Major Motor Pathways Case Study

Major Motor Pathways Case Study
Look at Table 8.1 in which Carlson summarizes the Major Motor Pathways; consider the related cortical and subcortical structures controlling
movement. Then consider the relationship between alpha motor neurons and extrafusal muscle fibers. Sir Charles Sherrington stated that the alpha
motor neuron (which is also referred to as the lower motor neuron) is the final common pathway. As psychologists, this notion of the final common
pathway being comprised of lower motor neuron axons is very important to us. Considering the above information, why would Sherrington and
everyone since refer to the alpha motor neuron as the final common pathway? Incorporate neuroanatomical information about motor systems to support
your explanation. The alpha motor... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On top of the nasal cavity, lies the olfactory epithelium (mucous tissue that covers the cribriform plate and contains the cilia necessary for olfactory
receptors). The process starts when air enters the nasal cavity and makes its way to the olfactory receptors. These olfactory receptors are located in
the olfactory epithelium and contain many bipolar neurons. These receptors send processes to the epithelium where it divides into 10 to 20 cilia.
Molecules of odor then must dissolve in the mucus and stimulate the receptors in the cilia, which detect aromatic molecules. Next, each olfactory
receptor cell sends an axon into the olfactory bulb, which is located at the end of the olfactory tract. Here, it forms synapse with dendrites of mitral
cells (neurons of olfactory bulb), which takes place in the dendritic and axonal aborizations, called the olfactory glomeruli. From there, the axons travel
to the rest of the brain, some terminating in the ipsilateral forebrain and contralateral olfactory bulb.
Furthermore, the axons of the olfactory tract project to either the amygdala, piriform cortex (region of limbic cortex) and the entorhinal cortex (region
of the limbic cortex). From the amygdala, information then is sent to the hypothalamus. The entorhinal cortex sends its information to the
hippocampus. The piriform cortex takes its information to the hypothalamus and orbitofrontal cortex
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Societal Brain Functions
1.A) Skills Training: The primary motor cortex is made up of interconnected neural assemblies (localized groups of neurons with similar inputs and
outputs), that control movements in the fingers, hands, and legs. This coordinated activation can then be made complex and lets us do multijoint
movements such as reaching. Before the study the theory was that during skills learning, the connectivity between these neural assemblies change.
These changes were viewed as differences in cortical synapse numbers, synaptic strength, and the topography of stimulation–evoked movement
representation. They did a study with adult rats to measure these changes while they do an obstacle course. Some rats had to learn limb placement and
posture control to finish a complex obstacle course, and the others walked an unobstructed course. The rats that were required to learn limb placement
and posture control because of the complex obstacle course, showed increases in synapse number within the motor cortex compare to the rats doing the
simple obstacle. The synaptic changes seen here are thought to show the changes in cortical circuitry that results in the reorganization of the neural
assemblies encoding movement. Therefore proving the theory correct. All this data indicates that training on a skill produces alterations in the... Show
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For example rats were given free access for 30 days to run on a wheel. They had increased blood flow and creation of new blood vessels
(angiogenesis) in their motor cortex compared to the rats with no wheel. These increases were not found in the frontal cortex or other subcortical
areas, so this means that these changes are specific to the areas activated by the training. This data lets us know that exercise can create an increase in
blood flow, growth but does not induce any amount of changes in the cortical

The Role of Central Fatigue in Resistance and Endurance...
What is central fatigue?
Neuromuscular fatigue can be defined as a decline in performance that is usually determined by power generation capacity. During a static maximal
contraction, force will decrease steadily and fatigue would be observed from the beginning of the exercise. Contrarily, in submaximal contractions, the
target force is maintained for a long time. In this situation, the fatigue is defined as the inability in maintaining the force, even if the capacity of
maximal force generation is impaired earlier during contraction. Neuromuscular fatigue is usually defined as a reduction of the capacity of maximal
force generation [1]. Velstad (1997), defined neuromuscular fatigue as any exercise–induced reduction in the maximal capacity of force generation or
output force. This definition allows us to define fatigue in different sports and various intensities. Moreover, there must be a distinction between the
muscle weakness as a chronic disorder in force generation or output force and the acute effect of neuromuscular fatigue. So, it seems that neuromuscular
fatigue develops differently depending on the muscle activity [5]. Fatigue was traditionally related to the metabolic occurrence of ending point during
the exercise in which glycogen concentration of the muscle was depleted completely [6]. Furthermore, cardiovascular [7, 8] and metabolic load, and
temperature adjustment are likely peripheral candidates for the fatigue outbreak during long exercises [9].
Sites of

Understanding The Brain 's Physical Operation
Understanding the brain's physical operation is essential to frame the relationship between brain and mind. The brain functions as a result of many
complex processes; however, Jeeves and Brown narrow the brain's activity into eight critical principles. These principles provide a background
necessary to deduce insightful information from neuroscience's current research of the correlation between our mental lives and brain systems.
The first principle describes the PNS and CNS as action loops. An action loop is equivalent to what physiologists describe as a regulatory feedback
loop. A feedback loop is composed of two nerve branches, an afferent (incoming) arm and an efferent (outgoing) arm. Monitoring the two arms of the
feedback loop is an integrating center, which in most cases is the brain. Sensory information travels via the afferent arm to the integrating center (brain),
where the stimulus is evaluated. After evaluation, the integrating center (brain) sends appropriate motor stimuli to specific tissues within the body.
Thus, an organism is always sensing and responding to its local environment. From this principle, Jeeves and Brown suggest, "Subjective thought and
cognition are derived from this action processing, including all the complex levels involved in modulating ongoing action" (Jeeves and Brown, 2009, p.
42). Hence, the first principle describes how humans constantly interact with the environment around them. The second principle describes a nested
hierarchy of

bio flashcards
The areas of Michael's brain that were injured during his birth affected his control over his voluntary movements. Which part of the nervous system
distributes motor commands to skeletal muscles?
Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system controls the contractions of skeletal muscles and is under voluntary control.
Which principle descending motor pathway provides conscious control over voluntary muscle movements?
Corticospinal pathway
The corticospinal pathway is also called the pyramidal system and provides conscious motor control over skeletal muscles.
Which principle descending motor pathway primarily controls muscle tone and balance? the vestibulospinal tract of the medial pathway
The vestibulospinal tract provides ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
it would lead to a quick sensation of pain it would lead to a slow sensation of cold it would lead to a quick sensation of cold it would lead to a slow
sensation of pain
Axons that decussate between the pyramids of the medulla oblongata belong to the ________ tracts. reticulospinal anterior corticospinal
vestibulospinal lateral corticospinal
Which of these are NOT part of the afferent division of the nervous system?
Cranial nerves I, II, and V
Dorsal roots
Ascending tracts of white matter
Ventral roots
The tract carrying sensations of pressure and pain is the __________.
Fasciculus cuneatus
Spinocerebellar tract
Posterior column tract

Lateral spinothalamic tract
The __________ tract carries information for maintaining balance.
Lateral coticospinal
Rubrospinal
Anterior corticospinal
Vestibulospinal
Which of these is not a property of chemoreceptors?
They trigger visceral reflexes
They are found in carotid bodies
They are interoceptors
They are classed as nociceptors
Identify the type of information that travels along the anterior corticospinal tracts
proprioception to the cerebral cortex pain and crude touch sensations visceral motor commands to smooth muscle motor commands to skeletal muscles
A mechanoreceptor in the papillary layer of the dermis that responds to fine touch is a
Free nerve ending
Ruffini corpuscle
Root hair plexus
Tactile (meissner) sorpuscle

Frontal Lobe Research Paper
The Brain's Frontal Lobes Actions
The frontal lobe and the following other parts of the frontal lobe section of the brain have many functions. The frontal lobe part of the brain connects to
many other structural parts of the brain, connected to mini sections of which creates different effects to the lobe. Which are the prefrontal cortex,
orbitofrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, and premotor cortex.
The prefrontal cortex is located within the frontal lobe, but it takes up the majority of the lobe. The function of the prefrontal cortex is the crucial
performance, and skill it provides within the brain which requires intelligence. The brain is located in many different subjects, such as a human,
mammal, and animal. When discussing the prefrontal cortex, it's known to many that it's larger in certain primates and it tends to be that way but not
in mammals. It is also known to be larger in the human brain compared to other primates' brains. The reason of this is because of the high amount of
the level planning which is correlated by the members that have different species. The majority of the mammal population operate on most likely the
first instinct, which they don't live within complex social groups. The primates are the ones with the complex with both male and female which the
hierarchies hatches the plans towards each other ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This area is known as the anterior in which includes the medial part in the prefrontal cortex. A human individual that could possibly run into damaging
this area of the brain could potentially have the normal and/or superior intelligence. Which is usually tested by IQ programs, and studies. The IQ test
could lack some rudimentary concepts of the many manners and the appropriate actions within the social contexts. Then it becomes possible to lose all
risk of the aversion which makes it clear of the knowledge of the bad consequences.

Cerebrum Essay
The Cerebrum
To begin with, the human brain is the most complex part of the human body. It has control to every organ because of a primary functional unit which is
the neurons. The exterior part of the brain has specific functions to every organ in the human body. Therefore, the human brain is the most important
organ in the human body. A person can be left brained or right brained according to how they act.
The Cerebellum is the trilobed structure of the brain. The cerebellum helps provide smooth coordinated body movement. Examples would balance,
posture, coordination, and voluntary movements. It also modifies motor commands to make more movement accurate and adaptive. The cerebellum is
located at the back of the brain and contains 50% ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Canedo, A. (1997, February 7))
Broca's area can also be called convolution of Broca. Broca's are has functions linked to speech production. In other terms it produces language. Broca's
area was discovered in 1861 by Paul Broca. Broca's area is connected to Wernicke's area by a neural pathway called accurate fasciculus. (Broca's Area
(n.d.))
Parietal lobe receives all somatosensory input from the body. Wernicke's area is located in the back of the parietal lobe. Wernicke's area is important for
understanding sensory information for language. Damage to this part of the brain produces sensory aphasia. Patients cannot understand language but
can still make sounds. (Amthor, F. (n.d.))
Somatosensory cortex processes input from various systems in the body that are sensitive to touch. Specialized cells react specifically to pain. Multiple
types of sensation from body, includes tough, sight, hear, smell, and taste. Sensory information carried to the brain by the neural pathways.
(Somatosensory cortex. (n.d.))
Occipital lobe receives visual information directly from eyes. This lobe is important so the eyes know what they are seeing. These lobes have to be
very fast to process rapid information that the eyes are sending. V1 is visual area one related to whichever image is around somebody's current point
of gaze. Damage to the V1 can cause blindness. (Scott, T. (n.d.))
Temporal lobe processes auditory info from the ears. The basal ganglia works with

Functions Of The Various Cerebral Cortex Regions Essay
1.Module
a.What are the functions of the various cerebral cortex regions?
b.To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself, and what is neurogenesis
c.What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres?
d.What does research tell us about being left–handed? Is it advantageous to be right–handed?
2.Outline
a.The cerebral cortex
i.Older brain networks endure simple life roles and enable memory, emotions and basic drives. ii. The cerebral hemisphere come as a duos iii.
Cerebral cortex: a thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells
1.Brains thinking crown
2.Bodies control and information center iv. The complex functions of our cerebral cortex is what makes us distinctively human.
v.Structure of the cortex: vi. The brains left and right hemisphere are filled mainly with axons connecting the cortex to the brains other regions vii. The
cerebral cortex (being human takes a lot of nerves)
1.Contains 20–35 billion of the brains nerve cells
2.300 trillion synaptic connections viii. Cortex is divided into four lobes separated by prominent fissures or folds
1.Frontal lobes (behind your forehead)
2.Parietal lobes (at the top and to the rear)
3.Occipital lobes (at the back of your head)
4.Temporal lobes (reversing direction, just above ears) ix. Function of the cortex:
x.Specific parts of the cortex control complex functions like movement or speech xi. Motor function:
1.1870, Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig discovered: Mild

Different Structures Of The Brain Essay
Structures of the Brain
The Brain Stem
The brain stem or the medulla is the closest to the spinal cord. The brainstem is responsible for most of the human bodily functions. The brain stem is
critical for human survival and normal human functions. The brain stem is also responsible for information of pain and touch from the head and neck;
it is also responsible for the inputs from the face and the mouth. Reticular formation is a group of neurons, nuclei, that are important for sleep and
wakefulness. In reticular formation there is nuclei that are a major source of neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin is important for regulating mood and
activities.
The Pons
The pons is the region above the brainstem. The pons contains the locus coeruleus, a region of cells that belong to the reticular formation. The
neurotransmitter norepinephrine are necessary for arousal and attention. These neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord.
The Cerebellum
Connected to the brain stem and is located in the back of the brain is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible for motor coordination and also
some learning involving movement. Once someone learns a new motor action that information is held in the cerebellum.
The Midbrain
The midbrain is located above the pons. The midbrain has an area called the substantia nigra which holds different nuclei. The midbrain is responsible
for the body 's movement that is not covered by the cerebellum. The neurotransmitter dopamine, that produced by

The Human Body Is Complex, And All Humans
Paul Ojugo
The human body is complex, and all humans are similar to one another in many ways. As humans we share a lot of characteristics in common with one
another, such as having hands, feet, eyes, nose, gender, ethnic backgrounds and etc. There has to be some characteristic or organ we have that
differentiate all of us, and all these features we have in common, and that is our brain. The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the
human body. It is made up more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. Synapse is a junction between
two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter. The brain is made up of many ... Show more
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1997). The cerebellum is connected by many multisynaptic pathways with all parts of the central nervous system, including the cerebrum, basal ganglia,
diencephalon, limbic system, brainstem, and spinal cord. This makes the cerebellum one of the busiest connections in the human brain (Greg etal
1997).The largest portion of the brain is the cerebrum. This section contains tools which are responsible for most of the brain function, and it is divided
into four subsections. The temporal lobe, the occipital lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere
which are connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ
and the nerve cells which run through the body. The parietal lobe is one of the four lobes located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on
comprehension, visual functions, language, reading, and internal stimuli. Tactile sensation and sensory comprehension are the main trait focused in
this lobe. The parietal lobe is separated into two different cortex's named sensory cortex, and motor cortex, The sensory cortex which is located in
the front portion of the parietal lobe receives information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of various body parts and how they are
moving, this area of the brain can also be used to

Reaction Paper On Biking
One activity I like to participate in is biking. I chose this activity for this assignment because it uses various parts of the brain due to the fact that
there are many different things you must focus on in order to successfully ride a bike. Another reason I chose this activity is because I am very
familiar with riding a bike, making me more confident in the accuracy of my statements regarding doing so. When riding a bike, your brain must do
much more than simply move your legs around in circles (unless you want to fall over or crash). Additionally, it must process your surroundings and
focus on staying balanced. Furthermore, if you're clumsy like me, your brain might also have to make quick, important decisions about how to not
die in such a stupid way. A great example such a stupid way to die would be the time a harmless little fly landed on my hand, causing me to bump into
the chain guard, thus knocking the chain off track and spinning the bike out of control. The first thing one probably thinks of when contemplating the
many parts of riding a bike, is the circular action of pushing the pedals. The part of the brain responsible for such action is the motor cortex. I have
chosen the motor cortex over the cerebellum because – while both are involved in muscular movement – the motor cortex is more about voluntary
muscular movement and the cerebellum more maintaining muscle coordination. The motor cortex is also responsible for muscular movement involved
in steering the

Is Dyslexia A Common Neurological Lifelong Condition?
What is Dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a common neurological lifelong condition which affects 1 out of 5
people in the country (Facts About Dyslexia, 2008). It is not caused by poor
vision(Understanding Dyslexia, 2014); in fact it can happen to those whom are very
intelligent (Davis, 1992). The brain has difficulty processing reading, written and spoken
language (Facts About Dyslexia, 2008). People with dyslexia need a little more time and
a different way to process the information (Understanding Dyslexia, 2014).
What part of the brain is affected?
Individuals with dyslexia actually process information in a different part of the
brain; the right of their brains understand language called the planum temporale but they
often cannot ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a study it was discovered a structural difference in two parts of
brain, in the cerebral cortex and thalamus. The cerebral cortex it is a six layer in the outer
part of the brain which processes sensory, motor, memory, language, and attention. The

thalamus is located in the center of the brain it processes information from the eyes and
ears (Neuroscience, 2000).
There are nerve cells and nerve fibers located in the first layer of the cortical area
which is responsible for language called ectopias; Ectopias sometimes travel too far and
end up in foreign places. Scientists believe that this occurs during the development of the
brain of a fetus before its sixth month (Structrual Brain, 1999). Ectopic neurons connect
to other parts of the brain differently; Most ectopias are in the language area, and the
front part of the brain is related to verbal memory (Structrual Brain, 1999).. With
different wiring patterns in the brain it affects the reading and writing process (Structrual
Brain, 1999).
To say a word that is read, the information goes to the primary visual cortex; the
word then goes to the primary visual cortex which then travels to the posterior speech
area, including Wernicke's area and to Broca's area, and lastly to the

The Presence Of Rat Model Of Parkinson 's Disease Induced...
The present study revealed the presence of neurochemical and histopathological changes in the cerebellum of rat model of Parkinson's disease induced
by the intrastriatal injection of rotenone. This may change the strategy of the disease treatment that depends mainly on the restoration of dopamine
levels in the basal ganglia.
The present findings showed the development of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum of rat model of PD induced by intrastriatal injection of rotenone.
This was indicated from the significant increase in the excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters; glutamate and aspartate and the significant decrease in
the inhibitory amino acids; GABA, glycine and taurine. These neurotransmitters are involved in many functions such as motor behavior, cognition, and
emotion (Ottersen and Storm–Mathisen, 1986, Schmidt et al., 1992)1,2. The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is important
for brain to sustain proper neuronal function (Mel et al., 2004)[1]. Perturbation in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission is associated with
several neurological and psychiatric disorders (Sanacora et al., 2004) (3) [glutamate gaba balance 1].
Functional neuroimaging study using PET or blood oxygen level–dependent functional MRI frequently demonstrated increased activation in the
cerebellum in patients with PD during performance of various upper limb movements (Rascol et al., 1997; Catalan et al., 1999; Wu and Hallett, 2005;
Yu et al., 2007; Wu et al.,

Brain-Computer and Brain-Machine Interfaces Applied to the...
Over the years, brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), or brain–machine interfaces (BMIs), have advanced into a technology that can be regularly be
applied to the medical field. BCIs have been used for rehabilitative purposes, such as patients suffering from loss of speech and motor functions.
Every year, approximately 795,000 people suffer a stroke. Out of these people, 600,000 of these are first attacks and 185,000 are recurrent attacks
[9]. Stroke patients often suffer from paralysis and loss of speech. The use of BCIs can be highly beneficial to these patients, as well as to patients
suffering from other diseases and traumatic injuries that result in loss of speech and motor function. Besides this, BCIs can also be useful in other
areas of the medical field besides rehabilitative purposes. This technology, which was once only seen science–fiction books and movies, is now
becoming a realistic approach to treating patients. A BCI allows control of computers with the regulation of the patient'sbrain activity alone. There are
invasive BCIs that are primarily used in animal models where electrodes are implanted into the brain tissue, and noninvasive BCIs that use EEG
recordings in humans. Much research has been done on using BCIs for stroke patients who suffer from paralysis and loss of motor function. The goal
is to use BCIs to help these patients recover communication and motor function again. Over the years, much research has been conducted on patients
who cannot communicate

Functions Worksheet: Abnormal Psychology
Functions Worksheet
Inside Key
Amygdala (Green)
The amygdala is responsible for how one perceives certain emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness, also for controlling emotions like aggression.
Helps to store memories of events and emotions, so that
Hypothalamus
Thalamus(Hannah)
The thalamus, which is located above the brainstem, sorts and distributes data. It sorts sensory information as being visual, tactile, auditory, or
gustatory, then sends it to different locations within the cortex.
Sends information received through the eyes to the occipital lobe to be processed.
Transmits auditory information to the brain's primary auditory complex.
In addition to organising and relaying sensory information, the thalamus also plays a role ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Parietal Lobe(ian)
The parietal lobe can be divided into two sections one of the sections involves itself with sensation and perception while the other side works with
sensory input and our visual system
The main function is to work with cognition and perception
The second function works mainly with spatial awareness
Integrates sensory information
Visuospatial processing
Knowledge of numbers and their relations
Occipital Lobe(Hannah)
The main function of the occipital lobe is to receive and process visual information. The occipital lobe helps an individual understand what they are
seeing. In the visual cortex, visual information is processed, allowing for the distinction of different colors and shapes.
The occipital lobe is integral to an individual's ability not only to read, but to understand what they have

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Case Study
Overview:
The Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) is part of the frontal lobe, one of the most complex parts of the brain and among the last areas to develop.
According to numerous neuroimaging studies, it may not be fully mature until a person's mid–20s. The DLFPC has numerous connections with other
parts of the brain and helps integrate information from different systems.
The DLPFC is involved in higher–order processing and executive functions like working memory, planning, attention, and self–regulation. These
functions are crucial for everyday tasks like learning, decision–making, and socializing.
Location:
The Prefrontal Cortex lies in the frontal lobe anterior to the motor, premotor, and limbic areas and makes up about в…“ of the total neocortical area of
the brain. The prefrontal cortex may be further subdivided into the dorsolateral, orbitofrontal, and (sometimes) ventrolateral cortices, though there is
some debate about these divisions. There is not a clear anatomical line where the DLPFC begins and ends. One way of defining it is by its connection
to the parvocellular subdivision of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus. Some authors say it includes Brodmann Areas 9 and 46 only, others may
include ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The whole group went through a normal daily treatment with deep transcranial magnetic stimulation over the four weeks, then a subgroup continued
with weekly maintenance sessions. This study is based on previous findings that depression is associated with hypoactivity in the left DLPFC and
hyperactivity in the right DLPFC. All subjects showed improvement after the initial treatment, but then declined if they did not receive weekly
maintenance

Parietal Lobe Research Paper
The cerebral cortex is the largest outer most part of the brain. It consist of tissue known as gray matter which is made of neuronal bodies. The optimal
function of the cerebral cortex is vitally important. All information necessary to sustain life is stored and processed in the cerebral cortex. The tissue
are divided into the left and right sides which are joined together by the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, the frontal,
parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe. Each area carrying its own set of functions and responsibilities. These four lobes together make up the primary
somatosensory area of the brain which controls the five sensory systems in the brain taste, olfaction, touch, hearing and vision. These systems receive
sensory information from the thalamic nerve projections. The primary motor area of the brain consist of a much smaller area located within ... Show
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Dopamine limits and selects sensory information from the thalmus. The parietal lobe also deals with movement, along with orientation, recognition,
and perception of stimuli. This cortical region is the main sensory area for the sense of touch, major inputs from the skin relay from the thalmus to the
parietal lobe. All visual processes are carried out in the occipital lobe (true to its name), and the temporal lobe is associated with perception and
recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech. The temporal lobe is responsible for deriving meanings for the appropriate retention of visual
memories, language comprehension, and emotional association. Together these areas of the brain control the body through the CNS (centralnervous
system). Every bodily function needed to sustain life is initiated first through these primary sensory areas, making the brain of course the most
important muscle in the

Was Pierre Marie, A French Neurologist?
Pierre Marie, a French neurologist was one of the first to describe the conditions of what is now known as Foreign Accent Syndrome in 1907. His
descriptions came from a patient who began to speak French with an Alsatian accent after suffering from a stroke. In 1919, twelve years later, a
neurologist named Arnold Pick from the Czech Republic, reported a case where a patient who also suffered from a stroke, spoke the Czech language
with a Polish accent. During World War II, 1941, there was another foreign accent syndrome case that occurred during the German assault on Norway.
A Norwegian woman, Astrid L, suffered abrain injury due to an explosive shell during an air–raid. Astrid's left side of her skull splintered and exposed
her brain. In result of her brain being exposed, there was damage to her brain caused hemiplegia, paralysis of one side of the body; her right side,
along with Broca's aphasia, and a seizure disorder. After her sudden recovery from her injury, she was left with a German accent that was later rejected
by her fellow Norwegians. Six years later, neurologist Monrad–Krohn described Astrid's incident in a more in depth reported case. In April 2012, a
Malaysian teenage student that suffered a brain injury from being involved in a motorbike accident. After her recovery, she was able to speak four new
languages ranging from Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Indonesian. Other cases that involve foreign accent syndrome include a Croatian girl that
woke up

The Neuroscience in Human Functions
In neuroscience there are many components that play important roles in the many human functions. They are part of the reasons why human are
complex and can perform complex actions. Categories that show the importance of neuroscience is divisions and subdivisions of the human nervous
system, neurotransmitters & receptors, neuromuscular, vision, audition, somatosensory, olfaction, gustatory, emotion, learning and memory, and
communication.
The divisions and subdivisions of the human nervous system consist of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. In the brain anatomy it consists of the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe occipital lobe, cerebellum,
and medulla oblongata. They all play in major components of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the telencephalon and
diencephalon. In the telencephalon consists of the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system. The diencephalon consists of the thalamus and
hypothalamus. The next component of the brain is the midbrain also known as the mesencephalon. The mesencephalon is composed of the tectum and
tegmentum. The last part of the brain is the hindbrain, which consists of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The metencephalon consists of the
cerebellum and the pons. The myelencephalon, consists of the medulla oblongata. The next part of the CNS is the spinal cord. It is the CNS tissue that
extends caudally

The Effect Of Stimulating The Motor Cortex ( M1 Region )...
Specific Aim 1: Title (copy from Specific Aims page)
To compare between the effect of stimulating the motor cortex (M1 region) using Transracial stochastic noise stimulation (TSNS) and transracial
direct current stimulation, and to quantify the effect of the TSNS on the brain activity. In order to measure the effect we need to conduct two studies.
First experiment is done inside the FMRI scanner, to record rCBF (regional Cerebral Blood Flow) for healthy control subjects while stimulating the
M1 region using TDCs and TSNS. Second experiment is to measure the effect of TSNs and TDCs using TCD, which measures the change inBrain
Blood Flow.
Rational and Hypothesis:
Most of stroke patients suffer from dysfunction in some of the brain activities; one common dysfunction is arm or leg paresis. Therefore the long term
goal is to use noninvasive electrical stimulation to improve the function for arm paresis stroke and TBI patients. The targeted population is individuals
that have post stroke/TBI dysfunction. Previous studies showed that the stimulation of the motor cortex (M1) region using direct electrical stimulation
increases brain activity and help improves brain function. However Direct current stimulation has several limitations, for instance the polarity of the
electrodes effects the measurement, since the brain region that attached to the anode will be excited and the region that is attached to the cathode will
be inhibited. Therefore we are introducing a new novel method

The Activity Of Frontal Motor Regions ( Primary Motor And...
The current experiment investigated different contexts in which the activity of frontal motor regions (primary motor and premotor cortices) could be
associated to the action component of words. Unlike previous studies, we did not dichotomize words into action and non–action categories. Instead, we
created 4 levels of action ranging from very low action (level1) to very high action (level4) using behavioral data provided by our fMRI participants,
with the intention of taking their experiences with words' referents into account. Additionally, the creation of several action levels allowed us to
evaluate, for the first time, whether the activity of the frontal motor system was linearly connected to the action component of words or not.
We ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
That is, the reduction in complexity resulting from the transformation of a more continuous distribution of word meaning40,41 into a dichotomous
variable of action vs. non–action could have become into fertile ground for miscategorized stimuli to drive the observed results. Second, given a
nonlinear association, it is plausible for statistical analyses based on univariate linear models and dichotomous categories of action vs. non–action to
misrepresent the role of the frontal motor system in word meaning processing. That is, linear models could provide a poor fit to the data and therefore
affect the reported results. One solution for this problem involves fitting nonlinear models at the univariate level, though this alternative could provide
results that are difficult to interpret. A more promising alternative involves the use of multivariate like Multivariate Pattern Analysis42 or
Representational Similarity Analysis43, as these techniques could provide valuable insights into existing and novel data by looking at the joint
information present across groups of voxels.
Although the specific properties and consequences of this nonlinear association must be addressed by future studies, our results shed some light on the
connection between frontal motor activity and the action

The Controller of Humans: The Brain Essay
The human brain is composed of many important parts of everyday life. The exterior part of the brain has 9 part in which include are divided into
different sections, lobes, cortex, and areas. Within the lobes, it includes frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. In cortexes, it has the motor
cortex, and the sensory cortex. Within the areas section it includes Broca's Area. The cerebellum is a small version of thebrain, and the cerebrum is the
like the whole brain. Although the brain is about three pounds blood flows through the brain about 750–1,000 milliliters (mL) per minute, (Disabled
World, 2008) (Brain Trivia, (n.d.)).
The brain is quite small but there is still a little brain, the cerebellum. The cerebellum function is to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Largest of the lobes, handles brain thinking functions (Frontal Lobe: (n.d.)). This lobe is located in front of the central sulcus (Lobes of the Brain, (n.d.)).
The cortex responsible for coordination of planning, control, and executing voluntary movements is the motor cortex. Motor areas are located in both
hemispheres meaning it is located in between. The motor cortex of the left hemisphere control right side of the body. The motor cortexes of the right
hemisphere control the left side of the body. Three parts make up the motor cortex. Which are the primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, and the
supplementary motor area (The Motor Cortex. (n.d.)).
Broca's Area generates speech, writing, language processing and comprehension (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, (n.d.)).Named after French scientist
Paul Broca. Scientist believe that we speak with the left–brain. Located in the front part of the left hemisphere. Lies specifically in the third frontal
convolution. Broca's Area contains motor neurons involving the control of speech. (Encyclopedia of Britannica, (n.d.)).
Within the lobes, the parietal lobe lies in that category. This lobes function is to stimuli touch, pressure, temperature, and pain (Lobes of the Brain,
(n.d.)). This parietal lobe is divided into two parts, superior parietal and the inferior parietal lobe. Neurons receive sensory information from skin and
tongue. This then processes information from the ears and the eyes (Parietal Lobe, (n.d.)).
The

Case Study On Stroke
1.1. Stroke:
Stroke is a common, serious and global health care problem; it's the third most common cause of health and first cause of adult disability (12). The
rehabilitation is the major part of his care (13).
Stroke is a neurological deficit caused by an acute focal injury f the central nervous system (CNS) by a vascular cause: a cerebral infraction appears
with overt symptoms or intracerebral hemorrhage with no symptoms (10%) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (5%) (14).
The most impairment that can be regarded as a loss or limitation of function in movement or limitation in mobility and muscle contraction, is the most
common and widely recognized impairment caused by stroke. The movement of face, arm, and leg of one side of the body are the structures affected
by the motor impairment after stroke and affected 80% of patients. Motor impairment can be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic injury to the motor
cortex, premotor cortex, motor tracts, or associated pathways in the cerebrum or cerebellum (15).
One of the common undesirable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to motor training, the kinesthetic, extero–ceptive, visual and attention information can be modulated; it's useful for arm function rehabilitation
when it increases. The healthy hemisphere does not play a univocal role after a stroke. The spontaneous upper extremity neurological recovery after a
stroke can occur through contralesional motor cortex recruitment. This bi–hemispheric reorganization allows the healthy hemisphere to efficiently
contribute to a uni–manual motor task by the paretic arm. The motor facilitation observed in the bilateral mode could be explained by the fact that the
healthy hemisphere removes its inhibition upon the lesion hemisphere. Furthermore, the corticospinal fibers stemming from the healthy hemisphere, no
decussated and aimed for proximal motricity, could be recruited

Overview Of The Nervous System Essay
There are two major subdivision of the nervous system, the Central nervous system (CNS) which consist of the brain and the spinal cord and the
Peripheral nervous system(PNS) consisting of the neutral tissues outside the brain and the spinal cord. The Central Nervous System integrates and
coordinates all bodily functions, process all incoming messages and send commands to different body parts. Sending and receiving messages through
the spinal cord and the part of the spinal column called a trunk line, which contains neurons that connect to the Peripheral Nervous System. The
Peripheral Nervous System provides the Central Nervous System with information from sensory receptors, relays messages from the brain to the body's
organs and muscles. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Directly above the Medulla is the Pons, providing input to other structures of the Brain Stem and the Cerebellum. A dense network of nerves sells that
serve as a sentinel or guard to the Brain is the Reticular Formation. Long tracts of fibers that run from the Reticular formation give information to the
Thalamus, which channels sensory information to the appropriate area of the Cerebral Cortex."Damage to the cerebellum interrupts the flow of
otherwise smooth movement causing it to appear uncoordinated and jerky." (Zimbardo, and Richard 73) Attached to the base of the skull at the bottom
of the Brain Stem is the Cerebellum, coordinating bodily movement, controlling posture and maintaining the equilibrium. The layer of the brain that
covers the Brain stem is the Limbic System, which regulates motivated behaviors, emotional states, memories and is composed of three structures, the
Hippocampus, Amygdale, and the Hypothalamus. The important role of acquisitions of memories is part of the largest structure of the Limbic System,
the Hippocampus. The Amygdale is controls emotions, aggression, the formation of emotional memory, and has the critical role in the formation and
retrieval of memories with emotional context. the smallest structure of the Limbic System is the Hypothalamus, playing a vital role in most daily
actions, and regulating motivated behaviors like eating, drinking and the Homeostasis or the Equilibriums of

Route Sixty Six
Conceptualization is the process that provides the speaker with an idea. The speaker must also have a desire to verbalize this concept. In order to be
able to conceptualize the idea "I have never seen Route Sixty Six" the speaker would access memories through the arcuate fasciculus and the superior
longitudinal fasciculus. Because there is no memories of watching the show, or perhaps those memories were not accessible, the speaker concludes that
they have never seen the show. If there was an external linguistic stimulus that triggered the conceptualization of this idea, the process would begin with
auditory comprehension in Wernicke's area of the dominant hemisphere. This stimulus would arrive either from the primary auditory cortices through...
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"Gunsmoke is one of my favorite shows of all time even though it is rarely aired these days" might also be produced with one breath. However, it
would be possible for a speaker with normal respiratory function to inspire before "even

The Functions Of The Talamus In The Midbrate Brain
Translated from Greek thalamus means "chamber" and is a midline symmetrical structure of two halves, with the vertebrate brain, situated between the
cerebral cortex and the midbrain. The functions of the thalamus is to relay the sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the midbrain, and
the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness. The thalamus is located in the forebrain superior to the midbrain, near the center of the brain, with
nerve fibers projecting into the cerebral cortex in all directions of the brain. The surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of
the third ventricle, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the interthalamic

Prefrontal Cortex Research Paper
The prefrontal cortex is the most anterior region of the frontal lobe. It occupies one–third of the cerebral cortex and is key for executive functions such
as problem solving, working memory, and emotional control. It is also crucial in decision making and the expression of personality. The prefrontal
cortex is imperative for efficient cognitive functioning; damage can result in severe impairment to skills such as emotional regulation, moral behavior,
and empathy. In addition, the prefrontal cortex is a sub–region of the frontal cortex; this includes the primary motor cortex and premotor cortex in
addition to the prefrontal cortex areas, which are located more anteriorly. The prefrontal cortex itself can be divided into three sectors– the

The Evolution Of Prefrontal Inputs From Macaque Monkeys...
References:
Ramnani. N, Behrens, T, Johansen–Berg, Richeter, MC, Pinsk, MS, Andersson, JLR, et al. 2006. The evolution of prefrontal inputs to the
cortico–pontine system: Diffusion imaging evidence from macaque monkeys and humans. Cerebral Cortex, 16: 811–818
Behrens, TEJ, Johansen–Berg, H, Woolrich, MW, Smith, SM, Wheeler
–Kingshott, CAM, Boulby, PA, Barker GJ, Sillery, EL, Sheehan, K, Ciccarelli,
O, 3, Thompson, AJ, Brady, JM and Matthews, PM. 2003. Non–invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion
imaging. Nature Neuroscience, 6: 750–758.
Middleton FA, Strick PL. 2000. Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits. Brain Research Reviews, 31:236––250.
Introductory Article Summaries:
Non–invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion imaging: This article details a study that was performed
using diffusion imaging characteristics to determine how pathways connect different parts of the brain. The study concluded that the pathway that is
generated is based on the start point and the researchers developed and algorithm that could help them generate pathway within sections of the brain.
Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits: The basal ganglia and cerebellum are the major motor structures of the brain. In this
study, several cortical areas were examined as the targets of the signals sent by the basal ganglia and the cerebellar output. This article examined

The Name of the Brain Areas and Its Functions
) The name of the brain areas and its functions Image 1: Brain parts
Image 1: http://www.infocomcanada.com/cmpi/Program%20Guide/brain.htm (viewed at 08/03/14)
Brain PartFunction A)Frontal lobeThe frontal lobes of the brain are the most anterior, which means they are positioned right behind your forehead and
at the top–front of the head.
The frontal lobes, which are also called the cerebral cortex, are the seat of emotions and judgments related to sympathy, which is the ability to feel
sadness for someone else's suffering, and empathy, which the ability to understand another's feelings and problems. They are also the seat of
understanding humour, including delicate witticisms and word plays.
The frontal lobes also identifies sarcasm and irony, another function of lobes control is the functioning of sequencing events, which is the ability to
plan a series of movements needed to perform a multi–step task, like making a sandwich. The ability to solve problems, which often depends on
flexible thinking and the ability to correctly express language are both controlled by the frontal lobes. The left is most predominantly language related
while the right is most predominantly non–verbal. the left brain is the source of logic, which tends to be language based, and the right is creative,
which tends to be non–verbal
Rear part of the frontal lobe is especially designed for the movements and tissue disorganization cause of the disability of a limb. Stimulate of every
part of the

Motor Maps Analysis
There are two ways to change motor maps. One is detraining which could take years of simply not using the skill or practicing with hopes that the
body forgets the motion. This is not a commonly used method, rarely works well or completely, and most often happens to athletes who quit the sport
altogether and become commonly known as really "out of practice." With detraining the first thing to go is muscle strength. (Behrendt et al, 2014)
Atrophy occurs because muscle strength is training dependent. (Behrendt et al, 2014) After that it take a long time, years even, for the cortical nerves
to be "eliminated" because they are no longer helping the body. (Behrendt et al, 2014) This is where the term "like riding a bike" comes from. Yourbrain
still remembers years later how to ride a bike even if you had not done it for a long time because it relies on those motor maps that have already been
developed at a young age. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One obtains skills through the acquisition phase exceptionally rapidly, then, the maintenance phase is able to continue to adjust those patterns taking in
incremental gains in the fine motor movement. They both need an abundance of repetitive practice to work and make the brain and body as efficient
as possible. The brain uses so many parts of itself to implement and save movement patterns like the primary motor cortex, the cerebellum, and the
basal ganglia. These skills are so well retained by the brain and body they are practically permanent without significant retraining or detraining. Gaining
skills in sports and exercising improves human life by keeping the brain and body young and

Complex Part Of The Brain Essay
The brain is a very complex part of the human anatomy. It has two hemispheres which control different parts of the body and mental processes like
breathing, thinking, and sleeping. The cerebral cortex, which surrounds the two hemispheres, is just one of these complex areas of the brain (Huffman,
2005, p.67). This part of the brain has different functions for motor and sensory data. Four lobes are the part of the brain are that is covered. These
lobes have extremely important participating roles in the human system, and without them the body would be unable to do mundane tasks like talking
or memorization (Huffman, 2005, p.68). These help to control more functions and sending various messages to parts of the body. Continually, the two
hemispheres of the brain have four specific sections which control certain aspects of the brain: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital
lobe.
I.Frontal Lobes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The frontal lobes, located near the top of the brain, receives and creates messages from the other lobes of the brain and help with talking, muscle
movements, thinking, and more (Huffman ,2005, p.68) In the left lobe, there is an area called Broca's area and is "known to play a crucial part in
speech production(Huffman,2005, p.68). The frontal lobe influences our emotions, it also effects our "social behavior" and how we interact with
others (Lobes of the brain, 2014). The frontal lobes, for they are so close to the front of the skull, are the most likely to injure (Lobes of the brain,
2014). This is not good because the frontal lobes helps with "self–awareness" and studies have shown abnormalities in the frontal lobes of
schizophrenic patients" (Huffman, 2005, p.69). On the left of the frontal lobes are where motor cortex is found (Huffman, 2004, p.68). When going to
the store and getting some groceries and you pick up some cookies, this is the frontal lobe and the motor cortex

Literature Review On Stroke
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Stroke:
Stroke is a common, serious and global health care problem; it's the third most common cause of death and first cause of adult disability (12). The
rehabilitation is the major part of his care (13).
Stroke is a neurological deficit caused by an acute focal injury of the central nervous system (CNS) by a vascular cause: a cerebral infarction appears
with overt symptoms or intracerebral hemorrhage with no symptoms (10%) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (5%) (14).
The motor impairment that can be regarded as a loss or limitation of function in movement or limitation in mobility and muscle contraction, is the most
common and widely recognized impairment caused by stroke. The movement of face, arm, and leg of one side of the body are the structures affected
by the motor impairment after stroke and affected 80% of patients. Motor ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mirror visual feedback
1.2.1. Definition of mirror visual feedback
Sensory–motor integration is the capacity of the central nervous system to transform different sources of sensory input such as visual feedback to
motor actions, it help in for the control of motor performance, skill acquisition, and the detection of motor errors (23).
Mirror visual feedback (MVF) was first introduced in 1992 by Ramachandran et al., it's a simple non–invasive technique for the treatment of two
disorders that have long been regarded as permanent and largely incurable; chronic pain of central origin (such as phantom pain) and hemiparesis
following a stroke. (6). Altschuler and colleagues reported in their pilot study the effects of this treatment on "the ability of movement of patients in
terms of range of motion, speed and precision," especially for patients with severe hemiparesis (24, 25).
This therapy has been used to treat phantom limb pain in amputee patients, and in stroke patients with complex regional pain syndrome type I,
peripheral nerve injury, brachial plexus avulsion, and the paretic hand

Pyramidal Cells (PC)
Pyramidal cells(PC) are the source of excitatory input to the cortex, similarly the granule cell in the cerebellum, core and matrix thalamocortical cells
in the thalamus, and by STN in the basal ganglia. GABA is responsible for keeping a tab on excitatory activity in the brain and prevent the occurrence
of a seizure (9). The process of surround inhibition occurs at every station(i.e. in the spinal cord, brainstem, thalamus, somatosensory cortex) for
discriminative active touch and is regulated by GABA interneuron. These interneurons allow only the strongest input to go through resulting in
precision and make it possible for two distinct points stimulated on the skin to be interpreted by adjusting the effective receptive field size(23).This...
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The inhibitory control is provided by basket cells which are GABA–ergic. The GABA release is activated by incoming glutamate activity (7).
Inhibition mediated by basket cells is enhanced when excitability increases during preparation prior to movement(motor set)(7). Basket cell activity
helps control the output of PC and describing the discharge pattern of these cells. Double bouquet cells(DBC) are responsible for restricting the
activity of minicolumn and preventing a spread of activity(7). They also inhibit basal and apical dendrites of the CM cell (7,11). Top–down influence
mediated by thalamocortical connections and cortico–cortical connections result in activation of local GABA–ergic interneurons and glutamatergic
neurons, inhibition of the basket cells/chandelier/DBC results in disinhibition of the CM cells leading to the conversion of No–Go to Go (7). The
position of DBC enables its role in controlling the horizontal influence of overlapping PC(7). Recent studies indicate critical role of inhibitory
interneurons located in L1– a)single bouquet cell which inhibits local interneuron that has an effect on dendrites, soma, axon hillock of L5 pyramidal
cell but not the pyramidal cell itself(disinhibition effect on few PC) and b) Neurogliaform cells– inhibition of apical dendrites of numerous
PC(widespread inhibition)(7). The disinhibition circuit is established in the

The Central Nervous System
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Every behavior begins with biology. Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles,
and glands. In this chapter we will begin our journey into the world of psychology by considering the biological makeup of the human being, including
the most remarkable of human organs–the brain. We'll consider the structure of the brain and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain
and to understand how it works.
We will see that the body is controlled by an information highway known as the nervous system. A collection of hundreds of billions of specialized cells
that transmit information between different parts of the body, a collection of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To improve the speed of their communication, and to keep their electrical charges from shorting out with other neurons, axons are often surrounded by
a myelin sheath. The myelin sheathmyelin sheathA layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that acts as an insulator and allows faster
transmission of the electrical signal. is a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster
transmission of the electrical signal. Axons branch out toward their ends, and at the tip of each branch is a terminal button.
Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process (see Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron). An electrical charge moves
through the neuron itself and chemicals are used to transmit information between neurons. Within the neuron, when a signal is received by the
dendrites, is it transmitted to the soma in the form of an electrical signal, and, if the signal is strong enough, it may then be passed on to the axon and
then to the terminal buttons. If the signal reaches the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which
communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells, known as synapses.
Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron
This video clip

Hasta Mudras Essay
The Dance therapy, especially Mudra therapy is involved in holding the hasta mudras to give the therapeutic effect. When we hold a particular hasta
mudra the nerves get stimulated and it is passed to the brain via the spinal cord through the peripheral nervous system. To comprehend the stimulations,
while holding the Hasta Mudras; and the process of carrying the impulses to the brain and back, we need to study the nervous system of the brain and its
functions. The nervous system comprises the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system,
consisting of the cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves, together with their motor and sensory endings.
4.6.1 Central nervous system The central nervous system is composed of millions of nerve and glial cells, together with blood vessels and a little
connective tissue. The nerve cells or neurons in the blood play a very major role in the transmission and reception of signals. The glial cells, termed
neuroglia, are characterized by short processes that have special relationships to neurons, blood vessels, and connective tissue . These cells play a very
major role in receiving and transmitting of the signals on stimulating while holding the corresponding hasta mudras.
4.6.2 Brain The brain is the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both the Cerebral and Cerebellar cortex are symmetrical and divided into right and left hemispheres. The superficial layer of the hemisphere has the
gray matter and is a few millimeters in thickness; whereas the interior hemisphere is made partly of white matter with nuclei of gray matter in the
Cerebellar cortex. The Gray matter has the bodies of nerve and glial cells in contrast to the white matter which consists of the processes or fibres of
nerve and glial cells. The brain also has cavities in the interior portions known as ventricles. These ventricles are full of cerebrospinal

The Human Response On An Ignition Hole For The Vehicle Essay
The focus of this paper is to highlight the human response in relation to an action, in this case turning the key in an ignition, once it has been inserted
into the correct ignition hole for the vehicle. The aim is to identify the brain response with the haptic perceptions and to a lesser extent the visual
perceptions that are involved when completing the instruction set.
Before I begin to explain how we complete this instruction I would like to explain some functions of our brain and how it relates to completing this task.
Before anything can begin the process to turn the key in the ignition must begin with the decision to complete the task. The area responsible is called
the prefrontal cortex (PFC) which is the cerebral cortex located in the frontal lobe. Although this area is implicated in planning complex cognitive
behaviour, personality expression, decision making and moderating social behaviour (Yang, 2009) we are primarily interested in its effect on decision
making in relation to our instruction set chosen.
This region of the brain is considered to be responsible for alignment of thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals, in this case getting the
key to the ignition and turning the key the appropriate amount to complete the action of turning on the vehicle.
Another area of the brain responsible for assisting in the completion of our task is the premotor cortex also lying in the frontal lobe just anterior to the
primary motor cortex. Although this area

The Use Of Spinal Cord Neurons From Transgenic Sod1 Mice
Taking a closer look at the cerebrum, allows us to have a better understanding of the dying–forward cascade and its important role in initiating disease
onset (Thomsen, et al., 2014). The outer layer of this complex organ composed of gray matter is the cerebral cortex, region where the corticospinal
neurons related to ALS are located. These upper motor neurons responsible for collecting, integrating, translating, and transferring information to the
spinal cord reside in layer 5 of the motor cortex (Thomsen, et al., 2014), and are the most vulnerable to be injured by excitotoxicity initiating an
anterograde degeneration. In general, ALS research has devoted less attention to the UMN pathology primarily focusing on the LMN connectivity with
the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) (Thomsen, et al., 2014). In spite of this remark, recent studies continue to use spinal cord neurons from transgenic
SOD1 mice but their priority has switched to the UMN behavior. On a study using mutant SOD1G39A rats, (Thomsen, et al., 2014) wanted to establish
whether the upper motor neuron might still play a critical role in disease progression by knocking down mutant SOD1expression in only the motor
cortex. As a consequence of this assay, it was shown for the first time that suppression at the top of themotor neuron pathway results in significant delay
in ALS disease onset. Thus, further highlighting the importance of the upper motor neurons in ALS (Thomsen, et al., 2014).
This thorough understanding

The Presence Of Rat Model Of Parkinson 's Disease Induced...
The present study was established to show revealed the presence of neurochemical and histopathological changes in the cerebellum of rat model of
Parkinson's disease induced by the intrastriatal injection of rotenone. This may change the strategy of the disease treatment that depends mainly on the
restoration of dopamine levels in the basal ganglia.
The present findings showed the development of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum of rat model of PD induced by intrastriatal injection of rotenone.
This was indicated from the significant increase in the excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters; glutamate and aspartate and the significant decrease in
the inhibitory amino acids; GABA, glycine and taurine. These neurotransmitters are involved in many functions such as motor behavior, cognition, and
emotion (Ottersen and Storm–Mathisen, 1986, Schmidt et al., 1992)1,2. The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is important
for brain to sustain proper neuronal function (Mel et al., 2004)[1]. Perturbation in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission is associated with
several neurological and psychiatric disorders (Sanacora et al., 2004) (3) [glutamate gaba balance 1].
Functional neuroimaging study using PET or blood oxygen level–dependent functional MRI frequently demonstrated increased activation in the
cerebellum in patients with PD during performance of various upper limb movements (Rascol et al., 1997; Catalan et al., 1999; Wu and Hallett, 2005;
Yu et

The Neurological And Behavioral Changes Associated With...
Sarah Walker
Gordon Deecker
INSC 3909
December 14, 2015
The Neurological and Behavioral Changes Associated with Learning Music as a Child
Some would argue that humans are intrinsically wired to produce music. As an infant, the sounds children make while learning language mimic the
tonal shape of language. Parents also tend to use exaggerated highs and lows in their voices much like a simple melody to prepare and help develop
the infant's capacity to learn language. It has also been found that the neural networks used in language acquisition are very similar to those used in
music acquisition (Mithen 2006). Language acquisition and development is imperative for an individual to survive, and if training the brain with music
can strengthen those networks, this is a subject of great importance. Since the 1940s doctors have recognized the impacts of music on the behavior of
patients with mental disabilities, and from this discovery, the effects of music on a regular developing brain became a subject of great interest.
Researchers recognized that there was potentially an opportunity to increase brain development in children resulting in discernable enhancements of
skills into adulthood (Reschke–Hernandez, 2011). It is now known that childhood music education improves skills required for playing music, namely
motor functioning, auditory discrimination, and long and short term recall. These skills, learned through music instruction, transfer to non–musical
skills such as verbal

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