Average Systole Level Results

Average Systole Level
Results: The results show that my average pulse rate is 65.7 beats per minute. My average systole level is 140.7 mmHG, and my average Diastole
level is 61.2 mmHG.
Discussion: Systole is the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries. My partner
measured my average systole level to be 117. They measured it by using a blood pressure cuff, and listening with a stethoscope and the steps are
discussed previously in the procedure. An average systole level of 117 is considered normal and a healthy level. Diastole is the phase of the
heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers of the heart to fill with blood. My partner measured my average systole level to be
61.3.
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What Are The Four Chambered Heart
Fish have a two–chambered heart with one atrium and one ventricle. Oxygen diffusion occurs in the gills. Amphibians have a three chambered heart
with two atria and one ventricle. Reptiles have a four chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles. However, there is mixing of blood because
the ventricle separation is incomplete. Birds and mammals both have a four chambered heart. All of these hearts contain valves and the rest of the body
receives blood through arteries (which carry oxygenated blood away from the heart) and veins (which carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart)
and capillaries (where the two meet). The cardiac cycle is the period during which the heart fills with blood and pumps it out. During one cycle, it
receives deoxygenated

The Cardiac Cycle
To keep the blood moving around the body supplying vital nutrients to cells and removing waste, a cycle of contractions (systole) and relaxations
(diastole) take place, this cycle is known as the cardiac cycle. There are three stages to the cardiac cycle, all stages happen during one heartbeat
(cycle) and take less than a second in total (Revisionworld.com, 2017), these different stages are pictured in figure 11.
During stage one the pressure in both ventricles decreases as they relax, the atrioventricular valves open slightly and blood is pumped through them due
to a contraction of the atria. Blood is prevented from flowing backwards as the valves of the vena cava and pulmonary vein close. During stage two
pressure in the ventricles increases

Clinical Note On Clinical Disorders
Clinical vignette
A fifty–two–year–old white male visited his physician because he started experiencing shortness of breath on walking short distances at ground level.
He had smoked half a packet of cigarettes daily for 40 years. Physical examination revealed a loud fourth heart sound and a blood pressure of 147/95
mmHg. Chest examination and chest X–ray were unremarkable, and ECG showed left atrial abnormality. The patient had normal serum electrolytes,
blood sugar, and kidney function tests. A stress echocardiogram was ordered to exclude potential coronary artery disease (CAD). His resting
echocardiography showed an ejection fraction (EF) of 60%, normal septal and posterior wall thickness, and mild diastolic dysfunction [septal early
diastolic mitral annular velocity (e') of 7 cm/s, early diastolic (E–wave) to late diastolic (A–wave) transmitral Doppler flow velocity ratio (E/A) of 1.4,
E–wave deceleration time of 210 milliseconds, and E/e' ratio of 9]. There were no resting segmental wall motion abnormalities suggestive of ischemia.
The patient exercised on a treadmill using Bruce protocol for 4 minutes and 43 seconds, and achieved 6.6 metabolic equivalent of task (MET) and
maximum heart rate of 148 beats/minute (88% of his maximum age predicted heart rate). At peak exercise, the patient developed severe dyspnea and
his blood pressure was 213/90 mmHg. Post exercise echocardiography was acquired within 1 minute of exercise termination with Doppler recordings
obtained at

Pulmonary Circulation Loops
There are two primary circulation loops in the human body known as pulmonary circulation loops and systemic circulation loops. o Pulmonary
circulation loops: is responsible for transporting oxygenate–poor blood from right atrium, to the right ventricle and then to the lung. The blood then
picks oxygen in the lung and then returns to the left atrium. o Systemic circulation loops: then systemic circulation loops transport the oxygenate–rich
blood from the left atrium to then left ventricle. From there, the heart pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. The systemic circulation
loops also get rid of waste from body tissue and return deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium.
Superior vena cava (Upper body)
Interior vena cava (lower and middle body) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The right atrium contracts, the tricuspid valve opens, blood is then pumped into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve closes itself when the right
ventricle is full to stop blood from flowing back into the right atrium. (Dao, 2017)
The right ventricle contracts, which opens the pulmonary valve. Once the pulmonary valve is opened, blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery which
goes into the lungs. The blood then picks oxygen in the lung which turns the deoxygenated blood into oxygenated. The pulmonary valve closes itself to
hinder blood from flowing back into the pulmonary artery. (Dao, 2017).
The oxygen–rich (oxygenated) blood return from the lung to the heart through the pulmonary vein and into the left atrium. The mitral valve them opens
and blood is pumped into the left ventricle. (this happens at the same time as the right atrium pumps blood into the right ventricle). (Dao, 2017)
The mitral valve closes itself when the left ventricle is filled with blood. The aorta valve opens which contracts the left

Symptoms And Treatment Of Chest Pain
Chest Pain Chest pain is defined as a general term for any dull, aching pain in the thorax, usually referring to that of acute onset, which is often
regarded as being myocardial in origin unless proven otherwise (McGraw–Hill n.d.). Chest pain is a warning to seek medical attention and can be
caused by many reasons. Serious causes for chest pain include: Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS): New onset angina, accelerating or crescendo
angina and prolonged angina or coronary insufficiency, non ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and ST elevation myocardial infarction
(STEMI). Typical features of cardiac chest pain is 1.) located under the breastbone or at least some of the pain is situated in this area, 2.) other
features include provocation by exercise or stress and 3.) relief by rest or nitroglycerin. If all three features are present the patient is said to have
typical angina. If two of the three features are present the patient is said to have atypical angina and if only one of the three features are present the
patient is said to have non–anginal chest pain (Continuing Medical Implementaiton 2013). Chest pain or chest discomfort is the most common
presenting complaint that brings patients into the ER everyday. During the physical exam, palpate and inspect the skin for color, temperature, skin
turgor and capillary refill using the fingertips and the back of hand, as arterial insufficiency may cause cold extremities in a warm environment and is
abnormal. Inspect

The Heart Of Heart Failure
Research by the American Heart Association (2014) states that heart failure effects an estimated 5.1 million Americans and it is predicted to increase
25% by 2030. Heart failure is a pathophysiological condition that indicates the heart is unable to promote enough cardiac output causing insufficient
blood supply to the body. Pharmacological treatment for cardiac failure is dependent upon the ability to decrease rate of blood flow and blood
pressure. Survival after heart failure diagnosis has improved with medication but the death rate remains high with over half of the people diagnosed
with heart failure will die within 5 years. (Go et al., 2014) Every beat you feel you heart make is one complete cycle of blood entering the heart and
exiting the heart. The heart cycle breaks down into two main contractions. Atrial contraction of the heart forces blood from the vena cava and the
pulmonary veins through the atrioventricular valves and into the left and right ventricles. During ventricular contraction the tricuspid and mitral valves
close and the blood is forced out of the ventricles through the semilunar valves into the aortic and pulmonic arteries. The pulmonic arteries supply
blood to the lungs for oxygenation while the aortic arteries circulate the already oxygenated blood from the lungs, to the rest of the body. Diastole is
the period of relaxation when the blood fills the ventricles. Systole is the period of contraction that forces the blood out of the ventricles.

Anatomy And Physiology
Detailed plan of to include aims and objectives
Explain what is meant by anatomy and physiology
Anatomy is the branch of biology which describes the structure of the body and the relationship of one part to another.
Physiology is the study of how each part functions. Outline the components of the circulatory system, including blood
The essential components of the circulatory system are, the heart, blood and blood vessels, it is means by which food and oxygen are carried around the
body, it includes the pulmonary circulation, the blood travels through the lungs where blood is oxygenated, and the systematic circulation, through the
rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. (Wikipedia ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The heart has valves to prevent blood from flowing backs into the heart, there are two types of valves, 1. the atrioventricular valves called the tricuspid
valve and the mitral valve or bicuspid valve.
2. The semilunar valves, the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve.
The SA node sets the pace of the heart, the AV node picks up the signal from the SA node and send it to the AV bundle (bundle of his). The AV bundle
is a strand of that runs through the septum and into the interventricular septum, it splits into the left and right branches in the interventricular septum
until they reach the apex of the heart.
Branching off to the left and the right bundle branches are many of the purkinje fibers that Carry the signal to the walls of the ventricles, causing the
cardiac muscle to contract (systole) and relax (diastole) to pump the blood out of the heart. (Inner body

Comparison Of Pulmonary And Systemic Circuits
There are two circuits in which blood flows through: pulmonary and systemic. The pulmonary circuit does two things: bring blood without oxygen
(oxygen–depleted) to the lungs and blood with oxygen (oxygen–rich) back to the heart. Blood flows out of the right side of the heart to the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs. This oxygen–depleted blood then becomes oxygen–rich in the lungs and releases carbon dioxide. This oxygen–rich blood then
flows back to the right side of the heart to be used in the systemic circuit.
The systemic circuit also does two things: brings oxygen–rich blood to the entire body besides the lungs and oxygen–depleted blood to the heart.
Blood flows out of the left side of the heart to the aorta. Aorta is the name of the artery which brings oxygen–rich blood to the entire body. This blood
is then transported from the aorta to connecting arteries and capillaries. Diffusion takes place in the capillaries in which the blood becomes
oxygen–depleted and takes in carbon dioxide, unlike the pulmonary circuit. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The upper two chambers, atria, carry blood to the heart. The lower two chambers, ventricles, carry blood out of the heart. In the pulmonary circuit,
blood flows from the veins to the right atrium to the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. In the systemic circuit, blood flows from the
left atrium to the left ventricle to the aorta to the branching arteries to the capillaries throughout the body. The heart has valves to prevent the backward
flow of blood. Atrioventricular valves separate the atria and ventricles. The pulmonary valve and aortic valve separate the ventricles and arteries. A
heartbeat is the sound the valves make as they open and

Cardiac Cycle Is The Sequence Of Events That Occurs When...
Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs when the heart beats.(biology.about.com). There are two phases of the cardiac cycle. In the
diastole phase, the heart ventricles are relaxed and the heart fills with blood. In the systole phase, the ventricles contract and pump blood to the arteries.
A cardiac cycle is completed when the heart fills with blood and the blood gets pumped out of the heart.
The events of the cardiac cycle described below trace the path of the blood as it enters the heart, is pumped to the lungs, travel back to the heart and is
pumped out to the rest of the body. Note that the events that occur in the first and second diastole phases happen at the same time. This is also true for
the events of the first and second systole phases.
Cardiac Cycle: 1st Diastole Phase
"During the diastole phase, the atria and ventricles are relaxed and the atrioventricular valves are open. De–oxygenated blood from the superior and
inferior vena cavae flows into the right atrium. The open atrioventricular valves allow blood to pass through to the ventricles. The SA nodes contracts
triggering the atria to contract. The right atrium empties its contents into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents the blood from flowing back
into the right atrium."(About.com)
Cardiac Cycle: 1st Systole Phase
According to Richard E. K. (PhD., 2011) "Systole represents the time during which the left and right ventricles contract and eject blood into the aorta

Electrocardiography Lab Report
Name: Nikia Martinez Class: Biology 240L L3–1201 Assignment: Electrocardiography Lab Report Due: April 3rd 2012 Professor: Dr. B. Schoffstall
Introduction In a normal human being the heart correctly functions by the blood first entering through the right atrium from the superior and inferior
vena cava. This blood flow continues through the right atrioventricular valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts forcing the
pulmonary valve to open leading blood flow through the pulmonary valve and into the pulmonary trunk. Blood is then distributed from the right and
left pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is unloaded and oxygen is loaded into the blood. The blood is returned from the lungs to the
left... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Received on April 1, 2012 from Bio 240 Lab PowerPoint on Blackboard. When I did my own EKG lab testing I used the following materials:
BIOPAC electrode lead set (SS2L), BIOPAC disposable vinyl electrodes (EL503), Cot, BIOPAC electrodes, Computer Sytem, BIOPAC Student
Lab software v3.0 or greater, and BIOPAC acquisition unit (MP30). When all these materials are available the computer was turned on and three
of the electrodes were placed on the body of my teammate. Two electrodes were positioned on the medial surface of each leg just above the ankle,
and the last electrode was on the right anterior forearm at her wrist. When these were attached the subject was asked to lie down on the cot and
relax. We then attached her to the EKG machine with three colored cables. The white cable was placed on the electrode on the right forearm, the
black cable was placed on right leg and the red cable was attached to the electrode on the left leg. Once the patient was correctly hooked up to the
EKG the BIOPAC Student Lab Program was started. Lesson five is the one we used for this experiment and once it had been chosen we label it
and started the experiment. There were four conditions we needed to measure; the first being lying down. The subject was lying down relaxing on
the cot. We clicked record and let it run for 20 seconds. The data resembled the chart below. If it did not we would have had to repeat the steps until it
did. Retrieved on April 1, 2012 from

Determine Blood Pressure
Take your blood pressure and the blood pressure of someone else. List both the systole and diastole. Define systole, diastole and list the ranges of
excellent, good, fair and poor. How does blood pressure relate to the level of stress you and the other person are typically under?
John Doe: 156/60
Nakeisha Foots: 129/76
Systole– It is defined as the period of time in which the heart is beating normally where the chambers of the heart contract and force blood into the aorta
and pulmonary artery.
Diastole–Is defined as the period of time in which the heart is beating normally where the chambers of the heart are filling with blood.
Good blood pressure is usually around 120/80. This is considered an idea and healthy

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy
Left ventricular hypertrophy is defined as the increase in muscle mass of the left ventricle; It can be hypertrophy of the muscle leading to a systolic
HVG or a dilation of the muscle leading to diastolic HVG. The diagnosis is suspected on the ECG and confirmed by ultrasound.
Among the causes of left ventricular hypertrophy are age, intensive practice of one or more sports, obesity, prolonged hypertension.
The seriousness of hypertension arises from its impact on a number of organs (target organs). The complications that can develop at their level explain
the increased morbidity and mortality associated with hypertension. The heart is one of the main target organs, and one of the first consequences of
elevated blood pressure (PA) is left ventricular

Depolarization Vs Ventricular Contraction
They are different kind of forms the P wave it represents depolarization. It indicates atrial depolarization, or contraction of the atrium. Normal duration
is no longer than 0.11 seconds less than 3 small squares. Amplitude height is no more than 3 mm. No notching or peaking. The PR interval represents
the time impulse initiated by the sinus node travels through the atria to the ventricular conduction system. PR interval indicates AV conduction time.
The duration time is 0.12 to 0.20 seconds.
The QRS complex it represents the ventricular depolarization. It can be compromises of any combination of one, two, or three wave forms. It indicates
ventricular depolarization, or contraction of the ventricles. It normally not longer than .10 seconds in duration. The amplitude is not less than 5 mm in ...
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The Q is the first wave downward, or negative, wave form of the QRS complex. The R wave is the first positive or upward, deflection. The R wave
can occur with or without a Q wave. The T wave represents ventricular repolarization. The QT indicated the time from ventricular depolarization to
repolarization. The wave of electricity it continues traveling through the myocardium to atrioventricular node. The AV node it coordinates the incoming
electrical impulses from the atria and relays the impulse to the ventricles through a bundle of specialized muscle fibers. The atria pump blood into the
ventricles and then the ventricles pump blood out of the heart. Chambers of the heart fill with blood during a relaxation phase diastole and eject blood
during a contraction phase systole. Atrial

The Phases from One Heartbeat to the Next Essay
The cardiac events that take place from the beginning of the heart beat to the beginning of the next one are called as the Cardiac Cycle. There are
three main phases in the cycle that we will discuss below:
1.Ventricular filling: Mid–to–late Diastole:
During the diastole phase, the atria and ventricles are relaxed and therefore the atrioventricular valves are open, the ventricles are the primary pumps of
the heart, therefor the term diastole typically refers to the relaxation of the ventricles. Now when the heart is in the state of relaxation and the pressure
within the heart is low, this is when the blood is passively flowing through the atria and in to the ventricles. De oxygenated blood from the superior and
inferior vena cava ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore rights after ventricular systole occurs the pressure is passed along and start rising in these arteries. It does not matter how strong the
ventricles contract there will always be some blood left in to the ventricles after contraction. The amount of blood remaining in to the ventricles after
contraction is known as End–Systolic volume
3.Isovolumetric Relaxation: Early Diastole:
After ventricular systole phase, the ventricle begins to relax; the pressure in the ventricle begins to decline. The pressure in the artery is now greater
than that in the ventricle. Blood is now closing the semi–lunar valve as it tries to go from the artery into the ventricle preventing backflow. After the
aortic valve closes aortic pressure rises due to back flow known as the dicrotic notch. Although the pressure in the ventricle is declining, but it is still
greater than in the atria so the atrioventricular (AV) valves are still closed. As the ventricle is relaxing the volume of blood in the ventricle is not
changing, so this stage will continue to do so until the ventricular pressure becomes lower than the atrial pressure and after that the filling stage starts
all over again by opening AV valves.
So when our atria contracts it pushes blood in to the ventricles and there is something that separates our atrium from our ventricles and it's called atrial
ventricular or AV valve, so the AV valves will open and the atria will

Heart Rate Case Study
Are all of the RR intervals the same? Why?
No, not all of the RR are the same, because every time I breath in, my heart rate changes which it affects the distance between the two RR intervals.
Compare heart rate by counting to heart rate by measuring. Which is more accurate?
By counting, I got 84 BPM yet when I physically measure by heart rate, I got 86 BPM. There was a different of 3 BPM. by measuring the graph has
more accuracy; however, one needs to sit for 60 seconds in order to get the most accurately heart rate.
How did you decide where to place the SA Node and AV Node?
I know that the SA node fires the start of the EKG, so it must happens somewhere before the P–wave and the AV node is the one that ends the start,
which means that it must occur after the P–wave. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What do these terms mean?
Systole occurs when the heart contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries. In this case, it's the distance between the Q–wave and the
T–wave. While the diastole is when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood. Likewise, the diastole is the distance between
the end of the T–wave to the beginning of the Q–wave. Moreover, the arterial pressure indicates an average pressure in a patient's arteries during one
cardiac cycle. So for this one, it must be the distance between one wave to the next wave.
Observation: What do these terms mean? (Be

The Heart Essay
THE HEART The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a closed fist that functions as the body's circulatory pump. It takes in deoxygenated blood
through the veins and delivers it to the lungs for oxygenation before pumping it into the various arteries (which provide oxygen and nutrients to body
tissues by transporting the blood throughout the body). The heart is located in the thoracic cavity medial to the lungs and posterior to the sternum.
On its superior end, the base of the heart is attached to the aorta, pulmonary arteries and veins, and the vena cava. The inferior tip of the heart, known
as the apex, rests just superior to the diaphragm. The base of the heart is located along the body's midline with the apex pointing toward ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Myocardium makes up the majority of the thickness and mass of the heart wall and is the part of the heart responsible for pumping blood. Below the
myocardium is the thin endocardium layer. Endocardium. Endocardium is the simple squamous endothelium layer that lines the inside of the heart.
The endocardium is very smooth and is responsible for keeping blood from sticking to the inside of the heart and forming potentially deadly blood clots.
Chambers of the Heart
The heart contains 4 chambers: the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The atria are smaller than the ventricles and have
thinner, less muscular walls than the ventricles. The atria act as receiving chambers for blood, so they are connected to the veins that carry blood to the
heart. The ventricles are the larger, stronger pumping chambers that send blood out of the heart. The ventricles are connected to the arteries that carry
blood away from the heart.
The chambers on the right side of the heart are smaller and have less myocardium in their heart wall when compared to the left side of the heart. This
difference in size between the sides of the heart is related to their functions and the size of the 2 circulatory loops. The right side of the heart maintains
pulmonary circulation to the nearby lungs while the left side of the heart pumps blood all the way to the extremities of the body in the systemic
circulatory

Mechanical Arrangement Of The Heart
Introduction
The heart is an organ that pumps blood all through the body by process for the circulatory system, providing oxygen and supplements into the tissues
and evacuating carbon dioxide and different squanders. There are two sorts of circuits by which it pumps blood, the aspiratory circuit, where the blood
is pumped through the lungs to oxygenate the blood and expel carbon dioxide and the systemic circuit, by which the oxygen and supplements are
conveyed to the tissues and evacuate carbon dioxide. All together for the heart to beat, it requires three sorts of cells: The Rhythm generator, conductors
and contractile cells. The mechanical arrangement of the heart is started with the pacemaker cells (conductors) that begin electrical ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The accompanying report expresses the trial directed on two group of subjects under five conditions: supine, seated, start of inhale, start of exhale, and
after exercise, for which the condition heart cycles and ECG signals for prior and then afterward practice was recorded. In concentrate two gatherings
under various conditions we are occupied with the variety in the term in ECG motions between somebody that activities consistently and somebody that
does not. The null and alternate hypotheses are said in table 1.
Table 1: Hypotheses investigated regarding duration of ECG signals between two groups of participants
Inquiry
Null Hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis
1
There is no difference in change of heart rate when comparing segments between subjects that exercise on a regular basis and subjects that do not.
There is a larger change in heart rates when comparing segments between subjects that exercise on a regular basis and subjects that do not.
2
There is no difference in the duration of ventricular systole and diastole after exercise for subjects that do not exercises on a regular basis.
The duration of ventricular systole and diastole will be very drastic after exercise for subjects that do not exercises on a regular basis
Materials and Methods
Materials, set–up, sampling groups
Experimental materials

Systolic Pressure
Section 4 Question 1 In this essay I will cover the meaning of systolic and diastolic pressure. The range of levels from optimal to poor in relation
to blood pressure. I will take my blood pressure as well as my mother's and discuss the correlations between blood pressure and lifestyle, stress level
or activity level. Last, I will discuss how I will incorporate this knowledge in my future training endeavors. Blood pressure is defined as the force
exerted by the blood against the inner walls of the blood vessels. Determined by the flow blood and resistance to that flow. It is expressed by systolic
pressure over diastolic pressure. Blood pressure varies depending on age, sex, and ethnicity. Systolic pressure: Aspect of a blood pressure reading
which indicates the maximum arterial pressure occurring during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. Diastolic pressure: Pressure exerted on
the walls of the blood vessels during the refilling of the heart.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
My blood pressure was 118/78 Systole being 118 and Diastole 78. There are major correlations between blood pressure and lifestyle, stress level
and activity level. I have worked out, eaten a fairly balance diet and maintained moderate to high stress levels for the past six years. I do not
smoke, I drink one to two times a week and get adequate amounts of sleep. My mother has worked out under 50 times in her life (this does not
include the mass amounts of yard work and DIY projects she constantly does), she does eat a very healthy diet, but she has an incredibly stressful
job. She smokes about one to two cigarettes a day and that has significantly dropped over the past five years. She drinks about four to five times a
week and does not get adequate sleep on a regular

Essay about Gradual and Sudden Anxiety
People's anxiety levels will be tested through their heart rates. The resting heart rate of 30 people will be taken, and then the test group will be split
in half. The first 15 subjects are going to be told that they are going to watch a scary video. And for the last 15 we will not tell the subjects anything
that will happen in the video. A series of health questions that have nothing to do with our project will be asked. The goal of this project is to record
any changes in heart rate, due to anxiety, anticipation, and being caught unawares.
Anxiety is fear. It is a psychological problem that starts in the brain, when humans see that people are looking at them, and they start to get think that
they are being judged. It is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reason it is believed the experiment will turn out this way is they will have a majority of the video to anticipate when what is going to
happen, so their heart rate will gradually increase before they see the frightening part of the video, at which point their blood pressure and heart
rate should spike suddenly. It will also be taken into account how easily somebody gets frightened. That will play an important role in how much
the data changes. For the lab, 30 people have been chosen as the test subjects. The people were chosen at random; there was no equation used in
choosing who was picked for the lab. The subjects were split into two groups; one would be told that they are going to see a video that will give
them good feelings, and then negatives ones suddenly, and the other group would only be told that they are going to see a video, no details. Their
resting heart rate Was taken, and recorded it on a table, and then had them watch the video they were randomly assigned to. Immediately after they
had finished the video, their heart rates were tested again, and recorded any changes in their diastole, systole, and their pulse. Each of the test subjects
was tested separately, and away from other distractions. The variables in this procedure are whether or not the person is a dog or a cat

Difference Between Systole And Divert Flow To The Heart
2.The heart rate is controlled by the PNS, SNS, and endocrine glands.
3.The difference between systole and diastole is the pulse pressure. Systole is the contraction phase, while diastole is the relaxation phase. Systolic
blood pressure is the highest pressure on the wall of the arteries. And the diastolic blood pressure is the lowest pressure, corresponding to when the
ventricles are filled with blood during diastole.
4.For blood to flow, there must be a difference in pressure at both ends. Blood flows from an area of high to low pressure. The pressure difference is
also created by the resistance in the blood vessels themselves. Blood flow is compared to the pressure difference and resistance. So, pressure drives the
flow. And vasoconstriction and vasodilation divert flow to the regions that need it the most.
5. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The distribution of blood flow in and around the body depends on its immediate need, compared to that of other areas in the body. At rest, the liver
and kidneys receive about 50% of CO, while skeletal muscle tissues receive 15–20%. During exercise, muscles that are contracting receive 80% of the
cardiac output.
6.During exercise these 3 mechanisms are important for returning blood to the heart. It is important to have valves in the veins to prevent backflow and
leakage. A muscle pump and a respiratory pump.
7.The primary functions of the blood is to transport oxygen, CO2, nutrients and wastes. Blood aids in the regulation of temperature. And keeps the
acid–base (pH)

Patent Ductus Arteriosus
Explain the murmur from a mechanistic view of the hearts physiological functioning?
Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) is one of the common congenital left to right cardiac defects seen in children. The ductus arteriosus is a large
communication pathway that is naturally patent in the fetus, connecting the trunk of the major pulmonary artery to the descending aorta (Shinde,
Basantwani, & Tendolkar, 2016). During the fetal life, ductus arteriosus is a normal structure that allows the blood to pass from the right ventricle to
the descending aorta by bypassing the pulmonary circulation. The ductus arteriosus is an important structure in the fetal development as it allow the
blood flow to the rest of the fetal organ and structure. In fetus pulmonary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The incidence of PDA is approximately 0.02 to 0.04 percent in term infants and 20 to 60 percent in preterm neonates. Patent ductus arteriosus
accounts for six to eleven percent of all congenital heart defects. PDA is found twice as often in females than in males (Shinde, Basantwani, &
Tendolkar, 2016). The incidence of PDA is increased in children who are born prematurely, children with a history of perinatal asphyxia, and, possibly,
children born at high altitude. Up to 30 percent low birth infants develop PDA (Kim, 2016).
How is a patent ductus arteriosus

The Pathophysiology Of Congestive Heart Failure
The Circulatory system is responsible for the transport and delivery of essential nutrients and molecules required for proper cellular function including
oxygen, proteins, and much more (Silverthorn, 2013). The circulatory system also carries waste products to be excreted by the body by other systems
such as the urinary and respiratory system (Silverthorn, 2013). The main organ in the circulatory system is the heart which will be concentrated on
within this paper in order to understand how the normal physiology of the heart relates to the pathophysiology of congestive heart failure,
The wall of the heart consists of many layers, the most internal being the endocardium these cells are simple squamous epithelium cells which are in
direct contact ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The heart is able to do this thanks to the specialized cardiac muscle it contains. The contraction of the heart displays excitatory– contraction coupling
(EC coupling) similar to skeletal muscles except the action potential in the heart originates spontaneously at the peace maker of the heart (Silverthorn,
2013). Contraction happens when a rapid depolarization occurs due to the influx and opening of sodium voltage gated channels to raise the membrane
potential toward the threshold value causing a firing of action potential. The conduction and cardiac cycle starts at a resting distol state for both
ventricles and atriums and is initiated with the depolarization at the SA node (Silverthorn, 2013). This causes an action potential which moves rapidly
towards the AV node where the signal gets slowed down (Silverthorn, 2013).When the signal reaches this point it causes a contraction/systole stage of
the right and left atriums. This causes blood to be pumped into the ventricles through the AV valves (Silverthorn, 2013). The action potential then
travels to the ventricles down the bundle branches out towards the Purkinje fibers (Silverthorn, 2013). In terms of the cardiac cycle an isovolumetric
contraction occurs during the pause of the signal at the AV node allowing the AV valves to close, followed by ventricular systole where the ventricles
expel blood into circulation (Silverthorn, 2013). The final stage in the cardiac cycle occurs between stimulations of action potential when the ventricles
and atriums are in diastole and the chambers fill with blood once again (Silverthorn,

Cardiovascular System Lab Report
Introduction
Blood is one of the most vital components of the human body. The blood carries many functions such as to supply oxygen to the bodies tissues,
remove metabolic waste products, regulate our core temperature as well as fighting infection and foreign bodies (Glover, 1997). The cardiovascular
system is composed of the heart and its vessels. The heart is an involuntary muscle which receives blood to the atrias, which is then pumped via the
ventricles. The vessels are composed of three main types. Arteries, veins and capillaries; all which transport blood throughout the entirety of the body.
The constant action of both the vessels and heart ensure that the body receives a continuous supply of blood, keeping us within our homeostatic limits.
Regular electrical impulses are sent within the conduction system of the heart prompting contraction (Marieb, 2015). These electrical signals can be
identified and documented by the use of an electrocardiography (ECG) machine. In a familiar ECG recording, three waves will occur; The P wave,
QRS complex and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the first part of the practical, we will dissect the heart of a sheep and observe its anatomical structure. We will also examine the structure of blood
vessels at a microscopic level. My hypothesis is that by examining the anatomy of the cardiovascular system, we will be able to detect differences in
both vessels and the chambers of the heart. In the second part of the practical we will examine the electrical activity of the heart. In doing so my aim
will be to produce a familiar ECG reading containing a P wave, QRS complex and T wave. Futhermore, we will take blood pressure readings by
listening to the korotkoff sounds of the heart using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope. We hypothesis that the higher the arm position is from the
ground, the smaller the blood pressure reading will

The Cardiac Cycle Is Vital For Proper Cardiovascular...
Task 1b
The Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is vital for proper cardiovascular system function. The cardiovascular system transports nutrients and waste to and from the cells of
the body – the heart (and subsequently the cardiac cycle) provides the power to this system.
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of steps that are carried out when the heart beats. There are two main phases of the cardiac cycle; the diastolic phase
and the systole phase. The diastole phase causes the heart to fill with blood and the systole phase moves the blood from the heart to the arteries. One
cardiac cycle is completed when the heart fills with blood and then is pumped back out of the heart. The two main phases can be broken down into
four steps.
Key Definitions
Atria: The heart is divided into four chambers that are connected by heart valves, the upper two heart chambers are called atria.
Ventricles: The heart is divided into four chambers that are connected by heart valves, the lower two chambers of the heart are called ventricles.
Atrioventricular valves: a valve between an atrium and ventricle of the heart.
Vena cava: the two largest veins in the body, carry de–oxygenated blood from various regions of the body to the right atrium of the heart.
SA node: The sinoatrial node is a section of nodal tissue located in the upper wall of the right atrium. Sets the rate of contraction for the heart.
Spontaneously contracts and generates nerve impulses that travel throughout the heart wall causing both

How Exercise Affects How The Heart Beats
Four interval times (PR, RT, TP and RR) measured in seconds were recorded both with the subject at rest and after the subject had exercised. The
PR and RT intervals remained virtually unchanged with the PR intervals remaining the same both before and after exercise with an interval time
of 0.15 seconds, and the RT interval increase by 0.01 seconds from 0.37 at rest to 0.38 seconds after exercise. More substantial changes were noted in
TP and RR intervals. The TP interval decreasing from 0.32 seconds at rest to just 0.08 seconds after exercise, a decrease of 0.24 seconds (just 25% of
the resting 0.32 seconds). The RR interval decreased from 0.84 seconds at rest to 0.61 seconds seconds after exercise, a decrease of 0.23 seconds...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I did run into problems as well due the instruction in the "you will now measure four time intervals from the ecg recording." I was confused about
how to perform the procedure so I thought I needed to hit the start button four times which just resulted in a very strange ECG. I later realized
however in order to record the results I had to let it run for a few seconds and then measure the ECG with the black lines and then press the "journal"
icon to record these results.
1. Are any of the time intervals approximately constant?
There were two intervals remained constant between at rest and after exercise, the PR interval and the RT interval (there was a clinically insignificant
0.01 second increase in the RT interval after exercise, however I suspect this was likely due to measurement error error rather than an actual increase).
2. With the exception of the R–R interval, which time interval shows the greatest difference between resting and post– exercise? Explain this
observation.
Two intervals did show a significant shorting post exercise. Besides the RR interval, the other recorded interval which contained a marked shortening
after exercise was the TP interval. To understand why the TP interval is shortened when theheart rate increases and lengthened when the heart rate
slows, one must first understand what the TP interval is. The TP interval, which is the the interval between the end of the

Acute Failure And Chronic Failure
CHF occurs when the heart is no longer able to adequately pump blood causing a decrease in nutrients and oxygen to the body. The term CHF has
widely been replaced by the terms acute failure and chronic failure because not all types of heart failure are accompanied by pulmonary congestion.
However, in this pt's case, she suffered from severe edema and fluid build–up in the lungs due to the failure. CHF is generally precipitated by other
cardiac related conditions including, HTN, CAD, and past MIs, all of which are present in this pt's history (Lewis, Heitkemper, Dirksen, Bucher, &
Camera, 2014). The heart is responsible for moving the body's blood, and is primarily composed of cardiac muscle. Similar to skeletal muscle, the cells
are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This transfer of ions is what generates the electrical impulse of the heart and causes the heart to act as a single unit instead of individual cells (Marieb
& Hoehn, 2013). Cardiac conduction occurs because there are gap junctions for ions to pass through and because of the heart's intrinsic conduction
system, which is composed of non–contractile cardiac cells that are specifically designed to start and distribute electric impulses through the cardiac
cells so that depolarization and contractions are orderly and sequential. The contractile cells sustain stable membrane resting potential when they are
unstimulated, however, the resting potential of the autorhythmic cells, that create the intrinsic conduction system, is unstable and is constantly
depolarizing, which is called pacemaker potentials and initiate the action potential that causes the heart to contract (Marieb & Hoehn, 2013). The pace
maker potential occurs because of the ion channels which causes hyperpolarization at the end of the action potentials. This hyperpolarization causes the
K+ channels to close while simultaneously opening the Na+ channels, which allows an imbalance of K+ and Na+ to occur making the cardiac cells to
become more positive. When the pacemaker potential is reached at around

Cardiac Cycle Research Paper
The cardiac cycle describes the series of events that take place in the heart over the duration of one heart beat
в–ЄIt is comprised of a period of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole)
Systole
в–ЄBlood returning to the heart will freely flow from the atria to the ventricles as the AV valves kept open by the pressure in the atria
в–ЄThe sinoatrial node (pacemaker) receives signals to fire when the ventricles are almost full (~70%)
в–ЄThe contraction of the atria (atrial systole) causes blood to fill the ventricles to the maximum
в–ЄThe signal from the SA node is transferred to the AV node and then via Purkinje fibres to cause the delayed contraction of the ventricles
в–ЄAs the ventricles contract, the increase of pressure in the ventricles closes the AV valves, causing the first... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Diastole
в–ЄThe increased pressure causes the semilunar valves to open and blood to flow away from the heart
в–ЄAs the blood flows into the arteries, the pressure falls in the ventricles
в–ЄThis causes some arterial back flow, which closes the semilunar valves and causes the second heart sound ('dub')
When the pressure in the ventricle drops below the pressure in the atria the AV valves open and the cardiac cycle can repeat
в–ЄThe contraction of the heart tissue (myocardium) is myogenic, meaning the signal for cardial contraction arises within the heart muscle itself
в–ЄWithin the wall of the right atrium are a specialised plexus of nerves called the sinoatrial node (SAN)
в–ЄThe sinoatrial node initiates contraction of the cardiace muscle and acts as a pacemaker, regulating normal sinus rhythm
в–ЄIt stimulates atria to contract and, when excitation reaches the junction between atria and ventricles, stimulates another node (atrioventicular node)
в–ЄThe atrioventricular node (AVN) sends signals via the Bundle of His to Purkinje fibres, which cause ventricular contraction This sequence always
ensures their is a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions, resulting in maximum blood

How Exercise And Different Body Positions Essay
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to become familiar with the electrocardiograph to help us determine the heart electrical activity. As well as, to
observe how exercise and different body positions(conditions) can affect the activity of the heart.
Introduction
Trained professionals can look at the EKG tracing and determine if the heart is normal or if the heart is abnormal. "An ECG records the electrical
activity of the heart. The heart produces tiny electrical impulses which spread through the heart muscle to make the heart contract" (Kenny, 2015).
There are two different types of cells. Autorhythmic (electrical) cell begins electrical activity and triggers contractile fiber, and contractile (myocardial)
generates force to pump blood. With each heartbeat the cardiac system starts with the pacemaker (called the SA node) that conducts electricity. The
electrical current travels from the SA node and signals the atria to contract. Then into the Antrioventucular node, which signals the ventricles.
Eventually, into a bundle of his, left and right bundle branches, and lastly Purkinje fibers. Purkinje fibers then stimulate the contractile fibers. In
addition, the EKG (electrocardiogram) illustrates a series of waves and flat lines (isoelectric) usually seen on computer monitors. Waves represent
electrical activity through the heart and the physical events that take place in the heart, systole (contraction occurs and blood pumps into the arteries)
and diastole (blood

Anatomy And Physiology Of The Heart Study Guide
I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART
I. LOCATION OF THE HEART
The heart is located in the chest between the lungs behind the sternum and above the diaphragm. It is surrounded by the pericardium. Its size is about
that of a fist, and its weight is about 250–300 g. Its center is located about 1.5 cm to the left of the midsagittal plane. Located above the heart are the
great vessels: the superior and inferior vena cava, the pulmonary artery and vein, as well as the aorta. The aortic arch lies behind the heart. The
esophagus and the spine lie further behind the heart.
II. FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART The role of circulation is to: 1. Continuously deliver oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and antibodies to organs, tissues
and cells ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When irritable, heart muscle responds to stimuli with the strongest possible contraction (all–or–nothing law). Irritability is influenced by:
(a)neural,hormonal, and nutritional balance (b)adequacy of oxygen supply (c)drug therapy and (d)products of infection. 3. Refractoriness – this
prevents heart muscle from responding to a new stimulus while the heart is still in a state of contraction due to an earlier stimulus, and thus, helps to
preserve heart rhythm. Irritability is lowest during refractory period. During the absolute refractory period, the heart muscle will not respond to any
stimulus however, strong;during the relative refractory period, the heart muscle slowly regains irritability. 4. Conductivity– ability of heart muscle
fibers to transmit electrical impulses. 5. Contractility – shortening of heart muscle fibers in response to stimuli. 6. Automaticity – ability of heart to beat
spontaneously and repetitively without external neurohormonal control. The heart is capable of beating outside the body, given proper laboratory
conditions. Automaticity is evidently linked to fluid and electrolyte balance rather than to nervous system control. 7. Extensibility (Expansibility) –
ability of heart muscle to stretch as the heart fills with blood between contractions. Starling's Law of Heart states: the greater the stretch of cardiac
muscle, the more forceful are the heart's

1. 1 : Describe The Anatomy Of The Heart
1.Describe the anatomy of the heart. Page 380
The heart is a triangular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a closed fist. It is located between the lungs in the lower part of the mediastinum, behind
and slightly to the left of the sternum. The heart covering – the pericardium consists of two layers of fibrous tissue. The inner layer is the visceral
pericardium and the outer is the parietal pericardium. The inner layer of the pericardium is attached to the heart muscle. The outer layer of the
pericardium surrounds the heart's major blood vessels. A coating of fluid separates the two layers of membrane, letting the heart move as it beats. The
heart has 4 hollow chambers. The upper chambers are called the left and right atria. The lower chambers are called the left and right ventricles. A wall
of muscle called the septum separates the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles. The septum between the atria is called the interatrial
septum and the septum between the ventricles is the interventricular septum. The atria are the receiving chambers because blood entre the heart
through veins that open into these upper cavities. The ventricles are the discharging chambers from which blood is pumper from the heart into the
arteries that exist from the ventricles.
The Heart has four valves that regulate blood flow through your heart. The two valves that separate the atria from the ventricles are the atrioventricular
valves. The valve between the left atrium and

Two Main Coronaries
1.The two main coronary arteries that supply blood to the hart are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery.
The left main coronary artery provides blood to the left part of the heart (e.g. left atrium and left ventricle). In particular, the left main coronary
branches off into the circumflex artery and the left anterior descending artery. If there is occlusion in the circumflex coronary, then there is infarction in
the left atrium and the side and back of the left ventricle. In addition, if there is blockage in the left anterior descending artery, then there is infarction in
the front and bottom of the left ventricle, and the bottom of the sepum.
The right coronary artery supplies blood into the right area of the heart

Deoxygenated Blood
Question 1:
a)The red colour is the oxygenated blood.
The blue colour is the deoxygenated blood.
b)
c)
Structure Function
Right atrium–Collecting the deoxygenated blood from all over the body except the lungs, by superior and inferior venae cavae to be pushed to the
right ventricle in order to be sent to the lungs for gases exchange.
–Has the intrinsic cardiac pacemaker (SA node) which generates the impulse that causes the heart chambers to contract rhythmically.
–Has AV node that causes a delay in impulse transmitting that is important to allow the atrial systole to finish before the ventricles contractions start.
–Has baroreceptors on its walls which monitor blood pressure and send signals to the cardiovascular centre in response ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Left ventricle–Receiving the oxygenated blood from the left atrium during ventricle diastole and atrium systole and pushing it to the rest of the body
through the aorta when the ventricle contracts.
–Has Purkinje fibres within its walls
d)
Structure Roles in terms of blood flow into and out of the heart
Superior vena cava–Deoxygenated blood is collected from the upper part of the body (heads and arms) and flows into the heart (the right atrium) to be
sent to the lungs after being pumped into the right ventricle to get oxygenated.
–Has baroreceptors on its walls.
Aorta–Oxygenated blood flows out of the heart (the left ventricle) to all body parts apart from the lungs in order to send the oxygenated blood to
body's cells.
–Has chemoreceptors on its walls which monitor blood pH and baroreceptors both of which send signals to the cardiovascular centre in response to pH
and pressure changings respectively.
–Has baroreceptors on its walls.
Pulmonary arteryDeoxygenated blood flows out of the heart (the right ventricle) to the lungs for gases

Description Key Terms Of The Movement Of Blood Through The...
Perfusion
Concept Definition: the movement of blood through the body via veins and arteries to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and
waste.
Concept Key Terms: Acute coronary syndrome: obstructive thrombus formed in the coronary artery by the rupturing of an artheromateus plague
Afterload: the amount of resistance to the flow of blood out of the ventricles
Apical impulse (pulse): the pulse measured with stethoscope at 5th intercostal space mid line with the clavicle
Artherosclerosis: plaque build up in the lining of arteries
Atrioventricular (AV) node: the area of theheart conduction system responsible for receiving impulses from the SA node via intermodal pathways and
stimulate the ventricles to contract
Baroreceptors: nerve fibers that help control blood pressure and located in the aortic arch and carotid arteries
Brachial (pulse): peripheral site at brachial artery in the anticubutal area
Cardiac conduction system: the heart generated electrical signals that create an electrical action potential.
Cardiac output: volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle(ltr/min)
Cardiac stress test: test where exercise or medication is used to increase the oxygen demand of the body to analyze the function of the heart
Carotid (pulse): artery located on the neck on each side of the trachea
Compliance: for each unit of pressure the amount of blood that is in any given area of circulation
Contractility: the heart muscles ability to

Describe The Difference Between Atria And Ventricles
The atria and ventricles are relaxing. The atria are filling with blood from the veins and the ventricles just completed a contraction. The ventricles relax
and the right AV valves open. When the heart rate increases atrial systole begins, which causes a contraction that pushes blood into the ventricles. The
atria is contracting causing the depolarization wave to move through the cells of the AV node then down the Purkinje fibers to the apex of theheart.
Ventricular systole begins as the muscle squeezes theblood toward the base. The blood being pushed along the AV valves cause them to close. This
causes a vibration of the AV valve and creates the first heart sound S1. S1 is the lub sound heard when the AV valves close. This indicates

Elevated Blood Pressure
Blood pressure readings are noted in two separate areas, the systolic and diastole. The systole (top number) is the pressure within the arteries when
the heart is contracting and pushing the blood forward. When a blood pressure is above the normal range this is notation that the heart is having to
work harder to pump the blood properly within the system. The diastole (bottom number) is the pressure within the arteries when the heart is
relaxed. A normal blood pressure reading is 120/80, 139/89 is pre hypertensive and 140/90 and higher is labeled as hypertensive. Elevated blood
pressures can be divided into two separate categories, this is primary and secondary hypertension (HTN) (Egan & Zhao, 2013). Primary Hypertension,
also known as essential hypertension is a type of elevated blood pressure in which there is no identifiable cause. It is noted to be a complex interplay,
including; ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many symptoms are noted only when the blood pressure is extremely elevated at a dangerous and/or life threatening level. The symptoms that can be
associated with extreme HTN are severe headaches, vision problems, fatigue, chest pain, irregular heartbeat, blood in urine, and /or pounding in chest,
neck or ears. Also to be noted, when persons has high blood pressure that is accompanied with the following signs may be evidence of secondary
hypertension (Egan, 2015). Such as:
Elevated blood pressure (resistant hypertension) that does not respond to medications.
Uncontrolled elevated blood pressure with medications in which at one were beneficial by keeping the blood pressured within normal limits.
Extremely persistent elevated blood pressures; systolic over 180 mmHg and/or a diastole over 120 mmHg.
Sudden onset of elevated blood pressure before the age of 30 or following the age of 55.
No obesity
No family history with

The Heart Lab Report
In this lab, the students observed the rate and rhythm and how it fluctuates when an individual is relaxed, in a seated position, and after exercising. The
Heart is a hollow muscular organ that is cone shaped and it is located in the mediastinum in between the lungs (The Heart, Slide 3 2016). The heart is
separated into two main divisions, the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit helps carry blood to the lungs from the heart
for gas exchange and it is located in the right side of the heart. In the pulmonary circuit the heart fills with blood in the right atrium then it passes
through the right atrioventricular valve which then leads to the right ventricle. Once it is in the right ventricle, the right ventricle contracts which opens
the pulmonary valves. After this blood flows from the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary trunk which then distributes it into the right and left
pulmonary arteries that supply the lungs where it deposits oxygenated blood. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the systemic circuit blood returns from the lungs into the left atrium. Once in the left atrium blood flows though the left atrioventricular valve into
the left ventricle. The left ventricle then contracts and the aortic valve opens because of the contraction. Blood then flows through he aortic valve into
the ascending aorta and then once in the aorta it is then sent to every organ in the body where it excretes oxygen and intakes carbon dioxide. Finally,
the carbon dioxide rich blood returns itself to the heart for the process to reoccur again. Both circuits must always maintain circulation so that blood can
be constantly disbursed throughout the body (The Heart, Slide 11

The Heart Summary : The Anatomy Of The Heart
Anatomy of the heart
Name: Rita Attah
Tutor:Mark Drummond
College:North Herts College
Introduction
The heart
The heart is a muscular organ found in the thoracic cavity between the lungs. The heart is protected by the rib cage. It is also surrounded by a
membrane called the pericardium. This membrane consists of a thin film of fluid to prevent the heart from friction. The heart consists of double pumps.
Each pump is made of two chambers. The upper muscular chamber is known as atrium and the lower chamber is called ventricle. The heart also
consists of blood vessels known as aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk and pulmonary veins. (Taylor, 2017)
Blood is a liquid connective tissue, that transports substances through the body. It also helps main homeostasis of nutrient, gases and waste. Blood
consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. A human body contains average of four to five litres of blood. (Taylor, 2017)
Blood vessels can be referred as the body's highway as they allow blood to flow through them effectively and quickly from the heart to every part of
the body. Every blood vessel has a hollow area known as lumen in which blood flows. (Taylor, 2017)
There are three major types of blood vessels called vein, capillary and arteries. o Arteries and Arterioles carry away oxygenated blood away from the
lungs to the body tissues. They also carry away deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated. (Taylor, 2017)
Arteries

Semilunar Valves
After atrioventricular valves closure, the pressure in the ventricles continues grows rapidly. Diastolic pressure in aorta is several times higher than in
left atrium. The pressure in pulmonary artery is also higher than in right atrium. That is why between the closure of atrioventricular valves and opening
of semilunar (aorta and pulmonary artery) some time passes, a moment, when pressure in the ventricles rapidly grows, but without expulsion and
ventricles capacity does not change. Duration of this phase is comparable to the T1 duration. Semilunar valves open at the end of this phase. In some
situations, the opening of pathologically changed valves of aorta and pulmonary artery goes along with audible expulsion tone (TO).
After semilunar valves opening, blood flows into aorta and pulmonary artery. Normally, this is the fastest bloodstream during the whole cardiac cycle.
For healthy people it may go along with a soft noise, which is audible in the middle of the systole, and often slightly shifted to T1. Just like pressure
gradient, the volume of this noise grows at first, and then decreases. This is often normal. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When it gets lower, than in aorta and pulmonary artery, the semilunar valves close, which goes along with audible second tone (T2). Important:
ventricle systoles are not synchronous. They may start and end not simultaneously. Usually it happens like that, moreover, breathing affects the
duration of ventricle systoles that is why it varies in time. When ventricle systoles do not end simultaneously, T2 splits into aortal and pulmonary
components, each one which caused by the closure of corresponding valve. Second tone components accurately mark the systolic ending time of a
corresponding

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