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1. Cleaning Products and Air Fresheners: Emissions and Resulting
Concentrations of Glycol Ethers and Terpenoids
Indoor Air Volume 16 Issue 3 Page 179-191, June 2006
B. C.Singer, H.Destaillats, A. T.Hodgson, W. W.Nazaroff,
Atmospheric Sciences and Indoor Environment Department, Environmental Energy Technologies Division,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Abstract:
Experiments were conducted to quantify emissions and concentrations of glycol ethers and terpenoids from
cleaning product and air freshener use in a 50-m3 room ventilated at approximately 0.5/h. Five cleaning
products were applied full-strength (FS); three were additionally used in dilute solution. FS application of
pine-oil cleaner (POC) yielded 1-h concentrations of 10–1300g/m3 for individual terpenoids, including
terpinene (90–120), d-limonene (1000–1100), terpinolene (900–1300), and terpineol (260–700). One-hour
concentrations of 2-butoxyethanol and/or d-limonene were 300–6000 g/m3 after FS use of other products.
During FS application including rinsing with sponge and wiping with towels, fractional emissions (mass
volatilized/dispensed) of 2-butoxyethanol and d-limonene were 50–100% with towels retained, and
approximately 25–50% when towels were removed after cleaning. Lower fractions (2–11%) resulted from
dilute use. Fractional emissions of terpenes from FS use of POC were approximately 35–70% with towels
retained, and 20–50% with towels removed. During floor cleaning with dilute solution of POC, 7–12% of
dispensed terpenes were emitted. Terpene alcohols were emitted at lower fractions: 7–30% (FS, towels
retained), 2–9% (FS, towels removed), and 2–5% (dilute). During air-freshener use, d-limonene,
dihydromyrcenol, lina- lool, linalyl acetate, and citronellol) were emitted at 35–180 mg/day over 3 days while
air concentrations averaged 30–160 g/ m3.
Practical Implications:
While effective cleaning can improve the healthfulness of indoor environments, this work shows that use of
some consumer cleaning agents can yield high levels of volatile organic compounds, including glycol ethers
– which are regulated toxic air contaminants – and terpenes that can react with ozone to form a variety of
secondary pollutants including formaldehyde and ultrafine particles. Persons involved in cleaning, especially
those who clean occupationally or often, might encounter excessive exposures to these pollutants owing to
cleaning product emissions. Mitigation options include screening of product ingredients and increased
ventilation during and after cleaning. Certain practices, such as the use of some products in dilute solution
vs. full-strength and the prompt removal of cleaning supplies from occupied spaces, can reduce emissions
and exposures to 2- butoxyethanol and other volatile constituents. Also, it may be prudent to limit use of
products containing ozone-reactive constituents when indoor ozone concentrations are elevated either
because of high ambient ozone levels or because of the indoor use of ozone-generating equipment.
Indoor Air Quality, Ventilation and Health Symptoms in Schools:
An Analysis of Existing Information
Indoor Air Volume 13 Issue 1 Page 53-64, March 2003
J. M. Daisey, W. J. Angell, M. G. Apte
Indoor Environment Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Indoor Air Quality Project, Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
Abstract:
We reviewed the literature on Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), ventilation, and building-related health problems in
schools and identified commonly reported building-related health symptoms involving schools until 1999. We
collected existing data on ventilation rates, carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and symptom-relevant
indoor air contaminants, and evaluated information on causal relationships between pollutant exposures and
health symptoms. Reported ventilation and CO2 data strongly indicate that ventilation is inadequate in many
classrooms, possibly leading to health symptoms. Adequate ventilation should be a major focus of design or
remediation efforts. Total volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde (HCHO) and microbiological
contaminants are reported. Low HCHO concentrations were unlikely to cause acute irritant symptoms (<0.05
ppm), but possibly increased risks for allergen sensitivities, chronic irritation, and cancer. Reported

2. microbiological contaminants included allergens in deposited d fungi, and bacteria. Levels of specific
allergens were sufficient to cause symptoms in allergic occupants. Measurements of airborne bacteria and
airborne and surface fungal spores were reported in schoolrooms. Asthma and 'sick building syndrome'
symptoms are commonly reported. The few studies investigating causal relationships between health
symptoms and exposures to specific pollutants suggest that such symptoms in schools are related to
exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs), molds and microbial VOCs, and allergens.
Practical Implications:
The paper summarizes and explores the peer-reviewed literature on Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in schools, a
field that is of increasing interest to the research community, educators and school facilities managers, and
the public at large. These experts generally agree that healthy indoor school environments are a necessity if
a high standard of education is to be expected. Although peer-reviewed literature on this subject is sparse,
there is a clear indication that classroom ventilation is typically inadequate. Researchers observed specific
allergens in classrooms at levels sufficient to affect sensitive occupants. Studies of health symptom
associations with IAQ conditions in the classroom are very rare, but taken with more general knowledge of
IAQ, suggest that improved ventilation and targeted indoor pollutant source reductions could reduce certain
occupant symptoms and improve the standard of health of the occupants.
Cleaning Products and Air Fresheners:
Exposure to Primary and Secondary Air pollutants
Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 2841-2865
William W. Nazaroff, Charles J. Weschler
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New
Jersey and Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Abstract:
Building occupants, including cleaning personnel, are exposed to a wide variety of airborne chemicals when
cleaning agents and air fresheners are used in buildings. Certain of these chemicals are listed by the state
of California as toxic air contaminants (TACs) and a subset of these are regulated by the US federal
government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). California’s Proposition 65 list of species recognized as
carcinogens or reproductive toxicants also includes constituents of certain cleaning products and air
fresheners. In addition, many cleaning agents and air fresheners contain chemicals that can react with other
air contaminants to yield potentially harmful secondary products. For example, terpenes can react rapidly
with ozone in indoor air generating many secondary pollutants, including TACs such as formaldehyde.
Furthermore, ozone-terpene reactions produce the hydroxyl radical, which reacts rapidly with organics,
leading to the formation of other potentially toxic air pollutants. Indoor reactive chemistry involving the
nitrate radical and cleaning-product constituents is also of concern, since it produces organic nitrates as well
as some of the same oxidation products generated by ozone and hydroxyl radicals. Few studies have
directly addressed the indoor concentrations of TACs that might result from primary emissions or secondary
pollutant formation following the use of cleaning agents and air fresheners. I this paper, we combine
directempirical evidence with the basic principles of indoor pollutant behavior and with information from
relevant studies, to analyze and critically asses air pollutant exposures resulting from the use of cleaning
products and air fresheners, toxicants and compounds that can readily react to generate secondary
pollutants. The toxicity of many of these secondary pollutants has yet to be evaluated. The inhalation intake
of airborne organic compounds from cleaning product use is estimated to be of the order of 10 mg d-1 per
person-1 in California. More than two dozen research articles present evidence of adverse health effects
from inhalation exposure associated with cleaning or cleaning products. Exposure to primary and secondary
pollutants depends on the complex interplay of many sets of factors and processes, ventilation, sorptive
interactions with building surfaces, and reactive chemistry. Current understanding is sufficient to describe
the influence of these variables qualitatively in most cases and quantitatively in a few.

3. Update on Asthma and Cleaners
Current Opinion in Allergy & Clinical Immunology (2):114-20 April 2010
Zock JP, Vizcaya D, Le Moual N.
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain
Abstract:
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The present study summarizes the recent literature on the relation between
cleaning exposures and respiratory health, in particular asthma, including reviews, epidemiological surveys,
surveillance programmes and exposure studies. The authors also aimed to identify gaps in the current
knowledge and to recommend future research on the topic. RECENT FINDINGS: A large international
general population study showed an increased risk of new-onset asthma associated with cleaning work, with
professional use of cleaning products and with domestic use of cleaning sprays. Three surveillance studies
confirm the recognition of occupational asthma cases among cleaners and among others who use cleaning
products at work. Six workforce-based studies show that respiratory symptoms are partly work-related, and
are associated with certain specific exposures including sprays, chlorine bleach and other disinfectants.
SUMMARY: Recent studies have strengthened the evidence of asthma and other adverse respiratory
effects in cleaning workers. Similar effects are seen in other settings in which cleaning products are used
such as healthcare professionals and homemakers. Both new-onset asthma and work-exacerbated asthma
due to cleaning exposures may play a role. Exposure to cleaning sprays, chlorine bleach and other
disinfectants may be particularly relevant. The predominant effect mechanisms remain largely unclear and
may include both specific sensitization and irritant-related features.
Halogenated Volatile Organic Compounds from the Use of
Chlorine-Bleach-Containing Household Products
Environmental Science & Technology Volume 1 Issue 42 Page 1445-51 March 2008
Odabasi M.
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Kaynaklar
Campus, Turkey
Abstract:
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and many organic chemicals contained in household cleaning products may
react to generate halogenated volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Halogenated VOC emissions from eight
different chlorine bleach containing household products (pure and diluted) were investigated by headspace
experiments. Chloroform and carbon tetrachloride were the leading compounds along with several
halogenated compounds in the headspace of chlorine bleach products. One of the most surprising results
was the presence of carbon tetrachloride (a probable human carcinogen and a powerful greenhouse gas
that was banned for household use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) in very high concentrations
(up to 101 mg m(-3)). By mixing surfactants or soap with NaOCl, it was shown that the formation of carbon
tetrachloride and several other halogenated VOCs is possible. In addition to quantitatively determined
halogenated VOCs (n = 15), several nitrogen-containing (n = 4), chlorinated (n = 10), oxygenated
compounds (n = 22), and hydrocarbons (n = 14) were identified in the headspace of bleach products.
Among these, 1,1-dichlorobutane and 2-chloro-2-nitropropane were the most abundant chlorinated VOCs,
whereas trichloronitromethane and hexachloroethane were the most frequently detected ones. Indoor air
halogenated VOC concentrations resulting from the use of four selected household products were also
measured before, during, and 30 min after bathroom, kitchen, and floor cleaning applications. Chloroform
(2.9-24.6 microg m(-3)) and carbon tetrachloride (0.25-459 microg m(-3)) concentrations significantly
increased during the use of bleach containing products. During/ before concentration ratios ranged between
8 and 52 (25 +/- 14, average +/- SD) for chloroform and 1-1170 (146 +/- 367, average +/- SD) for carbon
tetrachloride, respectively. These results indicated that the bleach use can be important in terms of
inhalation exposure to carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and several other halogenated VOCs.