This document presents an introduction to yield mapping for combinable crops and its potential problems. It discusses research being conducted on automatic continuous yield measurement systems on combine harvesters using GPS technology. The goals are to produce yield maps, analyze spatial yield variations, and support precision farming applications. Several challenges are identified including accurate yield sensing, synchronizing yield and location data, and addressing machine factors and environmental conditions that influence measurements. Improvements to positioning detection, grain flow modeling, and matching yield to location are seen as opportunities to enhance the reliability and usefulness of precision agriculture technologies.

1. Yield Mapping CombinableYield Mapping Combinable
Crops.Crops.
Potential & ProblemsPotential & Problems
An introductory Presentation ofAn introductory Presentation of::
PhD Research TopicPhD Research Topic
ByBy::
AKBAR SANAEIAKBAR SANAEI
SupervisorSupervisor::
Dr. I.J. YuleDr. I.J. Yule
Agricultural Engineering Group, AgricultureAgricultural Engineering Group, Agriculture&&
Environmental Science DepartmentEnvironmental Science Department
The University of Newcastle Upon TyneThe University of Newcastle Upon Tyne ––EnglandEngland
10-1110-11April 1995April 1995

2. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 22
ABSTRACTABSTRACT
 TheThe automatic continuous yieldautomatic continuous yield
measurement omeasurement off graingrain (RDS(RDS
Ceres System) with combineCeres System) with combine
harvester based onharvester based on positionposition
detection with the GPSdetection with the GPS hashas
been investigating atbeen investigating at
Nafferton Research Farm ofNafferton Research Farm of
the Newcastle University sincethe Newcastle University since
1993.1993.

3. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 33
ABSTRACT 2ABSTRACT 2
 The data analysis and evaluation leadsThe data analysis and evaluation leads
toto produce yield mapproduce yield map for any plot andfor any plot and
entire experimental operation.entire experimental operation.
 Raster and contour graphicsRaster and contour graphics areare
prepared using both Uniras (prepared using both Uniras ( Unimap)Unimap) asas
a powerful interactive software) and GISa powerful interactive software) and GIS
((Arc/Info)Arc/Info) as a programming & multi-as a programming & multi-
disciplinary field package).disciplinary field package).

4. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 44
OVERVIEWOVERVIEW
 Agricultural engineers have a pivotal role toAgricultural engineers have a pivotal role to
play in developing precision farming systems.play in developing precision farming systems.
 Precision (site-specific) farming is one of thePrecision (site-specific) farming is one of the
few topics that benefit the environment and thefew topics that benefit the environment and the
farmer.farmer.
 Precision farming system offer cost effectivePrecision farming system offer cost effective
use of agricultural inputs leading touse of agricultural inputs leading to
optimisation of production effectively while atoptimisation of production effectively while at
the same time reducing the risk of pollutionthe same time reducing the risk of pollution
from the over application of pesticides andfrom the over application of pesticides and
fertilisers.fertilisers.

5. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 55
ContinueContinue……..
 Yield mapsYield maps can be produced that indicate thecan be produced that indicate the
production level ofproduction level of small cellssmall cells within a field.within a field.
 This allows theThis allows the farmer to match his inputsfarmer to match his inputs toto
the yield potential of thatthe yield potential of that individual cell.individual cell.
 In this context ,In this context , one important elementone important element isis farmfarm
machinerymachinery and equipment involved.and equipment involved.
 It is of great importance that the cerealIt is of great importance that the cereal
harvesting operation is effectively carried outharvesting operation is effectively carried out
and machines are performing to their maximumand machines are performing to their maximum
capacity.capacity.

6. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 66
ContinueContinue……....
 Improvement in technologyImprovement in technology have made ithave made it
possible to automatically measure combinablepossible to automatically measure combinable
crop yieldcrop yield to a resolution ofto a resolution of 250 readings per250 readings per
hectarehectare..
 Yield mapping techniquesYield mapping techniques have been puthave been put
forward as a possible means of representingforward as a possible means of representing
this data in athis data in a UnimapUnimap (as a graphic interactive(as a graphic interactive
package) andpackage) and GISGIS (as a programming & multi-(as a programming & multi-
disciplinary field package).disciplinary field package).
 SomeSome GIS based management systemsGIS based management systems havehave
been attempted in thebeen attempted in the USAUSA. These are linked. These are linked
to either anto either an expert systemexpert system oror simulation modesimulation modell
to act asto act as a management tool.a management tool.

7. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 77
Main ObjectiveMain Objective
 To design a data acquisitionTo design a data acquisition
system for cereal harvesting forsystem for cereal harvesting for
input to GIS and also Unimapinput to GIS and also Unimap
as an interactive package.as an interactive package.

8. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 88
Specific ObjectivesSpecific Objectives
 1- Develop methods to establish the accuracy1- Develop methods to establish the accuracy
of a GPS (Global Positioning System) locatingof a GPS (Global Positioning System) locating
a combine harvester in the field.a combine harvester in the field.
 2- Measure the variation in crop moisture2- Measure the variation in crop moisture
content with time as it reaches the grain tank ofcontent with time as it reaches the grain tank of
the combine.the combine.
 3-To establish the lag time between crop3-To establish the lag time between crop
entering the combine harvester and passingentering the combine harvester and passing
the continuous yield meter to calculate thethe continuous yield meter to calculate the
displacement between yield measurement anddisplacement between yield measurement and
positional measurement.positional measurement.

9. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 99
Specific Objectives 2Specific Objectives 2
 4- Relate(3) to machine loading and crop4- Relate(3) to machine loading and crop
moisture content.moisture content.
 5- Identify and adapt statistical method5- Identify and adapt statistical method
for preparing data before beingfor preparing data before being
entered in to a Geographical Informationentered in to a Geographical Information
System.System.
 6-Build a geographical information6-Build a geographical information
system capable of supporting spatiallysystem capable of supporting spatially
variable farm management systems.variable farm management systems.

10. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1010
WHAT IS YIELDWHAT IS YIELD
MAPPINGMAPPING??
 - A process leads to produce a yield- A process leads to produce a yield
contour (or raster) map aided bycontour (or raster) map aided by
GPS & GIS (or Unimap etc.).GPS & GIS (or Unimap etc.).
 - Yield map not only gives the total- Yield map not only gives the total
yield but also shows the spatiallyyield but also shows the spatially
yield variation within the field.yield variation within the field.

11. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1111
HowHow??
 - By the amalgamation of yield- By the amalgamation of yield
sensing monitors on movingsensing monitors on moving
combine harvesters and recordingcombine harvesters and recording
the precise position to within a fewthe precise position to within a few
meters using GPS etc.meters using GPS etc.

12. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1212
WHYWHY??
 -- Because of natural spatiallyBecause of natural spatially
variability within field or farm.variability within field or farm.

13. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1313
WHAT IS SPATIALLYWHAT IS SPATIALLY
VARIABLE TECHNOLOGYVARIABLE TECHNOLOGY??
 -- NOWNOW; Current farming techniques are; Current farming techniques are
uniformly while the fields are not uniformuniformly while the fields are not uniform
in all aspects such as ;in all aspects such as ;
 - Soil properties- Soil properties
 - Climatic factors- Climatic factors
 - Field topography- Field topography
 - Crop characteristics like crop yield- Crop characteristics like crop yield

14. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1414
ContinueContinue…………..
 -- FUTUREFUTURE; Developing precision; Developing precision
(prescription or site-specific) farming(prescription or site-specific) farming
correlate to spatially variable technology.correlate to spatially variable technology.
 - By using; equipment that would- By using; equipment that would
automatically apply varying rates of agro-automatically apply varying rates of agro-
chemical inputs (e.g. fertiliser , pesticidechemical inputs (e.g. fertiliser , pesticide
and herbicide etc.) in the fields.and herbicide etc.) in the fields.

15. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1515
WHAT IS PRECISIONWHAT IS PRECISION
FARMINGFARMING??
 - It allows the area of treatment- It allows the area of treatment
to be reduced from a field to ato be reduced from a field to a
few square meters.few square meters.

16. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1616
MAIN PARTS OF CREATINGMAIN PARTS OF CREATING
PRECISION FARMINGPRECISION FARMING
 -- Yield mapYield map:: Displays total yield and spatially yieldDisplays total yield and spatially yield
variation within the field.variation within the field.
 -- Treatment (prescription) mapTreatment (prescription) map :: DisplaysDisplays
precise lcation and quantity of the treatment within theprecise lcation and quantity of the treatment within the
field.field.
 -- Decision support systemsDecision support systems :: a collection ofa collection of
software tools for managing the specific information thatsoftware tools for managing the specific information that
is needed to decideis needed to decide..


17. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1717
PROBLEMSPROBLEMS
 The Most of relevant researchers haveThe Most of relevant researchers have
mentioned some serious problems inmentioned some serious problems in
every involved technologies in relation toevery involved technologies in relation to
produce crop yield maps since a few lastproduce crop yield maps since a few last
years as follows;years as follows;
**YIELD METERING SYSTEMYIELD METERING SYSTEM
 1- The data being output from the yield1- The data being output from the yield
meter must be time tagged.meter must be time tagged.
* A software is needed in order to relate positions with yield values.* A software is needed in order to relate positions with yield values.

18. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1818
Other PROBLEMSOther PROBLEMS
 2- The format of data obtained from the yield meter is not2- The format of data obtained from the yield meter is not
readable.readable.
* A software is needed to convert the format of these data to a more readable.* A software is needed to convert the format of these data to a more readable.
 3- The error in determining grain flow through out the3- The error in determining grain flow through out the
machine.machine.
 * Some affected factors are as follows;* Some affected factors are as follows;
- Space available on the machine.- Space available on the machine.
- Physical variables of the grain.- Physical variables of the grain.
- Machine vibration.- Machine vibration.
- Electronic noise.- Electronic noise.
- Topography.- Topography.
- Environmental conditions- Environmental conditions
- Grain transportation delay.- Grain transportation delay.

19. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 1919
And Other PROBLEMSAnd Other PROBLEMS……
 4- Calibration for different machines & crops.4- Calibration for different machines & crops.
 5- Different combine configurations.5- Different combine configurations.
 6- Minimal knowledge of grain dynamics of6- Minimal knowledge of grain dynamics of
combine.combine.
 7- Not directly sensing grain moisture and7- Not directly sensing grain moisture and
temperature.temperature.
 8- Accuracy & Precision.8- Accuracy & Precision.
 9- Simplicity & Acceptance by the users.9- Simplicity & Acceptance by the users.

20. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2020
Positioning ProblemsPositioning Problems
 * POSITIONING DETECTION* POSITIONING DETECTION Using GPS .Using GPS .
 10- Loss of satellite signal in area with tree,10- Loss of satellite signal in area with tree,
buildings and hills coverage.buildings and hills coverage.
 11- Jumping the clock on the GPS.11- Jumping the clock on the GPS.
 12- Obtaining error both base station and12- Obtaining error both base station and
mobile were 'seeing' different constellations ofmobile were 'seeing' different constellations of
satellites.satellites.
 13- Highly accuracy & precision.13- Highly accuracy & precision.
GPS OR DGPSGPS OR DGPS…………??
 14- Cost -effective & Reliable.14- Cost -effective & Reliable.

21. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2121
POTENTIAL &POTENTIAL &
IMPROVEMENTSIMPROVEMENTS
 1-The combination of information1-The combination of information
sources (internal system, geometrysources (internal system, geometry
and GPS) increases RELIABILITY &and GPS) increases RELIABILITY &
ACCURACY of the whole system.ACCURACY of the whole system.
 2- Improve yield sensor by different2- Improve yield sensor by different
methods.methods.

22. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2222
ContinueContinue……..
 3- More research on grain dynamics3- More research on grain dynamics
throughout the different models ofthroughout the different models of
combines.combines.
 4- Consideration of effects of some4- Consideration of effects of some
parameters on grain flow include;parameters on grain flow include;
a- Thickness of the crop.a- Thickness of the crop.
b- Entering and leaving the crop.b- Entering and leaving the crop.
c- Combine operation settings.c- Combine operation settings.
d- Combine grained speed.d- Combine grained speed.
e- Combine component wear.e- Combine component wear.

23. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2323
ContinueContinue……..
 5- Further research for the higher precise5- Further research for the higher precise
matching the yield with position.matching the yield with position.
 6- Eliminating the problems of low readings6- Eliminating the problems of low readings
of grain moisture content on moving when theof grain moisture content on moving when the
sensor fin was not covered by grain.sensor fin was not covered by grain.
 7- Eliminating possible errors in time delay7- Eliminating possible errors in time delay
determination.determination.
 8-Measuring grain density as changing crop8-Measuring grain density as changing crop
properties.properties.

24. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2424
THE ULTIMATE RESULTSTHE ULTIMATE RESULTS;;
 - Changing the conventional- Changing the conventional
farming treatment techniquesfarming treatment techniques
towards;towards;
 1- Controlling the environmental1- Controlling the environmental
pollution.pollution.
 2- The best agricultural profitable2- The best agricultural profitable
economic returns.economic returns.

25. The First Oral Presentation Of PhDThe First Oral Presentation Of PhD
Research by Akbar SanaeiResearch by Akbar Sanaei 2525
Continue..& FinalContinue..& Final
DecisionDecision??
 - Changing the conventional farming- Changing the conventional farming
treatment techniques to wards;treatment techniques to wards;
 1- Controlling the environmental1- Controlling the environmental
pollution.pollution.
 2- The best agricultural profitable2- The best agricultural profitable
economic returnseconomic returns ..
 - And finally a green decision?...- And finally a green decision?...
““FARMING THE SOIL:NOT THEFARMING THE SOIL:NOT THE
FIELDFIELD””