This document contains the table of contents and sections from Chapter 7 of a chemistry textbook. Section 7.1 discusses electromagnetic radiation and its characteristics as waves. Section 7.2 covers early discoveries about the nature of matter including Planck's postulate, Einstein's photon theory, and de Broglie's equation showing that matter has wave-like properties. Section 7.3 examines the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, which emits light in discrete wavelengths.
This document outlines objectives and content for a chapter on atomic structure and periodicity. It covers electromagnetic radiation, the quantum mechanical model of the atom, atomic orbitals and quantum numbers, electron configuration and trends in the periodic table. Key topics include the dual particle-wave nature of light and electrons, quantization of energy levels, the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, shapes of atomic orbitals, and building up the periodic table using the Aufbau principle.
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It covers topics including the atomic structure, quantities and units used in physics, production of bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays, photon interactions such as the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering, beam attenuation, and the principles of radiological image formation. The interaction of radiation depends on factors like the photon energy and atomic number of the absorbing material. Different interaction mechanisms dominate based on these factors and contribute to image contrast in medical imaging.
New chm-151-unit-4-power-points-140227172225-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides information about quantum theory and atomic structure. It begins with goals and objectives for understanding concepts like the wave nature of light and quantum numbers. It then discusses electromagnetic radiation, Planck's quantization of energy, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, and the Schrodinger wave equation. It introduces quantum numbers like principal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers. It provides examples of determining orbital names and properties from quantum numbers. The key ideas are that energy and matter can behave as both particles and waves, and quantum theory was developed to explain atomic structure and spectra.
This document provides an overview of quantum theory and atomic structure. It discusses key topics such as the wave-particle duality of light and matter, Planck's quantization of energy, atomic spectra, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, and the Schrödinger equation. Figures and sample problems illustrate these concepts and how to determine quantum numbers and name atomic sublevels.
This document summarizes key concepts from chapters on atomic structure and quantum mechanics. It describes electromagnetic radiation and its wave-particle duality. Matter is found to have both particle and wave properties. The atomic spectrum of hydrogen is explained by Bohr's model of discrete electron energy levels. Later, the quantum mechanical model using Schrodinger's equation provides a more accurate description by defining atomic orbitals using quantum numbers. Orbital shapes, energies, and electron configurations are also summarized.
Younes Sina's presentation on Nuclear reaction analysisYounes Sina
This document discusses nuclear reaction analysis (NRA), a technique used for light element depth profiling. NRA works by detecting reaction products from nuclear reactions between an ion beam and sample nuclei. The document covers the basic principles of NRA, including electronic and nuclear stopping, elastic and inelastic collisions. It also discusses various nuclear reactions used in NRA, experimental setup, data analysis methods, applications including depth profiling and limitations.
The document discusses the Compton effect, which describes the scattering of photons by charged particles like electrons. It provides the mathematical description using conservation of energy and momentum. The Compton effect leads to a shift in the wavelength of scattered photons. Practical applications of the Compton effect include Compton scatter densitometry to measure electron density, Compton scatter imaging for 3D electron density mapping, and Compton profile analysis to characterize materials.
Study of Radiation Interaction Mechanisms of Different Nuclear DetectorsIJAEMSJORNAL
In this paper, an attempt has been made to describe the radiation interaction mechanisms of nuclear detectors. There are lots of radioactive detectors available in the field of radiation detection and measurements instruments/systems such as Geguier Muller (GM) Tube, Scintillation Counter, High Purity Germanium (HPGe) and so on. Each of these detectors have different and distinct radiation interaction mechanisms and detecting principle for processing each type of radiation measurement (qualititative and quantitative).The interaction mechanisms of these detectors are governed by generation of ions (positive and negative) in case of GM tube; the photo-electric effect, Compton scattering and pair production for Scintillation detector and HPGe along with diode principle. The special feature of this diode is a constant current generator depending on the energy of the photon deposition in the detector. The characteristics of these interaction mechanisms have been presented along with intensity of measurements, efficiency and detector resolution (FWHM).
This document outlines objectives and content for a chapter on atomic structure and periodicity. It covers electromagnetic radiation, the quantum mechanical model of the atom, atomic orbitals and quantum numbers, electron configuration and trends in the periodic table. Key topics include the dual particle-wave nature of light and electrons, quantization of energy levels, the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, shapes of atomic orbitals, and building up the periodic table using the Aufbau principle.
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It covers topics including the atomic structure, quantities and units used in physics, production of bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays, photon interactions such as the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering, beam attenuation, and the principles of radiological image formation. The interaction of radiation depends on factors like the photon energy and atomic number of the absorbing material. Different interaction mechanisms dominate based on these factors and contribute to image contrast in medical imaging.
New chm-151-unit-4-power-points-140227172225-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides information about quantum theory and atomic structure. It begins with goals and objectives for understanding concepts like the wave nature of light and quantum numbers. It then discusses electromagnetic radiation, Planck's quantization of energy, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, and the Schrodinger wave equation. It introduces quantum numbers like principal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers. It provides examples of determining orbital names and properties from quantum numbers. The key ideas are that energy and matter can behave as both particles and waves, and quantum theory was developed to explain atomic structure and spectra.
This document provides an overview of quantum theory and atomic structure. It discusses key topics such as the wave-particle duality of light and matter, Planck's quantization of energy, atomic spectra, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, and the Schrödinger equation. Figures and sample problems illustrate these concepts and how to determine quantum numbers and name atomic sublevels.
This document summarizes key concepts from chapters on atomic structure and quantum mechanics. It describes electromagnetic radiation and its wave-particle duality. Matter is found to have both particle and wave properties. The atomic spectrum of hydrogen is explained by Bohr's model of discrete electron energy levels. Later, the quantum mechanical model using Schrodinger's equation provides a more accurate description by defining atomic orbitals using quantum numbers. Orbital shapes, energies, and electron configurations are also summarized.
Younes Sina's presentation on Nuclear reaction analysisYounes Sina
This document discusses nuclear reaction analysis (NRA), a technique used for light element depth profiling. NRA works by detecting reaction products from nuclear reactions between an ion beam and sample nuclei. The document covers the basic principles of NRA, including electronic and nuclear stopping, elastic and inelastic collisions. It also discusses various nuclear reactions used in NRA, experimental setup, data analysis methods, applications including depth profiling and limitations.
The document discusses the Compton effect, which describes the scattering of photons by charged particles like electrons. It provides the mathematical description using conservation of energy and momentum. The Compton effect leads to a shift in the wavelength of scattered photons. Practical applications of the Compton effect include Compton scatter densitometry to measure electron density, Compton scatter imaging for 3D electron density mapping, and Compton profile analysis to characterize materials.
Study of Radiation Interaction Mechanisms of Different Nuclear DetectorsIJAEMSJORNAL
In this paper, an attempt has been made to describe the radiation interaction mechanisms of nuclear detectors. There are lots of radioactive detectors available in the field of radiation detection and measurements instruments/systems such as Geguier Muller (GM) Tube, Scintillation Counter, High Purity Germanium (HPGe) and so on. Each of these detectors have different and distinct radiation interaction mechanisms and detecting principle for processing each type of radiation measurement (qualititative and quantitative).The interaction mechanisms of these detectors are governed by generation of ions (positive and negative) in case of GM tube; the photo-electric effect, Compton scattering and pair production for Scintillation detector and HPGe along with diode principle. The special feature of this diode is a constant current generator depending on the energy of the photon deposition in the detector. The characteristics of these interaction mechanisms have been presented along with intensity of measurements, efficiency and detector resolution (FWHM).
This document provides information about quantum theory and atomic structure:
- It introduces the wave nature of light and electromagnetic radiation, including frequency, wavelength, and speed of light.
- Models of the atom are discussed, from the Bohr model to the quantum mechanical model using the Schrodinger wave equation.
- Key concepts in quantum theory are explained, such as quantization of energy, photons, wave-particle duality, and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
- Atomic orbitals are described using quantum numbers such as principal, angular momentum, and magnetic, and how these relate to electron configuration.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating determines a sample's age by measuring its remaining radioactive carbon-14.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
Response of Polycrystalline Solar Cell Outputs to Visible Spectrum and other ...IJECEIAES
In this case study, two polycrystalline solar modules were installed outdoors (irradiated by sunlight) and indoors (irradiated by artificial lights). The solar cells in both cases were installed using different color filters that allowed the passage of certain light frequencies. The amount of energy produced by each module were measured and compared to a reference module with no filter. The results indicated the variable response of polycrystalline solar cells to natural and artificial light sources, being more responsive in both cases to red band color as could be deduced from their % current outputs (72.5% sunlight radiation; 84.38% artificial light sources). Other colors, including yellow, green, orange and violet afforded acceptable outputs. The results indicated that electrical outputs of indoor solar cells decreased when colored filters were used, but red filter in general afforded the maximum outputs, for both the artificially radiated indoor and naturally radiated outdoor solar cells. The case study suggests the possible complementary advantage of using indoor mounted solar cells for the production of electricity during artificial illumination period of the day.
Electrons fill orbitals according to the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule:
- Aufbau principle states that electrons fill orbitals of the lowest energy first before occupying higher energy orbitals.
- Hund's rule states that in degenerate orbitals (same energy), electrons occupy orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing.
So the ground state electron configuration is the lowest energy arrangement according to these principles.
This document discusses x-rays and their production and properties. It describes how x-rays are generated using a Coolidge tube by accelerating electrons into a metal target. This produces both a spectrum of x-ray wavelengths via bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-ray lines. Units used to measure x-ray properties like intensity and absorption are defined. The document also discusses how x-ray absorption depends on the electron density and thickness of absorbers, allowing their use in medical diagnosis.
The document describes an experiment to demonstrate the wave-particle duality of electrons. Electrons are fired at a graphite crystal, causing diffraction that can be observed on a screen. By varying the acceleration voltage and measuring the diameters of diffraction rings, the wavelength of the electrons is calculated using Bragg's law. A graph of diameter versus wavelength shows a direct relationship, supporting the concept of electrons behaving as waves. The experiment thus achieves the aims of finding the electron wavelength and measuring interlayer spacing in the graphite crystal.
[1] Photoelectric effect provides evidence that light behaves as particles called photons, with each photon having energy hν. This explains the threshold frequency and instantaneous emission.
[2] Compton scattering demonstrates that photons transfer discrete packets of energy and momentum to electrons during collisions, with the photon's wavelength increasing in accordance with conservation laws. This provided direct evidence that photons are real particles.
[3] Pair production demonstrates that a photon's energy can be converted into an electron-positron pair, as predicted by Einstein's equation E=mc2. A minimum photon energy of 1.02 MeV is required to produce the pairs.
This document discusses key concepts in quantum physics, including:
1. Planck's law resolved the ultraviolet catastrophe by quantizing electromagnetic radiation into discrete energy packets called photons. From fitting Planck's law to experimental data, Planck's constant h was derived.
2. Einstein's interpretation of the photoelectric effect explained experimental results by proposing light behaves as discrete photons with energy E=hf, rather than as a wave.
3. The Compton effect demonstrated light scattering off electrons, supported by photon momentum and verifying light has particle properties.
4. De Broglie's hypothesis established all matter has an associated wavelength, verifying particles exhibit wave-particle duality like light.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
The document discusses various types of ionizing radiation, their properties and interactions with matter. It describes the dual wave-particle nature of radiation and defines key terms like half-value layer, linear attenuation coefficient, and interaction mechanisms including the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and bremsstrahlung. It also covers particulate radiations like electrons and neutrons, and their penetration and energy deposition in tissues.
Optical Absoprtion of Thin Film SemiconductorsEnrico Castro
This document analyzes the optical properties of several thin film semiconductors. It characterizes the transmittance, reflectance, and absorption of CdS films deposited at different times, as well as Sb-S-Se films deposited at different temperatures. Key results include the absorption coefficient, transmission and reflection percentages in different wavelength regions, and estimates of photon flux and potential short circuit current density for each film based on their bandgaps. Optical properties were measured using UV-VIS spectroscopy to understand how effectively the materials could absorb light.
The document discusses various types of ionizing radiation and their interactions with matter. It describes electromagnetic radiation as composed of photons that can interact via photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and other processes. Compton scattering results in energy transfer between photons and recoil electrons. The probability of interaction depends on photon energy and material properties like atomic number. Higher energy photons have a greater chance of depositing energy through secondary electrons.
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It describes the various types of interactions including photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production and their dependence on photon energy. It also discusses the linear attenuation coefficient, half value layer, mass attenuation coefficient and energy absorption coefficient. The different effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation are summarized along with the radiobiological implications of radiation interactions.
This document provides an overview of nuclear medicine and radiotherapy. It discusses radioactive decay, interactions of ionizing radiation with matter, and biological effects of ionizing radiation. Key methods covered include radioimmunoassay, imaging techniques like PET and SPECT, and external beam radiotherapy. The document also explains the laws of radioactive decay and concepts such as physical half-life and effective half-life.
The document defines and explains various quantities and units used in radiation dosimetry, including:
- Particle fluence, energy fluence, and related rates, which describe radiation beams.
- Kerma and cema, which quantify energy transferred from indirect and direct radiation.
- Absorbed dose, which measures energy imparted to matter.
- Stopping power, which expresses the rate of energy loss by charged particles through interactions. Both unrestricted and restricted stopping powers are discussed.
Implantation is a process used to dope semiconductors with impurities by accelerating ions into a solid target material. Ion implantation is advantageous over diffusion due to having no saturation limit. SRIM and TRIM software can be used to simulate ion implantation and predict values like ion range and damage. The thermal spike model describes how the energetic collisions from an ion create a brief high temperature region along its path, resulting in defect formation as the energy diffuses away. Observations from SRIM/TRIM include predicting the ion range, damage events within the target, and energy loss mechanisms during implantation.
This document is a thesis submitted by Liam A. Young to the Pennsylvania State University for a baccalaureate degree in Engineering Science. The thesis investigates defects in cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cell samples using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. EPR spectroscopy is used to detect electron spin resonances in the samples, which can provide information about defects. The thesis will examine CdTe samples at temperatures of 300K, 80K, 50K, and 5K using an EPR spectrometer to analyze defects. The lower temperatures are expected to increase signal strength and reveal more defining features of any defects present.
breakfast importance in the health sectorJaved Iqbal
The document discusses healthy breakfast options for children. It recommends that breakfast include starchy carbohydrates like wholegrains for energy, at least one portion of fruit or vegetables for nutrients, and optionally a source of protein or dairy. Unhealthy options to limit include those high in sugar, salt, and saturated fat like pastries. A healthy breakfast provides nutrients and fiber to help children feel full and perform well throughout the morning. The document provides examples of balanced breakfasts and encourages including foods from the different food groups per nutrition guidelines.
This document provides information about quantum theory and atomic structure:
- It introduces the wave nature of light and electromagnetic radiation, including frequency, wavelength, and speed of light.
- Models of the atom are discussed, from the Bohr model to the quantum mechanical model using the Schrodinger wave equation.
- Key concepts in quantum theory are explained, such as quantization of energy, photons, wave-particle duality, and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
- Atomic orbitals are described using quantum numbers such as principal, angular momentum, and magnetic, and how these relate to electron configuration.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating determines a sample's age by measuring its remaining radioactive carbon-14.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
Response of Polycrystalline Solar Cell Outputs to Visible Spectrum and other ...IJECEIAES
In this case study, two polycrystalline solar modules were installed outdoors (irradiated by sunlight) and indoors (irradiated by artificial lights). The solar cells in both cases were installed using different color filters that allowed the passage of certain light frequencies. The amount of energy produced by each module were measured and compared to a reference module with no filter. The results indicated the variable response of polycrystalline solar cells to natural and artificial light sources, being more responsive in both cases to red band color as could be deduced from their % current outputs (72.5% sunlight radiation; 84.38% artificial light sources). Other colors, including yellow, green, orange and violet afforded acceptable outputs. The results indicated that electrical outputs of indoor solar cells decreased when colored filters were used, but red filter in general afforded the maximum outputs, for both the artificially radiated indoor and naturally radiated outdoor solar cells. The case study suggests the possible complementary advantage of using indoor mounted solar cells for the production of electricity during artificial illumination period of the day.
Electrons fill orbitals according to the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule:
- Aufbau principle states that electrons fill orbitals of the lowest energy first before occupying higher energy orbitals.
- Hund's rule states that in degenerate orbitals (same energy), electrons occupy orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing.
So the ground state electron configuration is the lowest energy arrangement according to these principles.
This document discusses x-rays and their production and properties. It describes how x-rays are generated using a Coolidge tube by accelerating electrons into a metal target. This produces both a spectrum of x-ray wavelengths via bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-ray lines. Units used to measure x-ray properties like intensity and absorption are defined. The document also discusses how x-ray absorption depends on the electron density and thickness of absorbers, allowing their use in medical diagnosis.
The document describes an experiment to demonstrate the wave-particle duality of electrons. Electrons are fired at a graphite crystal, causing diffraction that can be observed on a screen. By varying the acceleration voltage and measuring the diameters of diffraction rings, the wavelength of the electrons is calculated using Bragg's law. A graph of diameter versus wavelength shows a direct relationship, supporting the concept of electrons behaving as waves. The experiment thus achieves the aims of finding the electron wavelength and measuring interlayer spacing in the graphite crystal.
[1] Photoelectric effect provides evidence that light behaves as particles called photons, with each photon having energy hν. This explains the threshold frequency and instantaneous emission.
[2] Compton scattering demonstrates that photons transfer discrete packets of energy and momentum to electrons during collisions, with the photon's wavelength increasing in accordance with conservation laws. This provided direct evidence that photons are real particles.
[3] Pair production demonstrates that a photon's energy can be converted into an electron-positron pair, as predicted by Einstein's equation E=mc2. A minimum photon energy of 1.02 MeV is required to produce the pairs.
This document discusses key concepts in quantum physics, including:
1. Planck's law resolved the ultraviolet catastrophe by quantizing electromagnetic radiation into discrete energy packets called photons. From fitting Planck's law to experimental data, Planck's constant h was derived.
2. Einstein's interpretation of the photoelectric effect explained experimental results by proposing light behaves as discrete photons with energy E=hf, rather than as a wave.
3. The Compton effect demonstrated light scattering off electrons, supported by photon momentum and verifying light has particle properties.
4. De Broglie's hypothesis established all matter has an associated wavelength, verifying particles exhibit wave-particle duality like light.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
The document discusses various types of ionizing radiation, their properties and interactions with matter. It describes the dual wave-particle nature of radiation and defines key terms like half-value layer, linear attenuation coefficient, and interaction mechanisms including the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and bremsstrahlung. It also covers particulate radiations like electrons and neutrons, and their penetration and energy deposition in tissues.
Optical Absoprtion of Thin Film SemiconductorsEnrico Castro
This document analyzes the optical properties of several thin film semiconductors. It characterizes the transmittance, reflectance, and absorption of CdS films deposited at different times, as well as Sb-S-Se films deposited at different temperatures. Key results include the absorption coefficient, transmission and reflection percentages in different wavelength regions, and estimates of photon flux and potential short circuit current density for each film based on their bandgaps. Optical properties were measured using UV-VIS spectroscopy to understand how effectively the materials could absorb light.
The document discusses various types of ionizing radiation and their interactions with matter. It describes electromagnetic radiation as composed of photons that can interact via photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and other processes. Compton scattering results in energy transfer between photons and recoil electrons. The probability of interaction depends on photon energy and material properties like atomic number. Higher energy photons have a greater chance of depositing energy through secondary electrons.
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It describes the various types of interactions including photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production and their dependence on photon energy. It also discusses the linear attenuation coefficient, half value layer, mass attenuation coefficient and energy absorption coefficient. The different effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation are summarized along with the radiobiological implications of radiation interactions.
This document provides an overview of nuclear medicine and radiotherapy. It discusses radioactive decay, interactions of ionizing radiation with matter, and biological effects of ionizing radiation. Key methods covered include radioimmunoassay, imaging techniques like PET and SPECT, and external beam radiotherapy. The document also explains the laws of radioactive decay and concepts such as physical half-life and effective half-life.
The document defines and explains various quantities and units used in radiation dosimetry, including:
- Particle fluence, energy fluence, and related rates, which describe radiation beams.
- Kerma and cema, which quantify energy transferred from indirect and direct radiation.
- Absorbed dose, which measures energy imparted to matter.
- Stopping power, which expresses the rate of energy loss by charged particles through interactions. Both unrestricted and restricted stopping powers are discussed.
Implantation is a process used to dope semiconductors with impurities by accelerating ions into a solid target material. Ion implantation is advantageous over diffusion due to having no saturation limit. SRIM and TRIM software can be used to simulate ion implantation and predict values like ion range and damage. The thermal spike model describes how the energetic collisions from an ion create a brief high temperature region along its path, resulting in defect formation as the energy diffuses away. Observations from SRIM/TRIM include predicting the ion range, damage events within the target, and energy loss mechanisms during implantation.
This document is a thesis submitted by Liam A. Young to the Pennsylvania State University for a baccalaureate degree in Engineering Science. The thesis investigates defects in cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cell samples using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. EPR spectroscopy is used to detect electron spin resonances in the samples, which can provide information about defects. The thesis will examine CdTe samples at temperatures of 300K, 80K, 50K, and 5K using an EPR spectrometer to analyze defects. The lower temperatures are expected to increase signal strength and reveal more defining features of any defects present.
breakfast importance in the health sectorJaved Iqbal
The document discusses healthy breakfast options for children. It recommends that breakfast include starchy carbohydrates like wholegrains for energy, at least one portion of fruit or vegetables for nutrients, and optionally a source of protein or dairy. Unhealthy options to limit include those high in sugar, salt, and saturated fat like pastries. A healthy breakfast provides nutrients and fiber to help children feel full and perform well throughout the morning. The document provides examples of balanced breakfasts and encourages including foods from the different food groups per nutrition guidelines.
Introduction to Computational chemistry-Javed Iqbal
Computational chemistry uses theoretical chemistry calculations incorporated into computer programs to calculate molecular structure and properties. It can calculate properties such as structure, energy, charge distribution, and spectroscopic quantities using methods ranging from highly accurate ab initio methods to less accurate semi-empirical and molecular mechanics methods. Computational chemistry allows medicinal chemists to use computer power to study molecular geometry, electron density, conformations, and energies.
The document provides an introduction to computational chemistry methods, including ab initio, semi-empirical, and density functional theory approaches. It outlines the central theme of relating molecular structure, dynamics, and function through computational modeling. Example applications include modeling small molecules, proteins, crystals and surfaces across various scales from quantum to molecular mechanical methods. Hands-on exercises are included to provide experience with computational chemistry techniques.
This document discusses heterocyclic compounds, which are cyclic compounds containing at least one element other than carbon in the ring. It provides examples of common 5-membered heterocycles containing one heteroatom like furan and thiophene, and azoles containing two heteroatoms like imidazole. It also discusses 6-membered heterocycles containing one heteroatom like pyridine, and those containing two heteroatoms. Condensed heterocycles are also mentioned. Hückel's rule for aromaticity of heterocycles based on the number of conjugate pi electrons is outlined. The properties of pyridine nitrogen which makes it basic, and pyrrole nitrogen which makes it acidic are described. Imid
This document discusses heterocyclic compounds, which are cyclic compounds containing elements other than carbon in the ring. It provides examples of 5-membered heterocycles containing one heteroatom like furan and thiophene, and azoles containing two heteroatoms like imidazole. 6-membered heterocycles discussed include pyridine and condensed heterocycles like indole and quinoline. Hückel's rule for aromaticity of heterocycles based on the number of conjugate pi electrons is also mentioned. The document contrasts the properties of pyridine nitrogen, which makes pyridine basic, and pyrrole nitrogen, which gives pyrrole slightly acidic properties. Imidazole and pyraz
Introduction to organic spectroscopy BasicJaved Iqbal
Spectroscopy involves measuring the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths by a substance. There are several techniques of spectroscopy defined by the wavelength region studied, including UV-Vis, IR, NMR, and mass spectrometry. Each technique provides information about different molecular properties based on quantized absorption levels. Spectroscopy instruments consist of a radiation source, monochromator to select wavelengths, a sample cell, detector, and readout device.
This document discusses several 5-membered heterocyclic compounds: furan, thiophene, pyrrole, imidazole, and indole. It outlines common strategies for synthesizing heterocycles, including ring closure methods, the "4+1" and "5+1" strategies, and manipulation of oxidation states. Electrophilic aromatic substitution is discussed as a major reaction type for these compounds, with reactivity generally following the order pyrrole > furan > thiophene > benzene. Oxidation and reduction reactions are also covered.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure and early models of the atom. It discusses early theories proposed by thinkers like Dalton, Thomson, and Rutherford. Key developments include Dalton's atomic theory, the discovery of the electron by Thomson, Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom based on his gold foil experiment, and modern concepts of atomic structure including the nucleus, protons, neutrons, and isotopes. The document also reviews fundamental chemical laws like conservation of mass and definite proportions.
This document contains abbreviations for various materials characterization techniques. It lists XRD and FTIR which are techniques to analyze crystal structure and chemical bonds. It also lists SEM-1 and SEM-2 which are likely references to scanning electron microscopy images of two different samples.
Diazines are heterocyclic compounds derived from benzene by replacing two CH groups with two nitrogen atoms. This can occur through three isomers - 1,2; 1,3; or 1,4-diazine. Pyrimidine is a 1,4-diazine where the nitrogen atoms are located at the 1 and 4 positions. Pyrimidine is aromatic in nature and its nitrogen lone pairs are not involved in resonance. It is a weaker base than pyridine due to electron withdrawing effects. Pyrimidine rings are found in nucleic acids and vitamin B1 and undergo reactions at the nitrogen and carbon positions through electrophilic addition, substitution, and nucleophilic substitution.
Thiazole is a heterocyclic organic compound containing sulfur and nitrogen atoms in a five-member ring. It is used as an intermediate in synthetic drugs, fungicides, and dyes. Derivatives of thiazole are the subject of research due to their importance in applications such as agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides. Thiazole rings are planar and aromatic, and various methods can be used to synthesize thiazole derivatives, including the Gabriel synthesis, Hantzsch thiazole synthesis from alpha-hydroxy carbonyl compounds, and from thiocyanate salts.
The document discusses indole, an aromatic heterocyclic compound consisting of a benzene ring fused to a pyrrole ring. It notes that indole and its substituted derivatives have diverse biological activities and are found in natural products and pharmaceuticals. Some key points made in the document include:
- Indole derivatives are used in many drug classes including antihypertensives, antidepressants, antipsychotics, NSAIDs, and more.
- Several total syntheses of complex indole natural products are described, utilizing reactions like intermolecular indole aryne cycloaddition.
- Methods for synthesizing substituted indoles are reviewed, such as the Fischer indole synthesis, Zn(OTf)2
The document discusses the size effects of nanoparticles including their physical properties, shapes, and applications. It states that nanoparticles less than 100 nm exhibit size-dependent properties not seen in bulk materials, such as higher strength. The properties of nanoparticles can change with temperature and pressure due to changes in crystal structure. Their large surface area to volume ratio gives nanoparticles additional properties like improved catalytic activity.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 6 on thermochemistry. It defines energy and different types of energy like potential and kinetic energy. It discusses how energy can be transferred through work and heat. Enthalpy, calorimetry, and Hess's law which are important concepts in thermochemistry are also introduced. The document provides examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions and how they relate to changes in a system's internal energy. It derives the equation used to calculate work done by or on a gas during expansion or compression.
This document discusses units of measurement and significant figures in chemistry. It introduces the International System of Units (SI) as the standard system used in chemistry. The fundamental SI units for common measurements like length, mass, time and temperature are defined. The document explains the difference between accuracy and precision in measurements and discusses the impact of significant figures. Types of measurement errors like random and systematic errors are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of stoichiometry and the mole concept in chemistry. It discusses how counting by weighing can be used to determine the number of atoms in a sample based on its mass. The modern system of atomic masses uses carbon-12 as the standard, and mass spectrometry helps determine atomic masses accurately. Average atomic masses account for natural abundances of isotopes. The mole is defined as the amount of a substance with the same number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12, and it allows direct conversion between mass and number of particles. Sample calculations are provided to demonstrate determining numbers of moles, atoms and masses in chemical problems.
This document provides information about CHEMY 323, a spectroscopy course offered at the University of Bahrain in 2023-2024. It will be held on Mondays and Wednesdays from 8:00-9:15 am in building S41-0031. The instructor is Dr. Javed Iqbal, whose office is located in S41-1035 and can be reached by mobile phone or email. The document defines spectroscopy and the electromagnetic spectrum, and describes several spectroscopic techniques including UV-Vis, IR, NMR, mass spectrometry, and elemental analysis that can be used to obtain information about substances.
This document discusses several 5-membered heterocyclic compounds including furan, thiophene, and pyrrole. It outlines their general structures, with one carbon atom replaced by an oxygen in furan, sulfur in thiophene, and nitrogen in pyrrole. Several common methods for synthesizing these heterocycles are also presented, such as the Paal-Knorr reaction involving cyclization of 1,4-diketones or analogous compounds. The document concludes by comparing the reactivity of these heterocycles towards electrophilic aromatic substitution and other reaction types.
Chapter 3 Organic compounds alkanes and their stereochemistry.pptxJaved Iqbal
This chapter discusses organic compounds including alkanes, their isomers, and conformations. It defines functional groups and covers topics such as naming alkanes using IUPAC rules. Alkanes can exist as straight-chain or branched-chain isomers. The conformations of alkanes like ethane involve staggered and eclipsed arrangements that determine their relative stability due to torsional strain.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
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Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.