , NPV.

C. Fixed and variable costs
D. Breakeven point calculations or chart
· Critical risks and main problems. Ranking and how to mitigate
them.
·
Capitulo I: LA EMPRESA Y LA INDUSTRIA (pablo and
assa)
A.THE INDUSTRY
The report, titled "Acai Berry Market: Global Industry Analysis
& Opportunity Assessment, 2016-2026," estimates that in 2016,
more than 300,000 tonnes of acai berry products were sold
across the world. Future Market Insights anticipates an
impressive rise in global consumption of acai berry products,
and expects the global sales to surpass 1 million tonnes by the
end of 2026. During this forecast period, the global market for
acai berry will reflect a volume CAGR of 12.5%. In terms of
value, the global acai berry market has been estimated to be
valued at US$ 696 Mn in 2016, and is expected to reach US$
2,285.7 Mn towards the end of 2026, exhibiting a CAGR of
12.6%.

In addition to the rising use of acai berry in production of
organic cosmetics, the report also observes that robust
nutritional content of acai berry products have helped them to
gain applicability in production of protein drinks and other
beverages. Likewise, sales of acai berry increased over past
three years due to the positive perception towards super-food,
which consists enormous amount of nutritional content. The
report predicts that in the years to come, the demand for acai
berry frozen pulp will be considerably higher than dried acai
berries. Higher nutritional content of acai berry pulp will help it
procure more than 80% of global acai berry sales throughout the
forecast period.
Increasing demand for 'All Natural' preserving for frozen fruits,
coupled with rising preference for acai with guarana (in Latin
America) has also propelled the application of acai berry. In
2017 and beyond, acai berry products will be largely used for
food & beverage applications, revenues from which are
expected to surge at 13% CAGR. Application of acai berry in
production of nutraceuticals is also expected to gain traction,
showcasing an absolute $ opportunity of close of US$ 137 Mn
between 2016 and 2026.
The organic food industry in Europe is a lucrative market,
Germany is the leading market for organic products in Europe
with a 11.4 percent share of global organic sales. that is the
reason why we choose Germany as our destination country. The
market share of the Food and Beverage segment is predicted to
rise significantly over the forecast period because of booming
demand in the super fruit juice industry as a result of changing
preferences in favour of healthy drinks. Y-o-Y growth rates
ranging from 11% to 9.9% over 2016–2026 can be safely
assumed in the Food and Beverage segment, making it record
the highest growth in the global acai berry market. An absolute
dollar opportunity of more than US$ 1.8 Bn exists in the Food

and Beverage segment of the global acai berry market.
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/by-2026-end-over-
1-million-tonnes-of-acai-berry-will-be-consumed-across-the-
globe-619839323.html
B. THE COMPANY
We started Sambazon with the belief that what we do can
change the world. And we think we can do it for the better.
Açaí’s a powerful berry from the heart of the Amazon and by
harvesting it in a meaningful way, we’re able to sustainably
share its superfood nutrition with the world.
We were the first company to bring Açaí to the states and we’re
in it for the long run. Since Day 1, we’ve been dedicated to our
farmers, to you, and to the power of a positive future. We hope
you’ll join our tribe of crazy change-making, do-gooders out
there sharing purple smiles with the world.
· MISSION
· SAMBAZON IS A TRIBE
BY SHARING ACAI, WE CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE,
INSPIRING (DELICIOUSLY) POSITIVE CHANGE.
Together, we’re a tribe of conscious individuals looking to
make the world a better place. We make delicious organic
products packed with the nutrient-rich power of Açaí and other
Amazon superfoods. Everything we do and every ingredient we
harvest is done consciously and purposefully so we can uphold
our promise to the Brazilian Amazon, the planet and you.
· VISION
We see our company as the number one in Germany (an all
Europe maybe?) for the consumption of Açaí based products.

We are focused on creating new ways of introducing healthy
options for people's diets and helping them adapt in an easier
way to this new and strong trend of becoming fitter and
healthier.
· VALUE
SUSTAINABILITY IS WHO WE ARE.
PEOPLE.PLANET.PURPOSE
True sustainability is a holistic, regenerative act. Because of
this, we will always hand harvest our superfoods in an honest
and pragmatic way. We will always use our business model as a
vehicle for positive change in the Brazilian Amazon. We will
always be certified USDA Organic, Fair Trade, and non-GMO.
Sambazon is a socially and environmentally conscious company
that uses organic food and beverages as vehicles for positive
change. Sambazon ethically sourced Amazon Superfoods, like
acerola and guarana, to make fresh juices, smoothies and frozen
products that offer pioneering nutrition, epic taste and higher
consciousness. To this day, Sambazon’s Fair Trade partnership
helps protect the Amazon rainforest and benefits more than
10,000 family farmers in Brazil, while bringing consumers the
next level in superfood nutrition. Sambazon products are widely
available in health food stores, grocers, and juice bars
throughout North America and 6 other countries.
However, sambazon counts with 51-200 employees in the
headquarter in San Clemente, California.
https://www.thalamus.co/buyers/sambazon
· WHEN YOU GO TO THE AMAZON, YOU GET IT.
It’s vibrant and amazing. And from the very first time we
visited, we knew we had to do our part to protect it. With a
little hard work, we realized sharing the good-for-you power of
Açaí could make that happen. Of course, when we started back
in 1999, we had big dreams and high hopes – like only working
with locals, being Fair Trade, Organic, Vegan and non GMO –

and we’ve been able to do all those things since Day 1. To date,
we employ over 30,000 locals in harvest, the low-income family
producers receive a fixed minimum price for the acai, which is
higher than the average wage in Brazil, creating stability for the
producers against market fluctuations. The acai palm grows
naturally in the Amazonian rainforest and is often the target of
“palm poachers”, who kill the entire tree to harvest the edible
inner portion of the stem of the palm. Shifting the focus on
harvesting the acai berries, which does not harm the tree,
protects the palms as well as the surrounding forest and
promotes sustainable agroforestry. We’ve preserved millions of
hectares of virgin rainforest, and we reinvest in every
community we call home. Do Good. Be Good. Create Change.
· OUR TENETS
WE ARE HERE FOR SOMETHING BIGGER.
· Foster a healthy disregard for the impossible.
· Be fiercely committed to sustainability + all things organic /
non GMO.
· Share superfoods that energize your body + soul.
· Live an active lifestyle that’s centered around vibrant health +
wellness.
· Be honest, open, driven, purposeful, playful, curious and
humble.
· Trust in “One tribe. One vibe.” Be radically transparent and
radically inclusive.
· Measure success from a Triple Bottom Line: Social +
Environmental + Economic. Comment by Silvina Ramos: Tell
us please about your product portfolio worldwide and current
main markets
C. THE PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
ACAI BERRY PULP

· 100g
· antioxidantes: Omega 3-6-9
· aminoacidos: Vitamin A and C
· Sugar free
· Gluten free
This are some of our top sellers in other countries that might be
introduced in the german market in a near future.
FROZEN SORBET.
SUPER FRUIT PACK
D. ENTRY AND GROWTH STRATEGY
Exporting
Exporting is the most traditional and well established form of
operating in foreign markets. Exporting can be defined as the
marketing of goods produced in one country into another.
Whilst no direct manufacturing is required in an overseas

country, significant investments in marketing are required. The
tendency may be not to obtain as much detailed marketing
information as compared to manufacturing in marketing
country; however, this does not negate the need for a detailed
marketing strategy.
The advantages of exporting are:
· manufacturing is home based thus, it is less risky than
overseas based
· gives an opportunity to "learn" overseas markets before
investing in bricks and mortar
· reduces the potential risks of operating overseas.
ABOUT THIS ENTRY
Sambazon has been fighting to protect the rainforest for almost
two decades. As a brand that was founded on a commitment to
social and environmental consciousness, the industry pioneer
and market leader in the organic açaí category has been actively
at the forefront of environmental protectionism in the Amazon
since the beginning. Even the name, Sambazon, is an acronym
for "Sustainable Management of the Brazilian Amazon".
So when the Sambazon team learned that scientists estimate one
species is forever lost to extinction for every 584 acres of

rainforest that are cut down, they decided to step up their game.
As part of their continued engagement with creative agency of
record, Mistress, Sambazon saw an opportunity to not only rally
behind a cause that was near and dear, but also one that sits at
the core of the company's ethos: to operate as both a
financially-responsible and environmentally-responsible
company.
With the goal of saving 30 endangered species in 30 days,
Sambazon launched #PurpleForThePlanet, a social-good
campaign that harnessed user-generated content to protect
biodiversity in the heart of the Amazon rainforest. The initiative
tapped social, digital, and experiential channels to champion
environmentalism in a unique way—by pledging to protect five
acres of Amazon rainforest for every person who colored their
hair purple (either digitally or IRL) and uploaded a photo to
social media.
The initial goal was to garner around 3,500 purple-headed posts
to ensure the protection of 30 endangered species during the
timeframe.
WHY DOES THIS ENTRY DESERVE TO WIN?
Starting on Earth Day 2018, #PurpleForThePlanet ran the 30
days to May 22nd: World Biodiversity Day. The integrated
campaign consisted of four main pushes: a social media
campaign, a celebrity and influencer program, digital and web
content, and an experiential activation. Harnessing user-
generated content, Sambazon championed biodiversity in the
heart of the Amazon rainforest, not only through awareness but
through an impactful partnership with The Rainforest Trust and
its "Save-an-Acre" Program.
The social-first campaign's call to action centered around the
#PurpleForThePlanet hashtag, which tapped students,
environmental activists, and general consumers to use social
media as a tool for genuine change. Understanding modern
social media culture and how an action as small as a selfie can

trigger a global movement, Mistress looked to empower people
to show their true colors and become part of making a greater
change and tangibly impact their world. Mistress used the selfie
as the cornerstone of the campaign, turning volunteers into the
face of Purple for the Planet —the face of change was suddenly
the face of the public. Through a combination of Instagram,
Instagram Stories, Facebook and Twitter, the campaign inspired
people to color their hair purple, and upload a picture online to
share support for the cause.
While the organic social media engagement was substantial, it
was amplified through the power of influencers and paid media.
To help fuel participation, the açaí powerhouse partnered with
notable celebrities such as Riverdale co-stars Madelaine Petsch
and Vanessa Morgan, Queer Eye star Jonathan Van Ness,
Olympic Gold Medalist in Gymnastics, Jordyn Weiber, and
actress Jenna Ortega, known for her role in Jane the Virgin and
a number of Disney Channel shows. Not only did Hollywood
personalities lend their voices (and hair) to the cause, Sambazon
tapped influencers like The Merrell Twins, Christie Ferrari,
Krispy Shorts, Science.ig, and even Fuck Jerry.
To further support the social conversation around Sambazon and
protecting biodiversity in the Amazonian rainforest, a video was
produced to build awareness and educate volunteers about going
#PurpleForThePlanet. Complemented by a landing page, digital
artwork, and other assets, the video boosted the social media's
resonance by providing sharable content with a clear call to
action: to share a purple-hair selfie.
#PurpleForThePlanet wasn't limited to the online community.
While the campaign engaged consumers on social media, it also
called on the Los Angeles community to attend an experiential
activation on Venice, California's famed Abbot Kinney
Boulevard. The event featured hairstylists, hair coloring
stations, Instagrammable backdrops, and photo booths, all to
help guests go purple for the planet. This in-person branded
footprint brought together people from all walks of life, to
celebrate the environment and Sambazon's açaí offerings.

RESULTS
#PurpleForThePlanet was an overwhelming success. Surpassing
the initial goal of saving 30 species in 30 days, Sambazon
protected a grand total of 216 species from extinction. By
securing 126,270 acres of Amazon rainforest, in just 30 days,
Sambazon tapped the public to help reach its biggest
achievement yet with regards to saving the rainforest and
protecting biodiversity in the region.
The initial goal of 30 species was achieved less than halfway
through the activation window, and in the end,
#PurpleForThePlanet over-delivered by 81% above the original
participation goal. Overall, the campaign inspired over six
thousand volunteers to go purple and help protect hundreds of
Amazon species, including animals like the endangered Giant
Otter, the White-Bellied Spider Monkey, and the Jaguar. With
so much engagement coming from consumers and fans, the
Rainforest Trust also increased their contribution to the
activation, helping the Sambazon team make an unprecedented
impact on the Amazon.
#PurpleForThePlanet united thousands of people under
Sambazon's banner to make a tangible difference to the world
we live in. Over the course of nearly 20 years, the brand's
continued commitment to the Amazon rainforest has protected
2.5 million acres total, an area larger than Puerto Rico. And it
continues to lead the way in both sustainability and in the açaí
market.
https://shortyawards.com/3rd-socialgood/going-
purplefortheplanet-with-sambazon

E. External factor analysis - PESTEL (Julia, Chiara)
Political
government policy, political stability or instability in overseas
markets, foreign trade policy, tax policy, labour law,
environmental law, trade restrictions and so on.
Germany is a democratic, federal parliamentary republic in
western central Europe. Berlin is the capital and also the largest
city in Germany.
The federal legislative power is vested in the Bundestag (which
is the parliament of Germany) and the Bundesrat (which is the
representative body of the regional states).
Looking at the political stability index, the World Bank
provides data for Germany from 1996 to 2017. The average
value for Germany during that period was 0.91 points with a
minimum of 0.58 points in 2003 and a maximum of 1.41 points
in 2000.
https://archiv.bundesregierung.de/archiv-
de/meta/startseite/germany-as-a-centre-of-business-472678
https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Germany/wb_political_stab
ility/
Economical
economic growth, interest rates, exchange rates, inflation,
disposable income of consumers and businesses and so on, tax
policies, Fiscal policy, trade tariffs
Germany is the world’s third strongest national economy and

holds a leading position in terms of its total economic global
output. It has the largest number of inhabitants in the European
Union and the highest gross domestic product, which makes it
the most important market in Europe. The economic system is
organised according to the principle of the social market
economy.
The economic growth is expected to remain stable, due to the
strong job creation one the hand, and fiscal stimulus on the
other hand. Low interest rates, high capacity utilization and
growing housing demand is expected to boost business and
residential investment. Successful integration of immigrants
into the labour market, improved education and training, and an
increase of women’s working hours as a result of recent reform
efforts are expected to improve labour shortages and allow
companies to expand their productions.
In World Bank’s ease of doing business ranking Germany was
ranked 24 out of 190 countries in the year 2018, which means
the ease of doing business ranking slipped from the 20th
position in the year 2017.
With special regard to superfood launches, Germany is the
second most innovative market for superfood launches in the
world, with a total share of 9% and increase since then. Looking
at the number of new food and drink launches containing
descriptors such as „superfood“ and „superfruit between the
years of 2013 and 2016, Germany witnessed a four-fold
increase. The trend that it is getting more can be seen as the
result of a widening audience of consumers who are interested
in health and wellbeing. In a study from 2017 it turned out that
8,4% of Germans said they regularly buy acai berries, which
gets supported when looking at the quantity of sales of acai
berries to Germany with an amount of 300t in 2015.
The overall retail sales of superfoods have amounted to 3.2
billion € since 2016, which indicates a stable future for
superfoods in Germany. The rising consumption of healthy
foods is expected to still grow in the future, shows that there is
a lot of potential investing into this market.

https://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/germany-
is-now-the-worlds-second-most-innovative-market-for-
superfood-launches
https://das-ernaehrungshandbuch.de/acai-beeren/
https://www.statista.com/statistics/788851/superfoods-purchase-
germany/
https://nutrifusion.com/germany-takes-second-lead-superfood-
market-launches/
Socio-cultural
population growth, age distribution, health consciousness,
career attitudes and so on
Germany has currently a population of roughly 82,4 million
inhabitants which is equivalent to 1,07% of the worlds
population. The population density in Germany is 237 per
square kilometer with 75,8% of the population living in urban
areas. The median age is 46 and is expected that after 2020 the
population will be slowly be decreasing. In general it can be
said that the population is well educated with modern views and
a vast diversity in terms of cultures.
The aging population as well as general health and fitness
trends in Germany have been fueling the demand for health,
fitness and organic foods. For example organic food sales
increased by more than six percent in 2017 to over 10 billion
Euros making it the largest organic food market in Europe. The
per capita sales in this market were 116 Euros- a lot higher than
the average of 28 Euros in Europe.
The health and wellness market in Europe has as well been a
fast growing market and is expected to grow further in the

future. The population has a huge awareness of a healthy
lifestyle with 52.5 % claiming they have sufficient or excellent
knowledge. The population is therefore very health conscious
with 41% of Germans over 60 claiming healthy nutrition is key.
Furthermore the working and living environment is more and
more fast paced which is why the Frozen and Convenience Food
market for both the private consumption and the catering
industry is growing. A special growth segment in 2017 was the
Frozen fruits segment with an increase of 14% in sales.
-> Bezug auf target customer nehmen
http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/germany-
population/
beverage-industry-en.pdf
Technological
Regarding the production of our products one technology is
crucial for us.
The freeze-drying technology is a method of dehydrating frozen
fruits and vegetables under a vacuum. The technology became
popular after the NASA used it to create freeze-dried ice cream
for the astronauts. Among the most important advantages of this
technology for our product is that the berries become very light
after the water gets removed from them which makes portability
easier and leads to cheaper transportation costs, the technology
allows that the pulp retains its taste and nutritional value.
Furthermore there is no refrigeration required for freeze-dried
foods but they can remain intact for months or even years at
room temperature and with the low water activity
microbiological hazards are practically removed. This technique
is used for our Acai powders that we are exporting.
·

· New ways of producing goods and services
· New ways of distributing goods and services
· New ways of communicating with target markets
http://www.twosmallfarms.com/freeze-drying-technology-fruit-
vegetables/
http://www.liotecnica-superfruits.com/en/inicio-en/#quemsomos
Ecological/ Environmental
important due to the increasing scarcity of raw materials,
pollution targets, doing business as an ethical and sustainable
company, carbon footprint targets set by governments
Germany has a diverse range of ecosystems: coastlines along
the Baltic and North seas, fertile plains, highlands, forests, and
the mountainous Alps in the Southern part. Still, the majority of
the population of Germany tends to live in urban areas with
about 86% of the population living in cities. With a total
population of about 82.300.000 (2018), it is the 17th most
populated country in the world and the most populated state
within in the EU. The climate can be described as a temperate
seasonal and is dominated by humid westerly winds. The
Northern extension of the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift,
moderated Germany’s climate and as a result the north and
northwest coastal regions have an oceanic climate.
Like most other industrialized nations, Germany has a
significant air pollution problem, which has worsened in recent
years. In addition to that, another significant environmental
issue are the decades of open-cast mining, which have resulted
in significant water pollution in some rivers and killing
wildlife. Also, Germany (as one of the global leaders in battling
carbon emissions) faces the consequences of global warming,
just like the rest of the world. One effort involves the increase
in efficiency of the use of resources, since Germany has set a
goal of trying to use fewer resources while maintaining the

same amount of prosperity, as well as the implementation of
renewable energy production.
Legal
health and safety, equal opportunities, advertising standards,
consumer rights and laws, product labelling and product safety
The administration of justice is divided into 5 branches: labor,
ordinary, administrative, social and financial courts. Germany’s
legal system has been shaped by the constitutional law but is
also influenced by the law of the EU and international law. The
legal stability attracts foreign companies and investments and
general entrepreneurial activity in Germany benefits from it.
Trademarks and patents enjoy strong protection in Germany,
with the German Patent- and Trademark Office being in charge
for these registrations. When exporting to Germany, multiple
aspects should be considered: taxes, quality and environmental
standards, trademark and competition rules, etc.
When importing, the importer is responsible for clearing the
items to put the goods in circulation in the country. Imported
goods must be accompanied by a custom declaration that has to
be submitted in a written form, as well as an invoice in
duplicate. Like most members in the EU, Germany adheres to
the metric standard, which means that quality and quantity of
the goods must be quoted in metric units derived from them. As
information and consumer protection are important, there are
precise regulations on labelling products, (especially in our case
since it is fundamental in case of food), which are bound to the
single European market. For safety aspects of several kinds of
products and goods, the state has established the Federal
Institute of Risk Assessment.
There are certain packaging and labelling requirements that
have to comply with the European Union Regulations and
follow the Codex Alimentarius standards. Also, the in 2016
announced changes in regulations concerning the maximum

residue levels in fruits set for several pesticides need to be
taken into account as well.
There is a General Food Law, which is the legislative
framework regulation for food safety in Europe, which is
important for our case. Another legally binding requirement
when exporting to Europe is stated by the “Farm to Fork”
approach covering all sectors of food, which means that all food
has to be traceable throughout the entire supply chain and
limited risks of contamination. In addition to that the product
has to pass the official border control, but the importer still
needs a certification or other proof of quality and safety, since
it is obligatory under European legislation and the basis for
entering the European market.
https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/processed-fruit-
vegetables-edible-nuts/frozen-berries/europe
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231926890_Analysing
_the_market_environment_for_acai_Euterpe_oleracea_Mart_jui
ces_in_Europe
https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/processed-fruit-
vegetables-edible-nuts/frozen-fruit-vegetables/europe
SWOT ANALYSIS
STRENGTHS
· The fruit’s tropical origin, the nutritional value of açaí.
· As our product is fruit based, our processes demand less
consumption of natural resources in comparison to other food
processes such as for the meat, candies, etc.
· We have trust and credibility in our community.
· Acai has a good taste, but even if somebody doesn't find it
compelling, it's a great option to mix it with other solid fruit

and/or cereals. We already highlighted the properties of the acai
and how it is considered a superfood.
· Our brand is focused in vegan and fit people, but also in other
people that wants to improve their diets and are open to try
different options.
· Is possible to freeze this food without affecting its flavour,
which we know is not the case for other brands selling acai
based products.
· Strengths pertain to the nutritional value of acai and its
tropical origin, and the existence of well-established national
acai markets and processing industries
WEAKNESSES
· Weaknesses result from the irregular supply and inconsistent
acai quality, lack of advanced know-how in cultivation and
processing issues, and scant insights into the fruit's nutrient
profile.
OPPORTUNITIES
· Opportunities stem from growing consumer interest in natural,
healthy and nutritious fruit juices, the need for health-oriented
innovations in the food industry and growing interest in variety,
novel tastes and ethnic foods.
· Growing demand in Europe for healthy and nutritious food and
beverage products with new flavours creates opportunities for
supplying the European market with novel fruit juices including
tropical fruits like açai
THREATS
· Unfamiliarity, health claim credibility and European market

access requirements constitute the main threats.
· Market environment for açaí juices in Europe Fruits,
consumers’ interest in ethnic foods, and consumers’ search for
natural, healthy and nutritious fruit juices Threats Increasing
transportation costs together with European market access
requirements. import tariffs and quotas, non-tariff trade
barriers, and other non-legislative requisites were reported as
limiting factors. the import of açaí pulp into the European
Union is subjected to an import tariff of 18.4% of the CIF value
of the product.
CONCLUSION
· Conclusion. The findings indicate that acai, which has
outstanding nutritional values and health-related benefits, could
have substantial potential in the West European fruit juice
market. Key attention points pertain to creating awareness
among consumers and building familiarity with acai and its
products, and obtaining in-depth knowledge about its nutritional
characteristics and concomitant health benefits.
ces_in_Europe
Chapter III. Market Research and Analysis
A.Customers
The end users or clients that we want to reach are roughly 16 to
60 years old with an average to high income since it is a rather
pricey food supplement and doesn’t necessarily belong to every
ones daily staple food. The clients lead a bodyconscious
lifestyle, are usually rather sportive, have a healthy diet and are
concerned about nourishing their body with all nutrients it
needs. The clients are furthermore concerned about the long-
term effects of their lifestyle on their body. The ingredients of

acai are helping them to detox their body, give them energy and
important nutrients to lead an active and healthy lifestyle, slow
down aging signs in their skin and prevent heart diseases.
We seperated the customers in following segments:
1. Fitness or Sports interested customers
2. Customers that are using the Acai to generally improve their
health and use it as a food supplement
3. And furthermore a customer segment that is younger (16-30)
and is mainly following the trend
B.Competition
NaturaleBio Açaí Beeren Pulver, organic
https://www.foodlux.de/acai-beere-test/
C. Market size potential. Estimated Market Share and Sales
evolution (Chiara)
In order to be able to define the market share that we are
targeting to reach, in a first step we want to define the segment
and its volume.
The Acai berry market as a whole is expected to grow with a
CAGR of 12,5%/12,6% in between 2016 and 2026 in volume
and value respectively up to US$ 2,3 Bn in 2026 (Us$ 0,7 Bn in
2016).
Our product has to be situated in the Food and Beverage
segment of the Acai berry market. The market share of the Food
and Beverage segment within the different segments of
applications of Acai (Food and Beverage, Nutraceuticals,
Cosmetics and Personal Care, Others) is said to increase
significantly in the next few years. In 2026 80% of the Acai
berry sales are expected to belong to the Food and Beverages
segment because of the rising demand in the super fruit juice
industry due to changing preferences in favour of healthy
drinks. The market value of this segment was estimated at more
than half a billion US$ in 2016 and is expected to be US$ 1,8
Bn in sales and 800,000 tonnes in volume in 2026 with a CAGR
of 13% both in terms of value and volume.

The organic food industry in Europe is a lucrative market with
Germany being the leading market for organic products in
Europe with a 11.4 percent share of global organic sales.
Furthermore according to a study from Mintel’s Global New
Products Database (GNPD), “9% of global food and drink
launches carrying a superfood claim occurred in Germany in the
year to June 2017, up from a 6% share in the year to June
2016.” In the year to June 2017 Germany was with 9% of all
superfood food and drink launches the country with the second
most launches in this area behind the USA. These are the
reasons why we choose Germany as our destination country for
the export of our Acai products.
While products containing acai are already more established on
the South American market the European market is yet to
satisfy. The global market for acai berry products was expected
to grow at a CAGR rate of 10.31% between 2017 and 2021
making it a perfect opportunity to invest in. Wie viel des Health
food markets machen die Acai berries aus?
Noch eine andere ?
As mentioned above the value of the global Acai berry market
in 2026 is estimated at 2,3 Bn US$. 80% of the Acai berry sales
in 2026 are supposed to be in the Food and beverages market, to
which our product belongs which brings us to a global market
size of 1,84 Bn US$. To estimate the market size of Acai berries
in Germany we looked at the organic food market in 2015. A
study shows that Germany was the second largest organic food
market behind the US with a share of approximately 11,47% of
the global sales (8.6 billion euros/75 billion euros). If we apply
those 11,47% of global sales in that sector to the mentioned
1,84 Bn US$, we can estimate a 211,104,800 US$ market size
for the food and beverages segment in the Acai berry market in
Germany in 2026.

https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/acai-berry-market
https://www.statista.com/statistics/491510/health-and-wellness-
western-europe-market-value/
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-acai-berry-
market-2017-2021-300514327.html
https://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/germany-
is-now-the-worlds-second-most-innovative-market-for-
superfood-launches
https://www.ifoam.bio/en/news/2017/02/09/world-organic-
agriculture-2017
https://www.statista.com/statistics/788851/superfoods-purchase-
germany/
estimated Market Share and Sales: Summarize what it is about
your product or service that will make it salable in the face of
current and potential competition. Identify any major customers
that are willing to make purchase commitments. Indicate the
extent of those commitments and why they were made. Discuss
which customers could be major purchasers in future years and
why.
->
beverage-industry-en.pdf
Market trends!
Based on your assessment of the advantages of your product or
service, the market size and trends, customers, the competitors
and their products, and the trends of sales in prior years,
estimate the share of the market and the sales in units and
dollars that you will acquire in each of the next three years. The
growth of the company sales in units and its estimated market
share should be related to the growth of its industry and
customers and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors. The
data can best be presented in tabular form, as shown below. The
assumptions used to estimate market share and sales should be

clearly stated. lf yours is an existing business, also indicate the
total market, your market share, and sales for two prior years.
Ongoing Market Evaluation. Explain how you will continue to
evaluate your target markets so as to assess customer needs and
guide product-improvement programs and new product
programs, plan for expansions of your production facility, and
guide product/service pricing.
D. Industry Analysis. Michael Porter´s 5 Forces
1. Threat of new entrants
2. Threat of substitutes
One of the most important reasons why our customers buy our
products is that the Acai berry has many important health
benefits. There are few fruits that have such a vast coverage in
different benefits which makes it very special. An important
fact for the consumers is that it is such a rich source of
antioxidants and nutrients which helps to lessen the effects of
aging and protect against the cell damage that free radicals
cause (oxidative stress). The Acai powder has 102,700
antioxidants in 100g which makes it number 14 of the
foods/supplements with the highest density in antioxidants. For
other foods that rank higher such as Oregano, Peppermint and
Cinnamon for example it is a lot harder to be integrated in a
breakfast bowl, a snack or smoothie in which our product is
usually consumed. Other fruits such as blueberries and red
berries like strawberries and raspberries could be used in

similar way in a diet and contain such benefits as well (although
in a lesser density). The Acai berries have the advantage of
being a lot more exotic which makes them less comparable with
other berries that are native to Europe, are also richer in
antioxidants and can be bought in frozen sachets or as a powder
which means we also have the advantage of longer durability.
Other benefits that result from the content of omega 3, 6 and 9
essential fatty acids are for example the protection against heart
disease and promotion of healthier skin. There are few foods
that contain all these advantages in one and at the same time
can be consumed in the way our products are consumed.
Therefore we have a very high product differentiation and it´s
hard to substitute with other products or foods.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/301506.php
https://www.superfoodly.com/foods-high-in-antioxidants/
https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/10-super-
foods#2
3. Bargaining power of suppliers
Our main suppliers are the farmers that are harvesting the Acai
berries for us. Since we are the first certified organic and fair
trade Acai company we are not only willing but actively seeking
to pay fair wages to support more than 30,000 family farmers.
Unlike other companies that sell products made in
underdeveloped regions we are not exploiting the people,
communities and nature. We´ve helped preserve over 2,000,000
hectares of amazon rainforest and 5% of the raw Acai we
purchase goes directly back to local schools and hospitals. Our
farmers are aware of this which is why we have a relationship
that goes beyond bargaining and includes a lot of respect and
loyalty from both sides. Nevertheless the degree of the
differentiation of inputs is very low, the and the labour of
harvesting doesn´t require much training which would make our
supplier switching costs extremely low in case we needed to.
https://www.sambazon.com/fair-trade/
4. Bargaining power of customers
5. Competitive rivalry

Chapter IV . Marketing Plan
PRODUCT
Our company will offer to the German market The Açai Berry
puree - either unsweetened or the original blend – which is
designed for all kinds of costumers.
Among all the types of products of Açai that we sell in the
American market, the version that is proposed in the German
market is simply the fruit already processed - the final product
results in a packed puree - different from the powered version
that German consumers already know and can find already in
their country. As one of the only fruits in the world with zero
naturally occurring sugars, Açaí is also one of the only fruit
with healthy omega fats, antioxidants and fiber. Its delicious
flavor is an encounter of a little like exotic mixed berry and a
hint of cacao. This is why, Açai is super versatile and highly
nutrient dense with only 100 calories per serving in the original
blend and 70 calories for the Unsweetened version (which
contains pure 100% Açaí pulp puree). Its flavor can be mixed
smoothly with other types of flavors: it is possible to add fresh
fruit to sweeten it up, keep it simple with water or coconut
water, or try to add spices to make it savory. Moreover, you can
choose to turn it into a smoothie by keeping your favorite
flavors and only adding some more liquid, or creating a
traditional-style Açaí bowl, topped with granola and fresh fruit.
Our mix is completely gluten and lactose free, respecting the
canons of the Kosher and Halal cuisine. Our company offers a
responsible and sustainable preparation, totally OGM free, made
with 100% organic ingredients and certified fair-trade labor in
the country of production and developing.

Package and Label
Our package will be sold in Germany maintaining the same
design of the brand but it will also approach the German market
adapting itself to the requisites and taste of German consumer.
Indeed, the language of the label and package will be translated
in German; even though there is no legal requirement
stipulating that information on labels be in German, a German-
language label is advisable in order to be able to effectively
market the product in Germany. The process of packaging will
occur in our industries in San Clemente, where we will use
specific and special machines.
The material used will be entirely eco-friendly, and it consists
in recycled plastic pouches which will contain four packs of the
product where the blend is dosed. As far as it regards the
original blend, its whole package is presented in one unit color,
purple, which definitely recall the color of the fruit itself. While
the green around the gladiator in the logo could remind the
origin place of the fruit, the Amazon. The Unsweetened package
instead is presented in a light purple tint. The package includes
4 bars which measure 100gr x28 of pure acai berry
The label contains all the Nutrition Facts and healthy
ingredients that are contained in the product.
The product will be labelled showing the manufacturer,
composition, the common product name and country of origin
and will respect the requirements under the PFA and the
Packaged Commodities rule. It also reveals the eco-friendly and
sustainable environment in which our organization works and

produce, specifying that our product is Certified Fair Trade,
Organic, Vegan, Kosher, Gluten Free, Lactose Free and fair
trade product. Moreover, the mark of Low-density Polyethylene
plastic material will testify that the material is made with
biodegradable plastic.
.
PRICE
Although the majority of consumers in Germany continue to
regard the decisive element for the purchase of a product, an
increasing proportion of consumers is willing to pay more to get
a certain “plus” translatable in ethical/social terms–
environment and health care. This allows the expansion on the
market of “premium” and mid-high-end products, in line with
the increasing attention from the consumer to quality, health,
wellness, production processes and respect for the environment.
Just to quote a figure which we think is very relevant to the
increase in this type of consumption, German market sales of
lactose-free and gluten-free foods increased between 2010 and
2015 by 31.4% and 28.3% respectively, and the figures show a
continuous raise. In 2017, German consumers purchased food
and bio drinks for a total of €10.04 billion, an increase of 5.9%
compared to the total volume of purchases in 2016. The trend in
turnover for the organic food sector in Germany has shown in
recent decades, with the exception of a short involutive phase in
2009, a trend, as already mentioned, in constant growth.
And it is precisely in this favourable market environment that
the açai can easily fit in despite its slightly higher price than
competing products.
According to data we estimate, the purchase price of the

primary product by the farmer is 30$ for a basket of 14kg. The
same will be processed by us, packed (in packages of an average
of 400 g) and then sold through our distribution channels for an
equivalent of 14 kg = 150$. Finally, the individual packages
will be available to final consumers at an average price of 8$.
PLACE
Destination country: The organic food industry in Europe is a
lucrative market, Germany is the leading market for organic
products in Europe with a 11.4 percent share of global organic
sales. That is the reason why we choose Germany as our
destination country.
Chain of supply
We Are a company B2B since we sell products that do need
process of manufacturing and are available for the final
consumers across the intermediaries and other businesses.
- Raw material: Açai was born in the lung of the Earth, in the
Brazilian Amazon, where the fruit is cultivated and grown,
therefore where it comes from in its original shape and
consistency. The whole cycle of being processed and made a
puree, instead, take places in the Headquarter of Sambazon,
which is in San Clemente, California. Consequently it is
shipped through Isotherm marine refrigerator Cruises to
Germany: precisely, the cruises will arrive in Hamburg, one of
the main ports in Germany.
- Distribution: once the products will arrive in the main port, we
will realize all our activities based on our own(proper) center of
distribution located in Hamburg, then it will be delivered
through trucks to the different business centers in which our

product will be sold. The distribution to the different sales
points, will be depending on the demand that each one has.
- Intermediaries: Our intermediaries will be supermarkets, hyper
wholesalers and wholesalers through them will reach more
people, in less time and with the greatest possible supply in the
main of the country. Some example of the most common
supermarkets in Germany are: Aldi, Edeka, Lidl, Kaufland.
However, we decided also to choose as our destinations Cafes,
Restaurants, Ice cream shops, gyms where the hypothetical Açai
lovers will be mostly going, therefore will have the possibility
to deepen the culture of Açai and can take inspiration on how
the product can be eaten and decorated.
-Final Consumption: Our target then will be enjoying our
product at home or in familiar places, where they can feel free
to appreciate the Açai frozen pulp in their own favorite way and
following their own tastes.
PROMOTION
Our overall marketing strategy is "Market Development",
meaning that our product is existing but the market is new.
Therefore, the goal we have in front of our end consumers is to
make our product known, from where we come from, until what
benefits we offer them with Sambazon.
The target of our campaign are people of different ages,
therefore the means by which we will advertise be more than
one. We will use the following:
- Television:
Through commercials, at breakfast and snack time. Television
advertising has an enormous influence because it is the most
important medium in the country.
Public road through posters attached to the main avenues and

bus stops. This type of communication will be used more evenly
throughout the development of the product, act as a reminder of
its existence and incite its consumption.
- Social profiles Sambazon:
In the profile of instagram "Sambazon" in particular will be
uploaded recipes, in which our products will be used and those
who make them will be encouraged to upload their photo in
their networks with the hashtag #Forthebowl. This type of
content will be useful for the adoption stage, because you will
be able to learn new ways by which to use our products.
- Testers:
We will approach the German market Offering a huge gamma of
testers and Promotions in Gyms, Supermarkets, chemistries and
Biological shops in order to Reach more people ad we can.
- Social programs:
We will actively join and help public and private Programs
about Healthy Nutrition and lifestyle, as we do in the other part
of the world Caring about nature and human life. Our goal is not
just offering people the best product at the best price but to
promote the culture of Açai. We are the first company who
brought this superfood to the United States and every year we
find new customers around the world, in order to actively
encourage a healthy and universal global nutrition. We, as a
firm, invest the revenue in social programs in the country where
over 30.000 laborers work; moreover, it promotes the
responsible use of natural sources.

We will always use our business model as a vehicle for positive
changes in the Brazilian Amazon, where all it starts.
In line with our culture and philosophy, we read and make in
practice the following guidelines everyday, reminding ourselves
that we're here for something bigger.
· Foster a healthy disregard for the impossible.
· Be fiercely committed to sustainability + all things
organic / non GMO.
· Share superfoods that energize your body + soul.
· Live an active lifestyle that’s centered around vibrant
health + wellness.
· Be honest, open, driven, purposeful, playful, curious and
humble.
· Trust in “One tribe. One vibe.” Be radically transparent
and radically inclusive.
· Measure success from a Triple Bottom Line: Social +
Environmental + Economic.
CHAPTER V
The figure shows the complete organization chart of the
company. The maximum responsible for it will be the CEO.
This will be responsible for the strategy, policy and objectives

of the company. The coordination of all the departments for the
correct development of the activity will also be part of its
mission. Since it is a small company and a human resources
department will not be created, it will be the CEO himself who
will be responsible for the selection of personnel and their
instruction.
Below the level of management, is the rest of the company, the
3 departments in which it is structured: Administration,
Production and Marketing, with the extra Security personnel.
For this organizational system to work properly, communication
between departments at the same level is required. That is why
the lower levels, apart from communicating with the immediate
superior, must also communicate with each other.
In this way, if in quality it is verified that the product does not
comply with the demands of the company or the market, it will
notify Production by issuing a report with the possible causes
and the most feasible solutions.
If the analysis is satisfactory, a report will also be issued to
Production giving the approval. In the event that the warehouse
manager detects that the level of raw materials is below the
order point, he must notify the person responsible for
production who will send a request to Commercial Relations for
the supply of raw materials.
ces_in_Europe
D O I N G
E T H I C S

‘’
Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues
Fourth Edition
Lewis Vaughn
BW. W. NORTON & COMPANY Independent and Employee-
Owned New York . London
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1:25 AM Page i
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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iii
C O N T E N T S
‘’
P R E F A C E xvi i
PART 1: FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1 Ethics and the Examined Life 3
The Ethical Landscape 5
The Elements of Ethics 6
The Preeminence of Reason 6
QUICK REVIEW 7
The Universal Perspective 7
The Principle of Impartiality 8
The Dominance of Moral Norms 8
Religion and Morality 8
Believers Need Moral Reasoning 9
When Conflicts Arise, Ethics Steps In 9

CRITICAL THOUGHT: ETHICS, RELIGION, AND TOUGH
MORAL ISSUES 10
Moral Philosophy Enables Productive Discourse 10
Summary 12
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 12
READINGS
from What Is the Socratic Method? by Christopher Phillips 13
from The Euthyphro by Plato 16
CHAPTER 2 Subjectivism, Relativism, and Emotivism 20
Subjective Relativism 21
QUICK REVIEW 21
JUDGE NOT? 22
1:25 AM Page iii
Cultural Relativism 23
CRITICAL THOUGHT: “FEMALE CIRCUMCISION” AND
CULTURAL
RELATIVISM 24
Emotivism 28

Summary 30
READINGS
from Anthropology and the Abnormal by Ruth Benedict 32
Trying Out One’s New Sword by Mary Midgley 35
PART 2: MORAL REASONING
CHAPTER 3 Evaluating Moral Arguments 41
Claims and Arguments 41
Arguments Good and Bad 43
CRITICAL THOUGHT: THE MORALITY OF CRITICAL
THINKING 44
Implied Premises 47
QUICK REVIEW 47
Deconstructing Arguments 48
Moral Statements and Arguments 51
Testing Moral Premises 53
Assessing Nonmoral Premises 55
QUICK REVIEW 55
Avoiding Bad Arguments 56

Begging the Question 56
Equivocation 56
Appeal to Authority 57
Slippery Slope 57
APPEAL TO EMOTION 57
Faulty Analogy 58
Appeal to Ignorance 58
Á CONTENTSiv
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Straw Man 59
Appeal to the Person 59
Hasty Generalization 59
QUICK REVIEW 60
Writing and Speaking about Moral Issues 60
Summary 62
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions / Argument
Exercises 62

PART 3: THEORIES OF MORALITY
CHAPTER 4 The Power of Moral Theories 67
Theories of Right and Wrong 67
MORAL THEORIES VERSUS MORAL CODES 68
Major Theories 69
Consequentialist Theories 69
Nonconsequentialist Theories 70
QUICK REVIEW 71
Evaluating Theories 72
Criterion 1: Consistency with Considered Judgments 73
CONSIDERED MORAL JUDGMENTS 73
Criterion 2: Consistency with Our Moral Experiences 74
CRITICAL THOUGHT: A 100 PERCENT ALL-NATURAL
THEORY 74
Criterion 3: Usefulness in Moral Problem Solving 75
QUICK REVIEW 75
Summary 76

CHAPTER 5 CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES: MAXIMIZE
THE GOOD 78
Ethical Egoism 78
Applying the Theory 79
Evaluating the Theory 80
CONTENTS Á v
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CAN ETHICAL EGOISM BE ADVOCATED? 82
QUICK REVIEW 84
Utilitarianism 84
PETER SINGER, UTILITARIAN 88
QUICK REVIEW 89
Learning from Utilitarianism 93
CRITICAL THOUGHT: CROSS-SPECIES TRANSPLANTS:
WHAT WOULD A UTILITARIAN DO? 94
Summary 94

READING
from Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill 96
CHAPTER 6 Nonconsequentialist Theories: Do Your Duty 102
Kant’s Ethics 102
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SIZING UP THE
GOLDEN RULE 104
THE KANTIAN VIEW OF PUNISHMENT 107
Learning from Kant’s Theory 109
Natural Law Theory 109
QUICK REVIEW 111
CRITICAL THOUGHT: DOUBLE EFFECT AND THE
“TROLLEY PROBLEM” 112
Learning from Natural Law 114
Summary 114

Á CONTENTSvi
1:25 AM Page vi
READINGS
from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals by
Immanuel Kant 116
from Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas 125
CHAPTER 7 Virtue Ethics: Be a Good Person 136
The Ethics of Virtue 136
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LEARNING VIRTUES IN THE
CLASSROOM 137
Virtue in Action 138
Evaluating Virtue Ethics 138
CRITICAL THOUGHT: WARRIOR VIRTUES AND MORAL
DISAGREEMENTS 140
The Ethics of Care 141
QUICK REVIEW 141
Learning from Virtue Ethics 141

FEMINIST ETHICS 142
Summary 143
READINGS
from Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle 145
The Need for More Than Justice by Annette C. Baier 153
PART 4: ETHICAL ISSUES
CHAPTER 8 Abortion 163
Issue File: Background 163
ABORTION IN THE UNITED STATES: FACTS AND
FIGURES 164
MAJORITY OPINION IN ROE V. WADE 166
Moral Theories 166
ABORTION AND THE SCRIPTURES 168
QUICK REVIEW 169
Moral Arguments 169
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LATE-TERM ABORTIONS 170
Summary 174

CONTENTS Á vii
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READINGS
A Defense of Abortion by Judith Jarvis Thomson 175
On the Moral and Legal Status of Abortion by Mary Anne
Warren 185
Why Abortion Is Immoral by Don Marquis 194
Virtue Theory and Abortion by Rosalind Hursthouse 205
Cases for Analysis 211
CHAPTER 9 Altering Genes and Cloning Humans 213
GENE THERAPY: SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 216
Moral Theories 218
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LONGER LIFE THROUGH GENE
THERAPY? 219
Moral Arguments 219
QUICK REVIEW 221
Summary 221

READINGS
Genetic Enhancement by Walter Glannon 222
Is Gene Therapy a Form of Eugenics? by John Harris 226
The Wisdom of Repugnance by Leon R. Kass 232
Cloning Human Beings: An Assessment of the Ethical Issues
Pro and Con
by Dan W. Brock 249
CHAPTER 10 Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide 263
THE DEATH OF KAREN ANN QUINLAN 264
LANDMARK COURT RULINGS 266
QUICK REVIEW 267
Moral Theories 267
Á CONTENTSviii
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CRITICAL THOUGHT: DR. KEVORKIAN AND PHYSICIAN-
ASSISTED

SUICIDE 269
Moral Arguments 269
PUBLIC OPINION AND EUTHANASIA 271
Summary 273
READINGS
Active and Passive Euthanasia by James Rachels 274
The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia by J. Gay-Williams 278
From Voluntary Active Euthanasia by Dan W. Brock 281
Euthanasia by Philippa Foot 289
Killing and Allowing to Die by Daniel Callahan 304
CHAPTER 11 Capital Punishment 310
Moral Theories 312
CRITICAL THOUGHT: MEDICATED FOR THE DEATH
PENALTY 313
QUICK REVIEW 315
CRITICAL THOUGHT: BOTCHED EXECUTIONS 316
Moral Arguments 318

CRITICAL THOUGHT: DIFFERENT CASES, SAME
PUNISHMENT 319
Summary 320
READINGS
The Ultimate Punishment: A Defense by Ernest van den Haag
321
from Justice, Civilization, and the Death Penalty: Answering
van den Haag by
Jeffrey H. Reiman 326
Against the Death Penalty: The Minimal Invasion Argument by
Hugo Adam Bedau 332
In Defense of the Death Penalty by Louis P. Pojman 337
CONTENTS Á ix
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CHAPTER 12 Drug Use, Harm, and Personal Liberty 350
DIVERSE VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES ON USING
MARIJUANA 352

Moral Theories 353
CRITICAL THOUGHT: DOES LEGALIZING MEDICAL
MARIJUANA
ENCOURAGE USE AMONG TEENAGERS? 354
Moral Arguments 354
QUICK REVIEW 356
Summary 357
READINGS
The Ethics of Addiction by Thomas Szasz 357
The Fallacy of the “Hijacked Brain” by Peg O’Connor 366
Against the Legalization of Drugs by James Q. Wilson 368
CHAPTER 13 Sexual Morality 380
VITAL STATS: SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 381
Moral Theories 382
Moral Arguments 383
VITAL STATS: SEX AND RELATIONSHIPS 384
QUICK REVIEW 385

Summary 386
READINGS
Plain Sex by Alan H. Goldman 386
Sexual Morality by Roger Scruton 395
Sexual Perversion by Thomas Nagel 402
Feminists against the First Amendment by Wendy Kaminer 409
“The Price We Pay?”: Pornography and Harm by Susan J.
Brison 416
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CHAPTER 14 Same-Sex Marriage 429
Moral Theories 430
OPINION POLLS: SAME-SEX MARRIAGE 431
VITAL STATS: GAYS, LESBIANS, AND SAME-SEX
COUPLES 432
Moral Arguments 432

QUICK REVIEW 433
Summary 433
READINGS
On Gay Rights by Richard D. Mohr 434
What Marriage Is For: Children Need Mothers and Fathers by
Maggie Gallagher 442
Here Comes the Groom: A (Conservative) Case for Gay
Marriage by
Andrew Sullivan 446
CHAPTER 15 Environmental Ethics 451
SOME MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 454
Moral Theories 456
QUICK REVIEW 456
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD PANDAS PAY
THE PRICE? 457
Moral Arguments 458
Summary 460
READINGS

People or Penguins by William F. Baxter 461
The Ethics of Respect for Nature by Paul W. Taylor 465
Are All Species Equal? by David Schmidtz 480
The Land Ethic by Aldo Leopold 488
CONTENTS Á xi
1:25 AM Page xi
CHAPTER 16 Animal Rights 495
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD WE ABOLISH DOG
RACING? 498
Moral Theories 499
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD WE EXPERIMENT ON
ORPHANED BABIES? 501
QUICK REVIEW 502
Moral Arguments 502
Summary 504

READINGS
All Animals Are Equal by Peter Singer 505
The Case for Animal Rights by Tom Regan 515
Difficulties with the Strong Animal Rights Position by Mary
Anne Warren 522
Speciesism and the Idea of Equality by Bonnie Steinbock 528
CHAPTER 17 Political Violence: War, Terrorism, and Torture
539
CRITICAL THOUGHT: PREEMPTIVE WAR ON IRAQ 542
CRITICAL THOUGHT: TERRORISTS OR FREEDOM
FIGHTERS? 549
Moral Theories 550
Moral Arguments 552
QUICK REVIEW 556
Summary 557
READINGS
Reconciling Pacifists and Just War Theorists by James P. Sterba
558

Against “Realism” by Michael Walzer 566
Can Terrorism Be Morally Justified? by Stephen Nathanson 577
The Case for Torturing the Ticking Bomb Terrorist by Alan M.
Dershowitz 585
Á CONTENTSxii
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CHAPTER 18 Equality and Affirmative Action 597
CRITICAL THOUGHT: ARE LEGACIES RACIST? 599
Moral Theories 600
CRITICAL THOUGHT: ARE WHITES-ONLY SCHOLARSHIPS
UNJUST? 601
QUICK REVIEW 602
Moral Arguments 603
Summary 605
READINGS
Reverse Discrimination as Unjustified by Lisa H. Newton 606

The Case against Affirmative Action by Louis P. Pojman 609
Affirmative Action and Quotas by Richard A. Wasserstrom 622
In Defense of Affirmative Action by Tom L. Beauchamp 625
CHAPTER 19 Global Economic Justice 637
Moral Theories 639
VITAL STATS: THE PLANET’S POOR AND HUNGRY 639
Moral Arguments 641
QUICK REVIEW 643
Summary 643
READINGS
On Justice by John Rawls 644
The Entitlement Theory of Justice by Robert Nozick 651
Famine, Affluence, and Morality by Peter Singer 660
Lifeboat Ethics by Garrett Hardin 665
CONTENTS Á xiii

1:25 AM Page xiii
G L O S S A R Y 674
F U R T H E R R E A D I N G 678
A N S W E R S T O A R G U M E N T E X E R C I S E S 684
I N D E X 685
Á CONTENTSxiv
1:25 AM Page xiv
xv
This fourth edition of Doing Ethics brings another
set of substantial improvements to a text that had
already been greatly expanded and improved. The
aims that have shaped this text from the begin-
ning have not changed: to help students (1) see
why ethics matters to society and to themselves;
(2) understand core concepts (theories, principles,
values, virtues, and the like); (3) be familiar with
the background (scientific, legal, and otherwise) of
contemporary moral problems; and (4) know how
to apply critical reasoning to those problems—to
assess moral judgments and principles, construct
and evaluate moral arguments, and apply and cri-

tique moral theories. This book, then, tries hard to
provide the strongest possible support to teachers
of applied ethics who want students, above all, to
think for themselves and competently do what is
often required of morally mature persons—that is,
to do ethics.
These goals are reflected in the book’s extensive
introductions to concepts, cases, and issues; its
large collection of readings and exercises; and its
chapter-by-chapter coverage of moral reasoning—
perhaps the most thorough introduction to these
skills available in an applied-ethics text. This latter
theme gets systematic treatment in five chapters,
threads prominently throughout all the others,
and is reinforced everywhere by “Critical
Thought” text boxes prompting students to apply
critical thinking to real debates and cases. The
point of all this is to help students not just to
study ethics but to become fully involved in the
ethical enterprise and the moral life.
P R E F A C E
‘’
NEW FEATURES
• A new chapter on the morality of personal use of
illicit drugs and the laws and policies that pertain
to that use: Chapter 12, Drug Use, Harm, and
Personal Liberty. It includes three new readings
by major figures in the debates on illegal drugs.
• A new chapter on the moral permissibility of
affirmative action: Chapter 18, Equality and

Affirmative Action. It includes four readings by
prominent commentators on the issue.
• A revamped chapter on sexual morality that
includes two new readings on pornography:
Chapter 13, Sexual Morality.
• Six new readings to supplement the already
extensive collection of essays.
ORGANIZATION
Part 1 (“Fundamentals”) prepares students for the
tasks enumerated above. Chapter 1 explains why
ethics is important and why thinking critically about
ethical issues is essential to the examined life. It
introduces the field of moral philosophy, defines and
illustrates basic terminology, clarifies the connection
between religion and morality, and explains why
moral reasoning is crucial to moral maturity and
personal freedom. Chapter 2 investigates a favorite
doctrine of undergraduates—ethical relativism—and
examines its distant cousin, emotivism.
Part 2 (“Moral Reasoning”) consists of Chapter 3,
which starts by reassuring students that moral rea-
soning is neither alien nor difficult but is simply
1:25 AM Page xv
ordinary critical reasoning applied to ethics.
They’ve seen this kind of reasoning before and
done it before. Thus, the chapter focuses on iden-

tifying, devising, diagramming, and evaluating
moral arguments and encourages practice and
competence in finding implied premises, testing
moral premises, assessing nonmoral premises, and
dealing with common argument fallacies.
Part 3 (“Theories of Morality”) is about apply-
ing critical reasoning to moral theories. Chapter 4
explains how moral theories work and how they
are related to other important elements in moral
experience: considered judgments, moral argu-
ments, moral principles and rules, and cases and
issues. It reviews major theories and shows how
students can evaluate them by applying plausible
criteria. The rest of Part 3 (Chapters 5 through 7)
covers key theories in depth—utilitarianism, ethi-
cal egoism, Kant’s theory, natural law theory, and
the ethics of virtue. Students see how each theory
is applied to moral issues and how those issues’
strengths and weaknesses are revealed by applying
the criteria of evaluation.
In Part 4 (“Ethical Issues”), each of twelve chap-
ters explores a timely moral issue through discussion
and relevant readings: abortion, genetic manipula-
tion and human cloning, euthanasia and physician-
assisted suicide, drug use, capital punishment,
sexual morality, same-sex marriage, environmental
ethics, animal rights, affirmative action, political
violence, and global economic justice. Every chapter
supplies legal, scientific, and other background
information on the issue; discusses how major theo-
ries have been applied to the problem; examines
arguments that have been used in the debate; and
includes additional cases for analysis with questions.
The readings are a mix of well-known essays and sur-

prising new voices, both classic and contemporary.
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
In addition to the “Critical Thought” boxes and
“Cases for Analysis,” there are other pedagogical
devices:
• “Quick Review” boxes that reiterate key points
or terms mentioned in previous pages
• Text boxes that discuss additional topics or
issues related to main chapter material
• End-of-chapter review and discussion questions
• Chapter summaries
• Suggestions for further reading for each issues
chapter
• Glossary
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have helped make this third edition
a great deal better than its previous incarnations.
Among these I think first of my editor at W. W.
Norton, Pete Simon, who believed in the project
from the outset and helped me shape and improve
it. Others at Norton also gave their time and talent
to this text: Marian Johnson, managing editor;
Rachel Mayer, project editor; Barbara Curialle,
copy editor; Benjamin Reynolds, production man-
ager; Megan Jackson, permissions manager; and
Gerra Goff, assistant editor.

The silent partners in this venture are the
many reviewers who helped in countless ways to
make the book better. They include Harry Adams
(Prairie View A&M University), Alex Aguado (Uni-
versity of North Alabama), Edwin Aiman (Univer-
sity of Houston), Daniel Alvarez (Colorado State
University), Peter Amato (Drexel University),
Robert Bass (Coastal Carolina University), Ken
Beals (Mary Baldwin College), Helen Becker (Shep-
herd University), Paul Bloomfield (University of
Connecticut), Robyn Bluhm (Old Dominion Uni-
versity), Vanda Bozicevic (Bergen Community
College), Brent Braga (Northland Community and
Technical College), Mark Raymond Brown (Uni-
versity of Ottawa), Matthew Burstein (Washington
and Lee University), Gabriel R. Camacho (El Paso
Community College), Jay Campbell (St. Louis
Community College at Meramec), Jeffrey Carr
(Illinois State University), Alan Clark (Del Mar
College), Andrew J. Cohen (Georgia State Univer-
Á PREFACExvi
1:25 AM Page xvi
sity), Elliot D. Cohen (Indian River State College),
Robert Colter (Centre College), Timothy Conn
(Sierra College), Guy Crain (University of Okla-
homa), Sharon Crasnow (Norco College), Kelso
Cratsley (University of Massachusetts, Boston),
George Cronk (Bergen Community College),
Kevin DeCoux (Minnesota West Community and

Technical College), Lara Denis (Agnes Scott Col-
lege), Steve Dickerson (South Puget Sound Com-
munity College), Nicholas Diehl (Sacramento City
College), Robin S. Dillon (Lehigh University),
Peter Dlugos (Bergen Community College), Matt
Drabek (University of Iowa), David Drebushenko
(University of Southern Indiana), Clint Dunagan
(Northwest Vista College), Paul Eckstein (Bergen
Community College), Andrew Fiala (California
State University, Fresno), Stephen Finlay (Univer-
sity of Southern California), Matthew Fitzsim-
mons (University of North Alabama), Tammie
Foltz (Des Moines Area Community College), Tim
Fout (University of Louisville), Dimitria Gatzia
(University of Akron), Candace Gauthier (Univer-
sity of North Carolina, Wilmington), Mark Greene
(University of Delaware), Kevin Guilfoy (Carroll
University), Katherine Guin (The College at Brock-
port: SUNY), Don Habibi (University of North Car-
olina, Wilmington), Barbara M. Hands (University
of North Carolina, Greensboro), Craig Hanks
(Texas State University), Jane Haproff (Sierra Col-
lege), Ed Harris (Texas A&M University), Blake
Heffner (Raritan Valley Community College),
Marko Hilgersom (Lethbridge Community Col-
lege), John Holder III (Pensacola Junior College),
Mark Hollifield (Clayton College and State Univer-
sity), Margaret Houck (University of South
Carolina), Michael Howard (University of Maine,
Orono), Frances Howard-Snyder (Western Wash-
ington University), Kenneth Howarth (Mercer
County Community College), Louis F. Howe, Jr.
(Naugatuck Valley Community College), Kyle
Hubbard (Saint Anselm College), Robert Hull
(Western Virginia Wesleyan College), Amy Jeffers
(Owens Community College), Timothy Jessen (Ivy

Tech Community College, Bloomington), John
Johnston (College of the Redwoods), Marc Jolley
(Mercer University), Frederik Kaufman (Ithaca
College), Thomas D. Kennedy (Berry College), W.
Glenn Kirkconnell (Santa Fe College), Donald
Knudsen (Montgomery County Community Col-
lege), Gilbert Kohler (Shawnee Community Col-
lege), Thomas Larson (Saint Anselm College), Matt
Lawrence (Long Beach City College), Clayton Lit-
tlejohn (Southern Methodist University), Jessica
Logue (University of Portland), Ian D. MacKinnon
(The University of Akron), Tim Madigan (St. John
Fisher College), Ernâni Magalhães (West Virginia
University), Daniel Malotky (Greensboro College),
Ron Martin (Lynchburg College), Michael McKeon
(Barry University), Katherine Mendis (Hunter Col-
lege, CUNY), Joshua Mills-Knutsen (Indiana Uni-
versity Southeast), Michael Monge (Long Beach
City College), Eric Moore (Longwood University),
Jon S. Moran (Southwest Missouri State Univer-
sity), Dale Murray (Virginia Commonwealth Uni-
versity), Elizabeth Murray (Loyola Marymount
University), Thomas Nadelhoffer (Dickinson Col-
lege), Jay Newhard (East Carolina University),
Charles L. North (Southern New Hampshire Uni-
versity), Robert F. O’Connor (Texas State Univer-
sity), Jeffrey P. Ogle (Metropolitan State University
of Denver), Don Olive (Roane State Community
College), Leonard Olson (California State Univer-
sity, Fresno), Jessica Payson (Bryn Mawr College),
Gregory E. Pence (University of Alabama), Donald
Petkus (Indiana University School of Public and
Environmental Affairs), Trisha Philips (Mississippi
State University), Thomas M. Powers (University of
Delaware), Marjorie Price (University of Alabama),

Netty Provost (Indiana University, Kokomo), Elisa
Rapaport (Molloy College), Michael Redmond
(Bergen Community College), Daniel Regan (Vil-
lanova University), Joseph J. Rogers (University of
Texas, San Antonio), John Returra (Lackawanna
College), Robert M. Seltzer (Western Illinois Uni-
versity), Edward Sherline (University of
Wyoming), Aeon J. Skoble (Bridgewater Commu-
nity College), Eric Snider (Lansing Community
College), Eric Sotnak (University of Akron), Piers
PREFACE Á xvii
1:25 AM Page xvii
H.G. Stephens (University of Georgia), Grant Ster-
ling (Eastern Illinois University), John Stilwell
(University of Texas at Dallas), Tyler Suggs (Vir-
ginia Tech), Michele Svatos (Eastfield College),
David Svolba (Fitchburg State University), Allen
Thompson (Virginia Commonwealth University),
Peter B. Trumbull (Madison College), Donald
Turner (Nashville State Community College),
Julie C. Van Camp (California State University,
Long Beach), Michelle Rehwinkel Vasilinda (Talla-
hassee Community College), Kris Vigneron
(Columbus State Community College), Christine
Vitrano (Brooklyn College, CUNY), Mark Vopat
(Youngstown State University), Matt Waldschlagel
(University of North Carolina, Wilmington), Steve
Wall (Hillsborough Community College), Bill
Warnken (Granite State College), Jamie Carlin

Watson (Young Harris College), Rivka Weinberg
(Scripps College), Cheryl Wertheimer (Butler
Community College), Monique Whitaker (Hunter
College, CUNY) Phillip Wiebe (Trinity Western
University), Jonathan Wight (University of Rich-
mond), John Yanovitch (Molloy College), Steven
Zusman (Waubonsee Community College), and
Matt Zwolinski (University of San Diego). Thank
you all.
Á PREFACExviii
1:25 AM Page xviii
P A R T
1
‘’
Fundamentals
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C H A P T E R 1
‘’

Ethics and the Examined Life
3
Even if you try to remove yourself from the ethical
realm by insisting that all ethical concepts are
irrelevant or empty, you assume a particular view,
a theory in the broadest sense, about morality and
its place in your life. If at some point you are intel-
lectually brave enough to wonder whether your
moral beliefs rest on some coherent supporting
considerations, you will see that you cannot even
begin to sort out such considerations without—
again—doing ethics. In any case, in your life you
must deal with the rest of the world, which turns
on moral conflict and resolution, moral decision
and debate.
What is at stake when we do ethics? In an
important sense, the answer is everything we hold
dear. Ethics is concerned with values—specifically,
moral values. Through the sifting and weighing of
moral values we determine what the most impor-
tant things are in our lives, what is worth living for
and what is worth dying for. We decide what is the
greatest good, what goals we should pursue in life,
what virtues we should cultivate, what duties we
should or should not fulfill, what value we should
put on human life, and what pain and perils we
should be willing to endure for notions such as the
common good, justice, and rights.
Does it matter whether the state executes a
criminal who has the mental capacity of a ten-
year-old? Does it matter who actually writes the
term paper you turn in and represent as your own?

Does it matter whether we can easily save a drown-
ing child but casually decide not to? Does it matter
whether young girls in Africa undergo painful
Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the philosoph-
ical study of morality. Morality refers to beliefs
concerning right and wrong, good and bad—
beliefs that can include judgments, values, rules,
principles, and theories. They help guide our
actions, define our values, and give us reasons for
being the persons we are. (Ethical and moral, the
adjective forms, are often used to mean simply
“having to do with morality,” and ethics and
morality are sometimes used to refer to the moral
norms of a specific group or individual, as in
“Greek ethics” or “Russell’s morality.”) Ethics, then,
addresses the powerful question that Socrates for-
mulated twenty-four hundred years ago: how ought
we to live?
The scope and continued relevance of this
query suggest something compelling about ethics:
you cannot escape it. You cannot run away from
all the choices, feelings, and actions that accom-
pany ideas about right and wrong, good and bad—
ideas that persist in your culture and in your
mind. After all, for much of your life, you have
been assimilating, modifying, or rejecting the eth-
ical norms you inherited from your family, com-
munity, and society. Unless you are very unusual,
from time to time you deliberate about the right-
ness or wrongness of actions, embrace or reject
particular moral principles or codes, judge the
goodness of your character or intentions (or some-
one else’s), perhaps even question (and agonize
over) the soundness of your own moral outlook

when it conflicts with that of others. In other
words, you are involved in ethics—you do ethics.
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1Paul W. Taylor, Principles of Ethics: An Introduction
(Encino, CA: Dickenson, 1975), 9–10.
4 Á PART 1: FUNDAMENTALS
safe route. To not do ethics is to stay locked in
a kind of intellectual limbo, where exploration
in ethics and personal moral progress are barely
possible.
The philosopher Paul Taylor suggests that there
is yet another risk in taking the easy road. If some-
one blindly embraces the morality bequeathed
to him by his society, he may very well be a
fine embodiment of the rules of his culture and
accept them with certainty. But he also will lack
the ability to defend his beliefs by rational argu-
ment against criticism. What happens when he
encounters others who also have very strong
beliefs that contradict his? “He will feel lost and
bewildered,” Taylor says, and his confusion might
leave him disillusioned about morality. “Unable
to give an objective, reasoned jus tification for his
own convictions, he may turn from dogmatic
certainty to total skepticism. And from total
skepticism it is but a short step to an ‘amoral’
life. . . . Thus the person who begins by accepting
moral beliefs blindly can end up denying all

morality.”1
There are other easy roads—roads that also
bypass critical and thoughtful scrutiny of moral-
ity. We can describe most of them as various forms
of subjectivism, a topic that we closely examine in
the next chapter. You may decide, for example,
that you can establish all your moral beliefs by
simply consulting your feelings. In situations call-
ing for moral judgments, you let your emotions be
your guide. If it feels right, it is right. Alternatively,
you may come to believe that moral realities are
relative to each person, a view known as subjective
relativism (also covered in the next chapter). That
is, you think that what a person believes or
approves of determines the rightness or wrongness
of actions. If you believe that abortion is wrong,
genital mutilation for reasons of custom or reli-
gion? Do these actions and a million others just as
controversial matter at all? Most of us—regardless
of our opinion on these issues—would say that
they matter a great deal. If they matter, then ethics
matters, because these are ethical concerns requir-
ing careful reflection using concepts and reason-
ing peculiar to ethics.
But even though in life ethics is inescapable
and important, you are still free to take the easy
way out, and many people do. You are free not to
think too deeply or too systematically about ethi-
cal concerns. You can simply embrace the moral
beliefs and norms given to you by your family and
your society. You can just accept them without
question or serious examination. In other words,
you can try not to do ethics. This approach can be

simple and painless—at least for a while—but it
has some drawbacks.
First, it undermines your personal freedom. If
you accept and never question the moral beliefs
handed to you by your culture, then those beliefs
are not really yours—and they, not you, control
the path you take in life. Only if you critically
examine these beliefs yourself and decide for
yourself whether they have merit will they be truly
yours. Only then will you be in charge of your
own choices and actions.
Second, the no-questions-asked approach
increases the chances that your responses to moral
dilemmas or contradictions will be incomplete,
confused, or mistaken. Sometimes in real life,
moral codes or rules do not fit the situations
at hand, or moral principles conflict with one
another, or entirely new circumstances are not
covered by any moral policy at all. Solving these
problems requires something that a hand- me-
down morality does not include: the intellectual
tools to critically evaluate (and reevaluate) exist-
ing moral beliefs.
Third, if there is such a thing as intellectual
moral growth, you are unlikely to find it on the
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CHAPTER 1: ETHICS AND THE EXAMINED LIFE Á 5

Science also studies morality, but not in the
way that moral philosophy does. Its approach is
known as descriptive ethics—the scientific
study of moral beliefs and practices. Its aim is to
describe and explain how people actually behave
and think when dealing with moral issues and
concepts. This kind of empirical research is usually
conducted by sociologists, anthropologists, and
psychologists. In contrast, the focus of moral phi-
losophy is not what people actually believe and
do, but what they should believe and do. The point
of moral philosophy is to determine what actions
are right (or wrong) and what things are good
(or bad).
Philosophers distinguish three major divisions
in ethics, each one representing a different way to
approach the subject. The first is normative
ethics—the study of the principles, rules, or theo-
ries that guide our actions and judgments. (The
word normative refers to norms, or standards, of
judgment—in this case, norms for judging
rightness and goodness.) The ultimate purpose of
doing normative ethics is to try to establish the
soundness of moral norms, especially the norms
embodied in a comprehensive moral system, or
theory. We do normative ethics when we use crit-
ical reasoning to demonstrate that a moral princi-
ple is justified, or that a professional code of
conduct is contradictory, or that one proposed
moral theory is better than another, or that a per-
son’s motive is good. Should the rightness of
actions be judged by their consequences? Is happi-
ness the greatest good in life? Is utilitarianism a
good moral theory? Such questions are the preoc-
cupation of normative ethics.

Another major division is metaethics—the
study of the meaning and logical structure of
moral beliefs. It asks not whether an action is right
or whether a person’s character is good. It takes a
step back from these concerns and asks more fun-
damental questions about them: What does it
mean for an action to be right? Is good the same
then it is wrong. If you believe it is right, then it is
right.
But these facile ways through ethical terrain
are no better than blindly accepting existing
norms. Even if you want to take the subjectivist
route, you still need to critically examine it to
see if there are good reasons for choosing it—
otherwise your choice is arbitrary and therefore
not really yours. And unless you thoughtfully
consider the merits of moral beliefs (including
subjectivist beliefs), your chances of being wrong
about them are substantial.
Ethics does not give us a royal road to moral
truth. Instead, it shows us how to ask critical ques-
tions about morality and systematically seek
answers supported by good reasons. This is a tall
order because, as we have seen, many of the ques-
tions in ethics are among the toughest we can ever
ask—and among the most important in life.
THE ETHICAL LANDSCAPE
The domain of ethics is large, divided into several
areas of investigation and cordoned off from
related subjects. So let us map the territory care-

fully. As the term moral philosophy suggests, ethics
is a branch of philosophy. A very rough character-
ization of philosophy is the systematic use of criti-
cal reasoning to answer the most fundamental
questions in life. Moral philosophy, obviously, tries
to answer the fundamental questions of morality.
The other major philosophical divisions address
other basic questions; these are logic (the study of
correct reasoning), metaphysics (the study of the
fundamental nature of reality), and epistemology
(the study of knowledge). As a division of philoso-
phy, ethics does its work primarily through critical
reasoning. Critical reasoning is the careful, system-
atic evaluation of statements, or claims—a process
used in all fields of study, not just in ethics. Mainly
this process includes both the evaluation of logical
arguments and the careful analysis of concepts.
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things such as televisions, rockets, experiences,
and artwork (things other than persons, inten-
tions, etc.) are good, but we mean “good” only in
a nonmoral way. It makes no sense to assert that
in themselves televisions or rockets are morally
good or bad. Perhaps a rocket could be used to per-
form an action that is morally wrong. In that case,
the action would be immoral, while the rocket
itself would still have nonmoral value only.
Many things in life have value for us, but they

are not necessarily valuable in the same way. Some
things are valuable because they are a means to
something else. We might say that gasoline is good
because it is a means to make a gas-powered vehicle
work, or that a pen is good because it can be used to
write a letter. Such things are said to be instrumen-
tally, or extrinsically, valuable—they are valu-
able as a means to something else. Some things,
however, are valuable in themselves or for their
own sakes. They are valuable simply because they
are what they are, without being a means to some-
thing else. Things that have been regarded as valu-
able in themselves include happiness, pleasure,
virtue, and beauty. These are said to be
intrinsically valuable—they are valuable in
themselves.
THE ELEMENTS OF ETHICS
We all do ethics, and we all have a general sense
of what is involved. But we can still ask, What are
the elements of ethics that make it the peculiar
enterprise that it is? We can include at least the
following factors:
The Preeminence of Reason
Doing ethics typically involves grappling with
our feelings, taking into account the facts of the
situation (including our own observations and
relevant knowledge), and trying to understand
the ideas that bear on the case. But above all, it
involves, even requires, critical reasoning—the
consideration of reasons for whatever statements
thing as desirable? How can a moral principle be
justified? Is there such a thing as moral truth? To

do normative ethics, we must assume certain
things about the meaning of moral terms and the
logical relations among them. But the job of
metaethics is to question all these assumptions, to
see if they really make sense.
Finally, there is applied ethics—the applica-
tion of moral norms to specific moral issues or
cases, particularly those in a profession such as
medicine or law. Applied ethics in these fields goes
under names such as medical ethics, journalistic
ethics, and business ethics. In applied ethics we
study the results derived from applying a moral
principle or theory to specific circumstances. The
purpose of the exercise is to learn something
important about either the moral characteristics
of the situation or the adequacy of the moral
norms. Did the doctor do right in performing that
abortion? Is it morally permissible for scientists to
perform experiments on people without their con-
sent? Was it right for the journalist to distort her
reporting to aid a particular side in the war? Ques-
tions like these drive the search for answers in
applied ethics.
In every division of ethics, we must be careful
to distinguish between values and obligations.
Sometimes we may be interested in concepts or
judgments of value—that is, about what is morally
good, bad, blameworthy, or praiseworthy. We prop-
erly use these kinds of terms to refer mostly to per-
sons, character traits, motives, and intentions. We
may say “She is a good person” or “He is to blame
for that tragedy.” Other times, we may be inter-
ested in concepts or judgments of obligation—that
is, about what is obligatory or a duty or what we

should or ought to do. We use these terms to refer
to actions. We may say “She has a duty to tell the
truth” or “What he did was wrong.”
When we talk about value in the sense just
described, we mean moral value. If she is a good
person, she is good in the moral sense. But we can
also talk about nonmoral value. We can say that
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’ QUICK REVIEW
ethics (or moral philosophy)—The philosophical
study of morality.
morality—Beliefs concerning right and wrong,
good and bad; they can include judgments,
rules, principles, and theories.
descriptive ethics—The scientific study of moral
beliefs and practices.
normative ethics—The study of the principles,
rules, or theories that guide our actions and
judgments.
metaethics—The study of the meaning and logi-
cal structure of moral beliefs.
applied ethics—The application of moral norms
to specific moral issues or cases, particularly
those in a profession such as medicine or law.

instrumentally (or extrinsically) valuable—
Valuable as a means to something else.
intrinsically valuable—Valuable in itself, for its
own sake.
CHAPTER 1: ETHICS AND THE EXAMINED LIFE Á 7
moral judgment is or is not justified, that a moral
principle is or is not sound, that an action is or is
not morally permissible, or that a moral theory is
or is not plausible.
Our use of critical reasoning and argument
helps us keep our feelings about moral issues in
perspective. Feelings are an important part of our
moral experience. They make empathy possible,
which gives us a deeper understanding of the
human impact of moral norms. They also can
serve as internal alarm bells, warning us of the
possibility of injustice, suffering, and wrongdoing.
But they are unreliable guides to moral truth. They
may simply reflect our own emotional needs, prej-
udices, upbringing, culture, and self-interests.
Careful reasoning, however, can inform our feel-
ings and help us decide moral questions on their
merits.
The Universal Perspective
Logic requires that moral norms and judgments
follow the principle of universalizability—the idea
that a moral statement (a principle, rule, or judg-
ment) that applies in one situation must apply in
all other situations that are relevantly similar. If
you say, for example, that lying is wrong in a par-

ticular situation, then you implicitly agree that
lying is wrong for anyone in relevantly similar sit-
uations. If you say that killing in self-defense is
morally permissible, then you say in effect that
killing in self-defense is permissible for everyone
in relevantly similar situations. It cannot be the
case that an action performed by A is wrong while
the same action performed by B in relevantly sim-
ilar circumstances is right. It cannot be the case
that the moral judgments formed in these two sit-
uations must differ just because two different peo-
ple are involved.
This point about universalizability also applies
to reasons used to support moral judgments. If rea-
sons apply in a specific case, then those reasons
also apply in all relevantly similar cases. It cannot
be true that reasons that apply in a specific case do
(moral or otherwise) are in question. What-
ever our view on moral issues and whatever
moral outlook we subscribe to, our commonsense
moral experience suggests that if a moral judg-
ment is to be worthy of acceptance, it must be
supported by good reasons, and our delibera-
tions on the issue must include a consideration of
those reasons.
The backbone of critical reasoning generally
and moral reasoning in particular is logical argu-
ment. This kind of argument—not the angry-
exchange type—consists of a statement to be
supported (the assertion to be proved, the conclu-
sion) and the statements that do the supporting
(the reasons for believing the statement, the prem-
ises). With such arguments, we try to show that a

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sophisticated care than other patients receive. The
situation is a matter of life and death—a good rea-
son for not treating everyone the same and for pro-
viding the heart attack patient with special
consideration. This instance of discrimination is
justified.
The Dominance of Moral Norms
Not all norms are moral norms. There are legal
norms (laws, statutes), aesthetic norms (for judg-
ing artistic creations), prudential norms (practical
considerations of self-interest), and others. Moral
norms seem to stand out from all these in an inter-
esting way: they dominate. Whenever moral princi-
ples or values conflict in some way with nonmoral
principles or values, the moral considerations usu-
ally override the others. Moral considerations seem
more important, more critical, or more weighty.
A principle of prudence such as “Never help a
stranger” may be well justified, but it must yield to
any moral principle that contradicts it, such as
“Help a stranger in an emergency if you can do so
without endangering yourself.” An aesthetic norm
that somehow involved violating a moral princi-
ple would have to take a backseat to the moral
considerations. A law that conflicted with a moral
principle would be suspect, and the latter would
have to prevail over the former. Ultimately the jus-

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